User Interface Design
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1 User Interface Design Winter term 2005/2006 Thursdays, c.t., Raum 228 Prof. Dr. Antonio Krüger Institut für Geoinformatik Universität Münster 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 1
2 Observing users 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 2
3 The aims Discuss the benefits & challenges of different types of observation. Describe how to observe as an on-looker, a participant, & an ethnographer. Discuss how to collect, analyze & present observational data. Examine think-aloud, diary studies & logging. Provide you with experience in doing observation and critiquing observation studies. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 3
4 What and when to observe (similar to what and when to evaluate from last week) Goals & questions determine the paradigms and techniques used. Observation is valuable any time during design. Quick & dirty observations early in design Observation can be done in the field (i.e., field studies) and in controlled environments (i.e., usability studies) Observers can be: outsiders looking on participants, i.e., participant observers ethnographers 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 4
5 Frameworks to guide observation The person. Who? The place. Where? The thing. What? The Goetz and LeCompte (1984) framework: Who is present? What is their role? What is happening? When does the activity occur? Where is it happening? Why is it happening? How is the activity organized? 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 5
6 The Robinson (1993) framework Space. What is the physical space like? Actors. Who is involved? Activities. What are they doing? Objects. What objects are present? Acts. What are individuals doing? Events. What kind of event is it? Goals. What do they to accomplish? Feelings. What is the mood of the group and of individuals? 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 6
7 You need to consider Goals & questions Which framework & techniques How to collect data Which equipment to use How to gain acceptance How to handle sensitive issues Whether and how to involve informants How to analyze the data Whether and how to triangulate 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 7
8 Observing as an outsider As in usability testing More objective than participant observation In usability lab equipment is in place Recording is continuous Analysis & observation almost simultaneous Care needed to avoid drowning in data Analysis can be coarse or fine grained Video clips can be powerful for telling story 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 8
9 Participant observation & ethnography Debate about differences Participant observation is key component of ethnography Must get co-operation of people observed Informants are useful Data analysis is continuous Interpretivist technique Questions get refined as understanding grows Reports usually contain examples 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 9
10 Data collection techniques Notes & still camera Audio & still camera Video Tracking users: Diaries Interaction logging Example: web server log files! 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 10
11 Data analysis Qualitative data - interpreted & used to tell the story about what was observed. Qualitative data - categorized using techniques such as content analysis. Quantitative data - collected from interaction & video logs. Presented as values, tables, charts, graphs and treated statistically. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 11
12 Interpretive data analysis Look for key events that drive activity Critical incident analysis getting stuck, comments, puzzled looks, etc. Look for patterns of behavior Test data sources against each other - triangulate Report findings in a convincing and honest way Produce rich or thick descriptions Include quotes, pictures, and anecdotes Software tools can be useful 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 12
13 Key points Observe from outside or as a participant Analyzing video and data logs can be time-consuming. In participant observation collections of comments, incidents, and artifacts are made. Ethnography is a philosophy with a set of techniques that include participant observation and interviews. Ethnographers immerse themselves in the culture that they study. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 13
14 Asking users & experts 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 14
15 The aims Discuss the role of interviews & questionnaires in evaluation. Teach basic questionnaire design. Describe how do interviews, heuristic evaluation & walkthroughs. Describe how to collect, analyze & present data. Discuss strengths & limitations of these techniques 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 15
16 Interviews Unstructured - are not directed by a script. Rich but not replicable. Structured - are tightly scripted, often like a questionnaire. Replicable but may lack richness. Semi-structured - guided by a script but interesting issues can be explored in more depth. Can provide a good balance between richness and replicability. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 16
