Cloud Development and Forms. LIFTING MECHANISMS 1. Orographic 2. Frontal 3. Convergence 4. Convection. Orographic Cloud. The Orographic Cloud
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1 Introduction to Climatology GEOGRAPHY 300 Cloud Development and Forms Tom Giambelluca University of Hawai i at Mānoa LIFTING MECHANISMS 1. Orographic 2. Frontal 3. Convergence 4. Convection Cloud Development and Forms Orographic Cloud The Orographic Cloud Trade Wind Inversion (TWI) Fog Zone Lifting Condensation Level (LCL) Orographic Cloud Orographic Rainfall Orographic Lifting Trade Winds 1
2 Orographic Cloud Frontal Lifting Rising air cools initially at the DAR If saturation occurs, further rising causes air to cool at the MAR If a significant amount of moisture is released via rain, the process is not fully reversed as the air descends and temperature is higher on the leeward side at the same elevation Results in rising air: Lower level convergence Upper level divergence Results in sinking air: Lower level divergence Upper level convergence Convergence Convection A parcel of air becomes buoyant and rises when it is less dense than surrounding air at the same elevation Air density is a function of temperature, pressure, and humidity At the same level, temperature is the main determinant of density: warm air is less dense than cold air 2
3 Environmental Lapse Rate The ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE is highly variable. Its value in relation to the DAR and MAR determines the STABILITY of the air. Environmental Lapse Rate in Hawaii The Trade Wind Inversion STABLE AIR is not easily moved vertically. UNSTABLE AIR will move vertically on its own due to bouyancy effects. CONDITIONALLY UNSTABLE AIR will become unstable if condensation occurs. The stability is determined by the ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE. Effect of Inversion on Rising Air Trade Wind Inversion 3
4 Trade-Wind Inversion Mean altitude ~2200 m (7200 ft) Frequency ~80% Stable atmospheric layer Forms a barrier to rising air Because rising air is the predominant means by which clouds form, cloud development is capped at the TWI level As a result, relatively thin clouds produce less precipitation when TWI is present Climate changes resulting in either more frequent or lower altitude TWI will cause a reduction in rainfall Effect of Inversion on Rainfall HaleNet: Haleakalā Maui Source: Adapted from Tran (1995) Effect of Inversion on Rainfall HaleNet: Haleakalā Maui TWI Trends TWI affected Hawai i more of the time starting in early 1990s Source: Cao et al. (2007) Source: Adapted from Tran (1995) 4
5 TWI Trends How high will air be lifted by buoyancy? TWI also appears to be moving lower in elevation Source: Cao et al. (2007) Stability and the degree of surface heating determine the maximum lifting height. For Unsaturated Air: Suppose the ELR = 5ºC per 1000 m, the surface temperature is 25ºC and an air parcel over a bare field is heated to 30ºC and begins to rise. How high will it rise? The environmental temperature T E = T E0 - ELR * x where x = elevation in kilometers The temperature of the parcel T P = T P0 - DAR * x The parcel will rise until T E = T P. We can find that be solving for x: x = [T P0 - T E0 ]/[DAR - ELR] = [30-25]/[10-5] = 1000 m Suppose the surface dewpoint temperature is 21ºC in the above example. Will a cloud form? Will anything else be affected? At what height will the air become saturated? LIFTING CONDENSATION LEVEL LCL = the height to which air must be lifted to bring it to saturation; the height of the cloud base A simple method of estimating the LCL: Air reaches the LCL when it has cooled to its dew point temperature (DPT). However, DPT, a function of vapor pressure, and vapor pressure of a rising parcel of air is decreasing because the atmospheric pressure is decreasing. Therefore it is best to use some a conservative measure of humidity, such as mixing ratio or specific humidity when tracking a rising air parcel. To a reasonable approximation, however, we can just assume that the dew point temperature decreases at about 2ºC per 1000 m. To get the LCL, we have to determine the height at which the air temperature is equal to the dew point temperature. Air temperature: T = T0-10x Dew point temperature: Td = Td0-2x We can set T = Td and solve for x: x (km) = [T0 - Td0](ºC)/[DALR-TPLR](ºC per km) or x (km) = [T0 - Td0]/8 Example: T 0 = 18ºC T d0 = 10ºC LCL =? T LCL =? Answer: LCL = 1000 m T LCL = 8ºC LIFTING CONDENSATION LEVEL Another example: T = 25ºC a) RH = 61.2% b) RH = 78.5% In each case, what is the LCL? Answers a) T d0 = 17ºC, LCL = 1000 m b) T d0 = 21ºC, LCL = 500 m 5
6 Cloud Types Unlimited variety of size, shape, and composition Classes based on appearance and/or height High clouds Bases above 6000m (19,000 ft) Ice composition Cirrus Fall streaks, mares tails Cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, contrails Middle clouds Bases between 2000 and 6000m (6-19,000 ft) Liquid/ice composition Alto prefix Altostratus, altocumulus Low clouds Bases below 2000m (6,000 ft) Liquid composition Stratus Nimbostratus, stratocumulus Cirrus Altocumulus Stratus Stratocumulus Cumulus Cumulus Congestus Cumulonimbus 6
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