SYLLABUS BASICS OF INTERNATIONAL TAXATION. ! States levy taxes by virtue of their sovereignty

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1 SYLLABUS BASICS OF INTERNATIONAL TAXATION! States levy taxes by virtue of their sovereignty! Tax sovereignty, however, is not unlimited. There must either be a personal or an objective connection between the taxpayer and the state! connecting factors for individuals frequently include domicile, residence or citizenship;! connecting factors for legal entities usually include the place of incorporation and the place of effective management.! with regard to objective connecting factors, it is sufficient that parts of the transaction or activity involve the taxing state or that the object of the action is somehow connected to the taxing state. According to the Indian legal tax system, tax is levied when a genuine link exists. Pursuant to Sec. 9(1)(i) of the Income Tax Act, tax is levied on all income earned outside India which accrues, whether directly or indirectly, through or from any business connection in India. This principle formed the basis for the opinion of the Indian Authority for Advance Rulings (AAR) that a commission paid to a non- resident agent may be taxable in India even if the services are rendered outside India. Those services consisted of pursuing and soliciting the participation of foreign concerns, undertakings and government departments in the International Food and Wine Show (IFOWS) in India. Although the activity of the agent was carried on abroad, the AAR observed that the agent s right to receive commissions arose in India when the foreign concerns, undertakings and government departments participated in the IFOWS. Therefore, the AAR considered that the agent s income accrued from a business connection in India. CIRCUMSTANCES GIVING RISE TO INTERNATIONAL DOUBLE TAXATION! Since international law places few limits on the tax sovereignty of states, the same event may be taxed in two or more states, giving rise to a juridical double taxation (the taxation of the same person with respect to the same income in two or more states).! However, it is also possible for the same income to be taxed in two different states in the hands of different persons. This situation is known as economic double taxation. The problem of economic double taxation frequently arises in cases in which affiliated or associated corporations, with their legal seats in different states, enter into transactions with each other. Each residence state determines the taxable base for corporate income tax under its domestic corporate tax law. If the two companies enter into transactions with each other, the tax authorities of the two states could assign different values to those transactions.

2 ELIMINATION OF INTERNATIONAL DOUBLE TAXATION! Cross- border economic relations would be considerably threatened if two or more states subjected the same income to taxation. Many states therefore enter into bilateral international tax conventions in order to eliminate double taxation. These agreements are called double taxation conventions (DTCs). They determine the extent to which each state may levy tax.! Notwithstanding the extensive DTC network, many states enact unilateral measures to prevent international double taxation. Unilateral measures to prevent international double taxation differ from country to country. Essentially, three types can be distinguished:! the exemption of foreign- sourced income,! the tax credit for foreign taxes paid on foreign- sourced income, and! the deduction from the taxable base of foreign taxes paid on foreign- sourced income. METHODS FOR ELIMINATION DOUBLE TAXATION PROVIDED FOR BY DTCs 1. METHOD ARTICLE AND THE RELATION TO THE ALLOCATION RULES! The methods for elimination of double taxation are set out as rules in Art. 23A and/or B of the DTCs patterned after the OECD Model. Under the allocation rules, the residence state s taxing rights are rarely excluded and the source state often keeps its taxing rights as well. The method articles address the residence state. When the residence state s taxing rights are not excluded and a certain item of income may be taxed in the source state, the provision obliges the residence state to either exempt the income or credit the tax paid in the source state. A German resident company carries on its activity in part through a PE situated in Spain. Under Art. 7 of the Germany Spain DTC, profits that are attributable to that PE may be taxed by Spain. Germany s taxing rights with respect to those profits are not excluded by Art. 7 Germany Spain DTC. Those profits may not be taxed, however, in Germany, according to Art. 23 of the Germany Spain DTC, since the exemption method applies with respect to that item of income.! The application of the method articles is not always necessary. In some cases, double taxation is avoided by the allocation rules themselves, namely when the allocation rules assign exclusive taxing rights to one state. The profits derived by the above German resident company are profits from the operation of ships or aircraft in international traffic. The place of effective management of the company is situated in Germany. Under Art. 8 of the Germany Spain DTC, profits from the operation of ships or aircraft in