17 Basics of interviewing Remember the DECIDE framework Goals and questions guide all interviews Two types of questions: closed questions have a predetermined answer format, e.g., yes or no open questions do not have a predetermined format Closed questions are quicker and easier to analyze 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 17
18 Things to avoid when preparing interview questions Long questions Compound sentences - split into two Jargon & language that the interviewee may not understand Leading questions that make assumptions e.g., why do you like? Unconscious biases e.g., gender stereotypes 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 18
19 Components of an interview Introduction - introduce yourself, explain the goals of the interview, reassure about the ethical issues, ask to record, present an informed consent form. Warm-up - make first questions easy & non-threatening. Main body present questions in a logical order A cool-off period - include a few easy questions to defuse tension at the end Closure - thank interviewee, signal the end, e.g, switch recorder off. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 19
20 The interview process Use the DECIDE framework for guidance Dress in a similar way to participants Check recording equipment in advance Devise a system for coding names of participants to preserve confidentiality. Be pleasant Ask participants to complete an informed consent form 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 20
21 Probes and prompts Probes - devices for getting more information. e.g., would you like to add anything? Prompts - devices to help interviewee, e.g., help with remembering a name Remember that probing and prompting should not create bias. Too much can encourage participants to try to guess the answer. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 21
22 Group interviews Also known as focus groups Typically 3-10 participants Provide a diverse range of opinions Need to be managed to: ensure everyone contributes discussion isn t dominated by one person the agenda of topics is covered 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 22
23 Analyzing interview data Depends on the type of interview Structured interviews can be analyzed like questionnaires Unstructured interviews generate data like that from participant observation It is best to analyze unstructured interviews as soon as possible to identify topics and themes from the data 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 23
24 Questionnaires Questions can be closed or open Closed questions are easiest to analyze, and may be done by computer Can be administered to large populations Paper, & the web used for dissemination Advantage of electronic questionnaires is that data goes into a data base & is easy to analyze Sampling can be a problem when the size of a population is unknown as is common online 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 24
25 Questionnaire style Varies according to goal so use the DECIDE framework for guidance Questionnaire format can include: yes, no checkboxes checkboxes that offer many options Likert rating scales semantic scales open-ended responses Likert scales have a range of points 3, 5, 7 & 9 point scales are common Example from c t: Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 25
26 Likert Scales: Example 1 Question Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagre e Navigation language is clear+ The understandable page contains useful information Information is easy to find Site is aesthetically pleasing I prefer lighter colors to darker ones 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 26
27 Likert Scales: Example 2 1. I feel good about my work on the job. Strongly Disagre e Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree 2. On the whole, I get along well with others at work. Strongly Disagre e Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree 3. I am proud of my ability to cope with difficulties at work. Strongly Disagre e Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree 4. When I feel uncomfortable at work, I know how to handle it. Strongly Disagre e Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree 5. I can tell that other people at work are glad to have me there. Strongly Disagre e Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree 6. I know I'll be able to cope with work for as long as I want. Strongly Disagre e Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree 7. I am proud of my relationship with my supervisor at work. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 27 Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Strongly Disagre Disagree Agree Agree e
28 Semantic Differential Scales Clean Honest Kind Helpful Fair Delicate Strong Stupid Unreliable Heavy Foolish Passive Energetic Boring Valuable Dirty Dishones t Cruel Unhelpful Biassed Rugged Weak Intelligent Reliable Wise Active Exciting Useless 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 28 Light Lazy Balance of positive/negative attributes Medium values might be preferred What they say == what they do??
