The Soviet Union at the Crossroads

Transcription

1 The Soviet Union at the Crossroads Facts and Figures on the Soviet Republics LATVIA ESTONIA LITHUANIA BELORUSSIA MOLDAVIA Kishinev SOVIET UNION GEORGIA Yerevan' ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TADZHIKISTAN Deutsche Bank

2 This material was prepared with the assistance of, and is circulated by, TransAtlantic Futures, Inc., which is registered as an agent of Deutsche Bank AG, Frankfurt am Main, West Germany. It is filed with the Department of Justice, where the required registration statement is available for public inspection. Registration does not indicate approval of the contents by the U.S. Government. Deutsche Bank AG Economics Department Editor-in-chief: Dr. Otto Storf Authors: Jurgen Corbet and Dr. Andreas Gummich For additional copies of this brochure, contact any Deutsche Bank branch office. In exceptional cases copies may be obtained from: Deutsche Bank AG, Volkswirtschaftliche Abteilung (ZID), Postfach 0060, D-6000 Frankfurt Fee: DM 0

3 The Soviet Union at the Crossroads Facts and Figures on the Soviet Republics Deutsche Bank

4 Index ;-^^^^ :^SfJiK^j^^^^^S Executive Summary 5 I. Current situation 7 II. The constituent republics: economic outlook 8 III. Ranking of the Soviet republics IV. Important facts and figures about the constituent republics. Russian Federation Estonia Latvia Lithuania Belorussia Ukraine Moldavia Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kirghizia Tadzhikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Appendix : Formal structure of the Soviet Union 44 Appendix 2: Map of the Soviet Union 46 Appendix 3: Selected data on the union republics 47 Appendix 4: Selected data on industrial and agricultural output 48 Appendix 5: Efforts of constituent republics to win independence 52 As of October.990

5 Executive Summary For too long, the Soviet Union has figured in most of our minds as an amorphous land mass of seemingly endless, yet uniform, proportions. On top of that, virtually everybody in the Western world considered the country a political moloch as well as a military colossus. In recent months, it has become fully apparent that this supposed world power is in the throes of transition, perhaps even disintegration. Accordingly, our perception of the Soviet Union has turned 80 degrees, from the image of a tight-fisted centrally-controlled government to that of a shaky assemblage of republics. It is virtually impossible at this juncture to determine what the political future will hold for the Soviet Union. Among the possibilities are, first, a vast increase of the republics'political autonomy, combined with the gradual self-abolition of the Communist party; second, an outright disintegration of central power and the subsequent collapse of any public order. Be that as it may, it is vitally important at this stage that we in the West, now that the Wall is down, look behind what was formerly the Iron Curtain to familiarize ourselves rather quickly with the diversity that lurks there. Having almost abandoned the notion of a separate socialist market, the Soviet Union is on the verge of becoming part and parcel of an integrated world market. Beyond any doubt, after 70 years of disincentives and distortions, the costs of this transition are going to be high both in terms of capital and dislocation. If one zeroes in on the economic angle, the picture becomes no brighter, but perhaps more concrete in terms of what needs to be - and can be - done, as far as the Western world is concerned. The purpose of this special report is to provide basic, yet detailed, information on the 5 union republics, that is, the constituent parts of the country. Whether it will disintegrate or not, the Soviet Union is going to open up economically and all of us need to be better informed about its true diversity. Only if we are prepared to take this step are we in a position to make best use of the potential and, over time, help the Soviet people to improve their living standards. Under the peculiar logic of the cold war, the prospect of disintegration and chaos in the Soviet Union represented a welcome scenario to many. Nowadays, the country is reverting to being an integral part of Europe. In an ironic twist of world history. Soviet policies are no longer disruptive by design, but they are so in practice, that is, by virtue of circumstance. Yet, we can no longer simply cheer about turmoil in the Soviet Union. The following special report presents itself to the reader as a fact book. On a republic-by-republic basis, it analyzes the strong and the weak suits of each of those republics. This analysis addresses the following dimensions: current degree of industrialization; hard currency-earning capacity; scope of agricultural production; degree of self-sufficiency; mineral resources; business-mindedness of the population; proximity to the E.G. market; level of education; homogeneity of the population; and infrastructure. What emerges is a rather mesmerizing kaleidoscope of the constituent parts of the Soviet Union. In the course of reading through the report, it becomes clear that, despite all the current gloom.