3 international traffic shall be taxable only in Germany, notwithstanding the fact that a PE exists in Spain. Spain s taxing rights are therefore excluded by Art. 8 of the Germany Spain DTC. The application of Art. 23 of that DTC is thus unnecessary. 2. CREDIT AND EXEMPTION IN VERY GENERAL TERMS! Art. 23 OECD Model offers contracting states a choice between two methods for the elimination of double taxation: the exemption method and the credit method. During the negotiations of a DTC, the contracting states agree upon the method they will apply.! Anglo- American countries prefer the credit method. In continental European countries, the exemption method is widespread, though the credit method is usually applied with respect to dividends, interest and royalties payments.! Under some DTCs, different methods apply depending on the residence state, i.e. on whether the person is a resident of one or of the other state. For example, under some DTCs, the credit method is applicable as far as residents of one contracting state are concerned, while the exemption method is applicable with respect to residents of the other contracting state. Under Art. 23 of the Belgium Japan DTC, different methods to avoid double taxation apply depending on whether the taxpayer is resident in Japan or in Belgium. Art. 23(1) states that Japan has to grant a credit in respect of Belgian tax payable, whereas Art. 23(2) regulates that in Belgium for certain sources of income the credit method applies and for other sources of income the exemption method is used. 3. EXEMPTION METHOD Effects! The exemption method has effects on the taxable base in the residence state. The foreign income in respect of which a resident must be granted the exemption under the relevant DTC, is excluded from the taxable base. The applicable tax rate is not affected.! The exemption method guarantees that an entrepreneur investing abroad is subject to the same tax burden as a competitor resident in the country in which the investment is made ( capital import neutrality ). No taxation accrues in the residence state. The tax rate of the source state is therefore decisive. In the residence state the tax rate is 40%. In the source state the tax rate is 30%. If the exemption method applies and the taxing rights of the source state are not limited by any allocation rule, the income from a capital investment is subject to a 30% tax burden in the source state and is not subject to any taxation in the residence state. In contrast to the credit method, the overall tax rate on the income from the capital investment is not increased to 40%.

4 ! The exemption method applies irrespective of whether the other contracting state actually levies a tax on the income in question. The exemption method can therefore lead to double non- taxation when the source state has taxing rights under the DTC but does not levy any tax under its domestic law, and the residence state has no taxing rights (apart from the progression safeguard) since it must grant the exemption under Art. 23(1) OECD Model.! If the DTC contains a subject- to- tax clause, the exemption will depend on whether taxes are levied in the source state. The OECD Model does not contain such a rule. Subject- to- tax clauses, however, are often found in DTCs. On 17 Oct the German Federal Tax Court issued its decision in a case regarding the subject- to- tax clause contained in the DTC between Germany and Italy. Subject to certain exceptions, Art. 24(3) of that DTC [Art. 23A OECD Model) provides for an exemption of the income that a German resident derives from Italy and that may be taxed in Italy under the DTC. However, Sec. 16(d) of the Protocol to the DTC reads as follows: For the purposes of Art. 24(3) income of a resident of a Contracting State is deemed to be derived from the other Contracting State, if it is effectively taxed in the other Contracting State in accordance with the treaty. In the case at issue, a capital gain which might be taxed in Italy was not effectively taxed in Italy. The German Federal Tax Court ruled that Sec. 16(d) of the Protocol to the DTC had to be interpreted as a subject- to- tax clause and, consequently, the gain was not to be exempt from German tax under Art. 24(3) of the DTC.! One debated issue is whether the exemption method applies with respect to both positive and negative items (profits and losses) or whether it applies only with respect to positive items (i.e. to profits only). In this regard, the courts of many states (e.g. Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain) have stated that the exemption only applies with regard to positive items, while the courts of other states (e.g. Germany, Greece and France) have instead maintained that it also applies with regard to negative items. An individual entrepreneur is a resident of Germany and carries on his activity in part through a place of business in Poland. The German profits of the individual entrepreneur amount to EUR 10 million. Through the place of business in Poland, however, the entrepreneur suffers losses of EUR 1 million. His worldwide income consequently amounts to EUR 9 million. According to the interpretation of the German courts, the Polish losses are exempt from tax in Germany, i.e. they are excluded from the German resident s taxable base. Thus, the amount of income on which the tax is levied in Germany is EUR 10 million. Under the approach adopted by the courts of other states, the Polish losses should not be exempt from tax in Germany, so that the resident s taxable base would be EUR 9 million. Progressions! Arts. 23A(3) and 23B(2) OECD Model contain a rule concerning progression (known as proviso safeguarding progression ). According to this proviso, where, in accordance with any provision of the DTC, income derived or capital owned by a resident of a contracting state is exempt from tax in that state, that state may nevertheless, in calculating the amount of tax on the remaining income or capital of such resident, take into account the exempted income or capital. This rule does not provide a legal