29 Developing a questionnaire Provide a clear statement of purpose & guarantee participants anonymity Plan questions - if developing a web-based questionnaire, design off-line first Decide on whether phrases will all be positive, all negative or mixed Pilot test questions - are they clear, is there sufficient space for responses Decide how data will be analyzed & consult a statistician if necessary 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 29
30 Encouraging a good response Make sure purpose of study is clear Promise anonymity Ensure questionnaire is well designed Offer a short version for those who do not have time to complete a long questionnaire If mailed, include an answer envelope Follow-up with s, phone calls, letters Provide an incentive 40% response rate is high, 20% is often acceptable 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 30
31 Advantages of online questionnaires Responses are usually received quickly No copying and postage costs Data can be collected in database for analysis Time required for data analysis is reduced Errors can be corrected easily 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 31
32 Problems with online questionnaires Sampling is problematic if population size is unknown Preventing individuals from responding more than once Individuals have also been known to change questions in questionnaires 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 32
33 Questionnaire data analysis & presentation Present results clearly e.g., tables Simple statistics can say a lot, e.g., mean, median, mode, standard deviation Percentages are useful but: give population size Bar graphs show categorical data well More advanced statistics can be used if needed 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 33
34 Asking experts Experts use their knowledge of users & technology to review software usability Expert critiques (crits) can be formal or informal reports Heuristic evaluation is a review guided by a set of heuristics Walkthroughs involve stepping through a pre-planned scenario noting potential problems 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 34
35 Heuristic evaluation Developed by Jacob Nielsen in the early 1990s Based on heuristics distilled from an empirical analysis of 249 usability problems These heuristics have been revised for current technology, e.g., HOMERUN for web Heuristics still needed for mobile devices, wearables, virtual worlds, etc. Design guidelines form a basis for developing heuristics 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 35
36 Nielsen s heuristics Visibility of system status Match between system and real world User control and freedom Consistency and standards Help users recognize, diagnose, recover from errors Error prevention Recognition rather than recall Flexibility and efficiency of use Aesthetic and minimalist design Help and documentation 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 36
37 Discount evaluation Heuristic evaluation is referred to as discount evaluation when 5 evaluators are used. Empirical evidence suggests that on average 5 evaluators identify 75-80% of usability problems. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 37
38 3 stages for doing heuristic evaluation Briefing session to tell experts what to do Evaluation period of 1-2 hours in which: Each expert works separately Take one pass to get a feel for the product Take a second pass to focus on specific features Debriefing session in which experts work together to prioritize problems 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 38
39 Advantages and problems Few ethical & practical issues to consider Can be difficult & expensive to find experts Best experts have knowledge of application domain & users Biggest problems important problems may get missed many trivial problems are often identified 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 39
40 Cognitive walkthroughs Focus on ease of learning Designer presents an aspect of the design & usage scenarios One or more experts walk through the design prototype with the scenario Expert is told the assumptions about user population, context of use, task details Experts are guided by 3 questions 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 40
41 The 3 questions Will the correct action be sufficiently evident to the user? Will the user notice that the correct action is available? Will the user associate and interpret the response from the action correctly? As the experts work through the scenario they note problems 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 41
42 Pluralistic walkthrough Variation on the cognitive walkthrough theme Performed by a carefully managed team The panel of experts begins by working separately Then there is managed discussion that leads to agreed decisions The approach lends itself well to participatory design 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 42
43 Key points Structured, unstructured, semi-structured interviews, focus groups & questionnaires Closed questions are easiest to analyze & can be replicated Open questions are richer Check boxes, Likert & semantic scales Expert evaluation: heuristic & walkthroughs Relatively inexpensive because no users Heuristic evaluation relatively easy to learn May miss key problems & identify false ones 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 43
44 Testing & modeling users 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 44
45 The aims Describe how to do user testing. Discuss the differences between user testing, usability testing and research experiments. Discuss the role of user testing in usability testing. Discuss how to design simple experiments. Describe GOMS, the keystroke level model, Fitts law and discuss when these techniques are useful. Describe how to do a keystroke level analysis. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 45
46 Experiments, user testing & usability testing Experiments test hypotheses to discover new knowledge by investigating the relationship between two or more things i.e., variables. User testing is applied experimentation in which developers check that the system being developed is usable by the intended user population for their tasks. Usability testing uses a combination of techniques, including user testing & user satisfaction questionnaires. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 46