6 there are a good many opportunities for economic growth.these are most obvious in the fields of energy and raw materials, where enormous gains can be made if more modern means of production are finally employed. In sum, while the future of the Soviet Union looks bleak in the winter of 990, it is important to realize that we may be witnessing the end of three quarters of a century of persistent economic malperformance. As the score card on page of this report indicates, quite a number of republics have an impressive economic potential. Provided the right kind of reforms are undertaken with the appropriate determination and speed combined with the proper finance, vital elements of what is mere promise today may well become a prosperous reality before long. 6

7 i. Current situation The USSR (for formal structure, see Appendix ) is facing the threat of increasing economic and political disintegration. Following the Baltic republics'example, virtually all union republics have declared their independence from the Soviet Union (see Appendix 5). Apart from the political aspects of sovereignty (i.e. military and security forces, independent foreign policy), the parliaments of the individual republics, in view of the slow pace of debate on economic reform at the national level, have gone out of their way to win a large degree of economic autonomy (including their own currency). The republics' rising economic separatism is expressed in parliamentary resolutions on their exclusive right to control raw materials and manufactured goods which they produce. Occasionally such measures have slowed the flow of goods and commodities between the constituent republics. (Cases in point are strict export controls in Uzbekistan and customs formalities on the border between Lithuania and Belorussia). As a result, the economic processes in the individual constituent republics, which until now have been centrally managed and coordinated by the Moscow bureaucracy, are becoming more and more independent. Several republics are specializing in only a few products, making the overall Soviet economy more dependent on trade between the republics. As the delivery and supply system breaks down, the republics are reverting to barter trade, and the living standards of the Soviet people are being seriously threatened. If the dynamics of political events and the pursuit of regional economic self-interests resulted in the total disintegration of the Soviet Union, the conditions in the various republics would differ widely in their ability to manage their economies independently. Six of the republics have a high economic potential, five a moderate potential, and four a weak one (see p. ). Only a few of them would have any chance to draw level with the economic and cultural standards of Western Europe and only after a possibly extremely difficult transition period.

8 II. The constituent republics: economic outlook (see Ranking p. ) The Ukraine figures among the economically most potent Soviet republics. An agriculturally highly productive region, which has frequently been termed the "bread basket" or "granary" of the Soviet Union (46 percent of Soviet agricultural output), the Ukraine also has a broad industrial base and large mineral deposits. But as the republic's automotive, consumer goods and garment industries are not competitive internationally, mineral resources such as iron ore (found in the Donetsk Basin) and energy sources, such as coal, mineral oil and natural gas, are the only products earning foreign currency. The quality and the quantity of grain production are reduced by deficiencies in the transport and processing systems which are typical of the USSR. The Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) have arguably the best chances to catch up after an initial transition period. Their dependence on raw materials could, however, become a serious obstacle to further progress. As the economic embargo temporarily imposed by the Soviet government on Lithuania has shown, the small republics are at present virtually incapable of purchasing energy and other raw materials because they lack hard currency. The politically dominating Russian Federation (RSFSR) accounts for 75 per cent of the Soviet Unions's total area and for 5 per cent of its population. As it is rich in raw materials (for example, over 90 per cent of all Soviet oil and approximately 75 per cent of the gas deposits, iron ore, nonferrous metals, coal, and precious metals), its chances are also good to develop an independent economy.the RSFSR produces more than half of Soviet grain, potatoes and electrical energy and mines 55 per cent of the coal.the principal industries - besides consumer goods - are basic materials, heavy engineering and armaments. Given the region's huge size, the task of structuring it economically and administratively so as to make it a coherent and evenly developed economic zone is daunting, as has been apparent so far.the Russian Federation might disintegrate into smaller units, which would make it difficult if not impossible to gain access to important raw materials and industrial centers. (The Karelian, Tatar, Komi and Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics have already declared their independence.) Although the densely populated Georgia has the disadvantage of a very heterogeneous population, its industrial structure is relatively well developed and its agriculture is favored by a good climate. The Georgians' business-mindedness, which is partly praised and partly criticized as "bargaining mentality", is wellknown throughout the country.their level of education is, however, less than average. Although, in the event of a secession Georgia could offer only a small number of internationally competitive industrial products, mineral resources such as coal and non-ferrous metals, as well as the export of steel stabilizers, could nevertheless help finance necessary imports. However, a low degree of self-sufficiency in terms of industrial and consumer goods relegates Georgia to the back rows within the group of economically potent republics. This also applies even more strongly to Belorussia. While its broad industrial base, agricultural production, which is mainly geared to potato and grain cultivation, and the high education level of its population at first sight appear as assets, this impression has to be qualified upon closer scrutiny by the internationally low standards of its garment and foodstuff industries, farm machinery and machine-tool construction, and its light industry (radios, computers, TV sets and watches). Since the region is poor in natural resources, all efforts would have to concentrate on the all-out modernization of these industries to achieve the necessary stability if the republic decided to become independent. Belorussia thus belongs to the group of republics with a moderate economic potential.