5 basis for the application of progression in itself. It merely clarifies that domestic rules on the determination of the applicable tax rate which aim to safeguard the progression of taxation are unaffected by Art. 23 OECD Model! The effect of the proviso safeguarding progression is that income that is exempt under the DTC may be included in the resident s taxable base for the purposes of determining the tax rate. The calculation of the tax rate is regulated by domestic law. Normally, the average tax rate applicable is determined with respect to the resident s entire income. This average tax rate is then applied to the resident s taxable base, as reduced after the deduction of the income that is exempt under the DTC. Accordingly, the exemption with progression method does not cause the additional effect that the reduction of the resident s taxable base also reduces the tax rate applicable to the resident s residual income. The worldwide income of a resident of State A amounts to EUR 1 million. Under the State A State B DTC, profits amounting to EUR 500,000 are exempt in State A. The remaining taxable base is EUR 500,000. The average tax rate applicable on total income amounting to EUR 500,000 is, for example, 41,75%. The average tax rate applicable on a total income amounting to EUR 1 million is, for example, 49%. The progression clause in State A s domestic law, the application of which is allowed under the State A State B DTC, determines that the average tax rate that is applicable on total income amounting to EUR 1 million (49%) applies on the remaining taxable base (EUR 500,000). Hence, the tax levied in State A is EUR 245,000 rather than EUR 208, CREDIT METHOD Effects! When the credit method is applied, the residence state first determines the tax due under domestic law on the resident s worldwide income in the absence of the DTC. This tax is then reduced by the foreign tax paid. The credit method has therefore no effect on the taxable base in the residence state. Positive and negative foreign items are ordinarily taken into account in the calculation of the taxable base. Double taxation is avoided only with respect to the amount of tax levied. If the tax rate is higher in the residence state than in the source state, the total tax burden will be equivalent to the higher rate found in the residence state. This phenomenon is known as capital export neutrality. In the source state profits are taxed at an average tax rate of 20%. Thus, if the source state income is EUR 100, the tax burden in the source state is EUR 20. If, however, the average tax rate is 50% in the residence state, taxes in the amount of EUR 50 arise. These taxes are reduced by EUR 20, representing the taxes paid in the source state, and thus equal EUR 30. The overall tax burden, however, amounts to EUR 50.! If the source state has a higher tax rate than the residence state, the higher tax burden of the source state remains when the ordinary credit method applies. The taxable base is determined in the residence state under domestic law, the tax is then calculated and the foreign taxes are deducted from that amount of tax. If, however, the tax burden is higher in the source state, the tax paid in the source

6 state is not entirely credited. The overall tax burden corresponds in this case to the tax burden in the source state. In the source state the tax rate is 50% whereas the tax rate is only 20% in the residence state. In the source state income in the amount of EUR 100 will be subject to a tax burden of EUR 50. When the credit method is applied, the income is also subject to tax in the residence state. On the basis of the tax rate in this contracting state, the tax burden is EUR 20. Foreign taxes in the amount of EUR 20 can be credited on the taxes of EUR 20, so that there is no actual tax burden in the residence state. However, the total tax burden, given the taxation in the source state, is EUR 50.! The credit method applies only with respect to foreign taxes paid by the same taxable person. A credit for the taxes paid by a different taxable person, such as the underlying tax credit (also known as indirect tax credit ), is not granted unless the particular DTC or the domestic law provides otherwise. Company U is a resident of the United Kingdom and controls 50% of the voting power in Company A, a resident of Argentina. According to UK domestic law and to Art. 23(1)(b) Argentina UK DTC, in cases in which at least 10% of the voting power is controlled, a tax credit shall be granted by the United Kingdom with regard to dividends, not only with respect to Argentinean tax levied in Argentina on Company U with regard to such dividends but also with respect to Argentinean tax paid by Company A with respect to the profits out of which such dividends are paid ( underlying tax ).! The credit method provides for the taxes paid in the source state to offset the taxes to be paid in the residence state. However, only the amount of tax that is legally due in the source state is covered. Taxes erroneously paid to the source state are not required to be credited. Furthermore, taxes raised in the source state in excess of the limits set forth in the DTC do not have to be credited. If the source state does not refund the taxes erroneously paid, the taxpayer suffers the consequences.! Some DTCs include exceptions to the above principle. In particular, a matching credit is sometimes granted under DTCs concluded with developing countries. Under this kind of credit method, a notional amount of foreign taxes established in the relevant allocation rule or in the method article is deemed to be levied at source and is credited by the residence state even if the tax is not actually levied in the source state or a lower amount of tax is levied. This provision is intended to stimulate capital investments in the developing country. The matching credit prevents the residence state from benefiting, in place of the investor, from the non- taxation or reduced taxation by the source state: in the absence of a matching credit mechanism, the residence state would simply credit less foreign tax and would therefore frustrate the non- taxation or reduced taxation by the source state. Under the matching credit, the benefit goes to the investor, since the residence state grants a credit on a notional basis irrespective of the amount of taxes paid in the source state. The investor obtains the advantage. A French company derives interest arising in Brazil. Under the Brazil France DTC, this interest may be taxed in Brazil. According to Art. XXII(2)(c) of the Brazil France DTC, with regard to interest which has