47 User testing is not research User testing Research experiments Aim: improve products Aim: discover knowledge Few participants Many participants Results inform design Results validated statistically Not perfectly replicable Replicable Controlled conditions Strongly controlled conditions Procedure planned Experimental design Results reported to developers Scientific paper reports results to community 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 47
48 User testing Goals & questions focus on how well users perform tasks with the product Comparison of products or prototypes common Major part of usability testing Focus is on time to complete task & number & type of errors Informed by video & interaction logging User satisfaction questionnaires provide data about users opinions 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 48
49 Testing conditions Usability lab or other controlled space Major emphasis on selecting representative users developing representative tasks 5-10 users typically selected Tasks usually last no more than 30 minutes The test conditions should be the same for every participant Informed consent form explains ethical issues 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 49
50 Type of data (Wilson & Wixon, 97) Time to complete a task Time to complete a task after a specified time away from the product Number and type of errors per task Number of errors per unit of time Number of navigations to online help or manuals Number of users making a particular error Number of users completing task successfully 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 50
51 Usability engineering orientation Current level of performance Minimum acceptable level of performance Target level of performance 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 51
52 How many participants is enough for user testing? The number is largely a practical issue Depends on: schedule for testing availability of participants cost of running tests Typical 5-10 participants Some experts argue that testing should continue until no new insights are gained 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 52
53 Experiments Predict the relationship between two or more variables Independent variable is manipulated by the researcher Dependent variable depends on the independent variable Typical experimental designs have one or two independent variable 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 53
54 Experimental designs Different participants - single group of participants is allocated randomly to the experimental conditions Same participants - all participants appear in every condition Matched participants - participants are matched in tuples, e.g., based on expertise, gender 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 54
55 Example Hypotheses: Will the time to read a screen of text be different if 12-point Helvetica is used instead of 12-point Times-Roman? Condition 1: users read text with Helvetica Condition 2: users read text with Times Roman Control condition: read text on paper Extend design with variable user-expertise (additional conditions: expert/beginner) What are the independent and dependent variables 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 55
56 Advantages and disadvantes 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 56
57 Evaluation of experiments Are the results statistically significant? Use the t-test to analyze the ration of means and group variability 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 57
58 T-test Use standard-table of significance to determine if t is good enough. From: Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 58
59 Predictive models Provide a way of evaluating products or designs without directly involving users Psychological models of users are used to test designs Less expensive than user testing Usefulness limited to systems with predictable tasks - e.g., telephone answering systems, mobiles, etc. Based on expert behavior 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 59
60 GOMS (Card et al., 1983) Goals - the state the user wants to achieve e.g., find a website Operators - the cognitive processes & physical actions performed to attain those goals, e.g., decide which search engine to use Methods - the procedures for accomplishing the goals, e.g., drag mouse over field, type in keywords, press the go button Selection rules - determine which method to select when there is more than one available 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 60
61 Keystroke level model GOMS has also been developed further into a quantitative model - the keystroke level model. This model allows predictions to be made about how long it takes an expert user to perform a task. 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 61
62 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 62
63 Response times for keystroke level operators 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 63
64 Problems of GOMS/Keystroke model Doesn t take into account slack times and critical situations that may slow down certain strokes. Example: Usage of system while talking to a person in parallel. Further influences that are not taken into account: fatigue, learning effects, workload, etc.. Models are just good to provide an estimate, they can t substitute user testing 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 64
65 Fitts Law (Paul Fitts 1954) The law predicts that the time to point at an object using a device is a function of the distance from the target object & the object s size. The further away & the smaller the object, the longer the time to locate it and point. Useful for evaluating systems for which the time to locate an object is important such as handheld devices like mobile phones 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 65
66 Key points User testing is a central part of usability testing Testing is done in controlled conditions User testing is an adapted form of experimentation Experiments aim to test hypotheses by manipulating certain variables while keeping others constant The experimenter controls the independent variable(s) but not the dependent variable(s) There are three types of experimental design: different-participants, sameparticipants, & matched participants GOMS, Keystroke level model, & Fitts Law predict expert, error-free performance Predictive models are used to evaluate systems with predictable tasks such as telephones 20. Februar 06 IfGi Universität Münster User Interface Design A. Krüger 66
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