7 borne Brazilian tax in accordance with the provisions of the DTC, France shall allow its residents receiving such income a tax credit corresponding to the amount of Brazilian tax that has been paid, within the limits which the French tax establishes in such income. Under Art. XXII(2)(d) of the Brazil France DTC, with regard to interest, the Brazilian tax shall be considered to have been levied at a minimum rate of 20%. The French company deriving interest arising in Brazil is thus entitled to a tax credit corresponding to at least 20% of the interest, irrespective of whether lower tax is actually levied in Brazil.! Some DTCs provide for another kind of credit method based on notional amounts, which is known as a tax sparing credit. Under the tax sparing credit, when an exemption or reduction is granted in the source state, the residence state grants a credit on the basis of the (fictitious) amount of foreign taxes, which the source state would levy if no exemption or reduction were granted. A Belgian company derives interest arising in India. This interest may be taxed in India under the Belgium India DTC. According to Art. 23(3) (b)(i) of the Belgium India DTC, when a resident of Belgium derives interest taxable in India in accordance with Art. 11(2) or (6), the Indian tax levied on that income shall be allowed as a credit against Belgian tax related to such income. Art. 23(3)(e) of the Belgium India DTC also provides that: For the purposes of sub- paragraph (b)(i) the term Indian tax levied shall be deemed to include any amount which would have been payable as Indian tax under the laws of India and in accordance with the provisions of the Agreement for any year, except for some exemptions or reductions listed in that provision of the DTC. Based on the above, the Belgian company deriving interest from India is entitled to a tax credit for the amount of taxes that would have been payable as Indian tax, even if no taxes are actually levied in India (unless the non- taxation in India is grounded on those exemptions or reductions that are listed in the Belgium India DTC). Maximum credit! DTCs generally set forth a maximum credit that must be granted. The amount of tax which must be credited may not exceed the tax that the resident would pay in the residence state on the same (foreign) item of income. This is known as ordinary credit. This means that in order for a credit to be granted, a tax on the same (foreign) item of income must first of all be due in the residence state. If no tax is due in the residence state in the same tax period, the tax paid in the source state is not credited. According to the OECD Commentary on Art. 23A and 23B (at para. 32.8), the residence state must nonetheless grant the credit when the lack of tax due in the residence state is the consequence of a timing mismatch. An Argentinean corporation derives business profits from a PE in Russia and receives royalties arising in Russia. The royalties amount to RUB 5 million. However, the PE suffers losses amounting to RUB 5 million as well. Under the Argentina- Russia DTC, the ordinary credit method applies. The taxable base in Argentina is 0 since the losses suffered through the PE offset the royalties. Therefore, in this fiscal year no tax is due in Argentina. Any tax at source which may be raised in Russia in respect of the royalties can, according to the treaty, consequently not be credited against any Argentinean tax.

8 ! The maximum credit limitation is usually applied according to one of the following approaches: the overall limitation and the per- country limitation.!under the overall limitation, the aggregate amount of taxes paid in all source states may be credited up to the amount of tax due in the residence state on the aggregate amount of items of creditable income from all source states. Under the per- country limitation, the tax paid in a certain source state may be credited up to the amount of tax due in the residence state as determined on the aggregate amount of items of income derived from the former state; items of income derived from other contracting states are thus disregarded. Sometimes a per- item limitation is implemented in addition to one of the above limitations (the overall limitation or the per- country limitation ).!Under the per- item limitation, the tax paid per a certain category of income may be credited up to the amount of tax due in the residence state as determined on the aggregate amount of tax paid for a certain category of income. Company A is a resident of State A and has a PE in State A and a PE in State B. Company A also derives income from interest arising in State C. In the fiscal year concerned, no profits are derived through the PE in State A; profits amounting to EUR 1 million are derived through the PE in State B, in respect of which a tax of EUR 250,000 is levied (25%); interest amounting to EUR 500,000 arises in State C, in respect of which a tax of EUR 50,000 is levied (10%). Company A s worldwide income amounts to EUR 1.5 million and the tax due in State A on this income amounts to EUR 300,000 (20%). If State A followed the per- country limitation, the tax credit would be determined as follows. With regard to the tax levied in State B: a tax credit amounting to EUR 200,000 would be granted since the tax due in State A in respect of the profits derived in State B is EUR 200,000 (1 million x (300,000/1.5 million)). With regard to the tax levied in State C: a tax credit amounting to EUR 50,000 would be granted. The total tax credit granted would amount to EUR 250,000, notwithstanding the overall taxes levied abroad amount to EUR 300,000. Hence, taxes amounting to EUR 50,000 would be paid in State A [300,000 (tax due in State A) 250,000 (tax credit)]. If State A instead followed the overall limitation, the tax credit would be determined as follows: items of income and foreign taxes would be aggregated. The tax due in State A in respect of all foreign items of income is EUR 300,000. The taxes paid abroad on those items of income amount to EUR 300,000 (250, ,000). The foreign taxes may thus entirely be credited; hence no tax would have to be paid in State A. 5. SWITCH- OVER CLAUSES! Some states include switch- over clauses in their DTCs to allow a change from the exemption to the credit method in certain circumstances. The aim of these clauses is essentially to avoid double non- taxation, which can arise when the exemption method applies. These clauses can also apply in cases of abuse. Under the switch- over clauses, the residence state retains the right to apply the credit method instead of the exemption method, provided that certain conditions are fulfilled.! Another case in which a switch- over is realized is that provided for by Art. 23(4). In line with the purpose of avoiding cases of double non- taxation, a new paragraph 4 was included in Art. 23A OECD Model in According to this new provision, the exemption shall not be granted by the residence state where the other

9 contracting state applies the provisions of the convention to exempt income (or capital) from tax or applies the provisions of para. 2 of Art. 10 or Art. 11 OECD Model. The rule in Art. 23(4) OECD Model gives the residence state the right to switch from the exemption to the credit method when the interpretation of facts or of the provisions of the DTC leads the source state to exempt or to impose nominal taxes (because it applies Art. 10(2) or Art. 11(2) OECD Model) on a certain item of income. 6. METHOD ARTICLE AND CONFLICT OF QUALIFICATION! Over the last few years, other efforts to gain a uniform understanding of the terms used in DTCs in both contracting states have been undertaken. One main topic has been that of conflicts of qualification, i.e. conflicts regarding the classification of a certain item of income for tax treaty purposes. These conflicts can be resolved if the residence state accepts the qualification by the source state. The legal basis for this is seen in DTC provisions patterned after Art. 23(1) OECD Model. This measure provides that the residence state shall either exempt the income or credit the foreign taxes paid on the income, where such income may be taxed in the other Contracting State in accordance with the provisions of the convention.! However, the OECD Commentary on Art. 23 assumes the binding effect of the characterization of the source state only when it originates in its domestic law (OECD Commentary on Art. 23, para. 32.3; cf. also para. 32.5). It would therefore be necessary to distinguish between those cases in which the source state wins the characterization under the context of the treaty and those cases in which the source state is required to refer to domestic law definitions. Only in the latter should the source state s characterization have a binding effect. In LU, CA 23 Apr. 2002, case 14442, the court had to determine which allocation rule, of those contained in the France Luxembourg DTC, was applicable. Under the facts, a Luxembourg resident company owned real estate in France and had applied, to the income deriving therefrom, Art. 3 (immovable property) of the France Luxembourg DTC, which granted exclusive taxing rights to France. The company did not therefore pay tax to Luxembourg on this income. Moreover, the company did not pay any tax to France because according to Conseil d État jurisprudence, based on the interpretation of the treaty itself and not on French domestic law, income derived from immovable property owned by a company is covered by Art. 4 of the France Luxembourg DTC on business profits. In this case, Art. 4 Luxembourg France DTC attributed exclusive taxing rights to Luxembourg since the Luxembourg resident company did not have a PE in France. Confirming the decision of the lower court, the Cour Administrative held that the characterization of the income by the source state (France) was not binding on Luxembourg, not even if double non- taxation would arise. Noticeably, the characterization given by the French Conseil d État was not based on French domestic tax law but rather on the interpretation of the treaty.