9 If Central Asian Kazakhstan, the union's second largest republic in terms of area, were to secede, it would be able to draw on a potent primary industry, but its consumer goods industry is underdeveloped. Its agriculture (especially grain cultivation) is efficient, but highly vulnerable to changes in climate. In the event of secession, the republic's abundant mineral resources (mineral oil, natural gas, metals, gold, coal) could provide a temporary source of foreign currency earnings for Kazakhstan's 6 million inhabitants. It is, however, questionable if the republic's predominantly Islamic Kazakhs, Russians and Germans, and the over 00 other nationalities living there could agree on a common policy. As one of the smallest constituent republics, Moldavia (no natural resources, but with a climate propitious to agriculture), could benefit from its proximity to Europe. Moldavia's strengths are its good infrastructure and highly productive fruit, vegetable, wine and tobacco-growing industries. Mineral resources such as copper, bauxite and precious metals, in combination with its population's orientation towards free enterprise that is more pronounced than in other republics, may go some way towards enabling Armenia to survive. Although the republic, which became known through the news accounts of the ethnic conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, has a machine-building industry and a chemical industry, those sectors are not likely to earn hard currency- neither now nor in the foreseeable future - necessary for the import of vital goods. Within the group of Soviet republics with a moderate economic potential, Azerbaijan ranks at the lower end of the scale. Its poorly developed industry and infrastructure are only partly offset by the existing mineral oil deposits, which, however, are slowly nearing depletion. Cotton and mineral oil products are potential export earners for Uzbekistan, Kirghizia, and Turkmenistan. On balance, however, those countries, and even more sotadzhikistan, have very poorly developed economic structures. The republics'geographies (deserts and mountains) are for the most part neither arable nor usable, their infrastructures are underdeveloped, their markets in the West European industrialized countries are far away, their degree of industrialization is low and population structures are very heterogeneous. The mineral resources (oil, gas, precious metals) lying dormant in the Central Asian regions could be made profitable for the economy only by investments on a broad scale, which, however, would require a long period of time before contributing to the regions' development.

10 Recommended reading: Chimelli, R.: 9mal Moskau, Munich, 987. Paxtonjohn (ed.): The Statesman's Yearbook 990-9,27th ed., London, Berlin: DeGruyter, 990. USSR '89 Yearbook, Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 990. The Europa World Year Book 9,90,Volume 2: Kenya -Zimbabwe, London: Europa Publications, 990. Munzinger-Archiv, IH-Lander aktuell no. 32/89, Ravensburg, 989. Statistisches Bundesamt (ed.): Landerbericht Sowjetunion 989, Wiesbaden,

11 Low economic level Turkmenistan Kirghizia Tadzhikistan High economic level Moderate economic level Constituent republics Ukraine Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania Russian SFSR Georgia Belorussia Kazakhstan Moldavia Armenia Azerbaijan Uzbekistan Degree of industrialization Hard currency-earning capacity of industrial goods Agricultural production Hard currency-earning capacity of agricultural products Degree of self-sufficiency in terms of industrial goods Mineral resources Hard currency-earning capacity of raw materials Business mindedness Proximity to Europe Level of education Homogeneity of the population Infrastructure Total score points - good potential 5 points - medium potential 0 points - no potential

12 IV. Important facts and figures about the constituent^^ Russian Federation - Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) As a result of the October Revolution of 97 the Council of People's Commissars, headed by Lenin, proclaimed the creation of a "Republic of Workers, Soldiers and Peasants Soviets" on Russian soil in January 98. As one of the founding members, the RSFSR has been part of the USSR since December 30,922. General Overview Size: With an area of 7,075,400 sq. km the RSFSR is the largest constituent republic of the USSR. Covering 76.7 per cent of the total area of the USSR it is almost twice the size of the USA. Climate: predominantly continental climate; the climate ranges from moderately continental to extremly arctic (two fifths of the RSFSR are permafrost soils). The European part of the RSFSR and the southern Asian region along the Trans-Siberian Railway have a transport system that is generally good by Soviet standards. So far, the RSFSR has been the predominant political force in the USSR. Population The 47,386,000 inhabitants (5.4 percent of the total Soviet population as of 989; population growth rate of.5 per cent per annum. Religion: mainly Russian-Orthodox) are very unevenly distributed across the RSFSR. - In the European part of the RSFSR the population density is relatively high (cities with one million inhabitants or more: Moscow, capital (9m.), Leningrad (5m.), Gorki, Kuybyshev and Perm). - The Asian part is much more sparsely populated (Western Siberia with 2.3m. sq. km and 0m. inn.. Eastern Siberia with 4. m. sq. km and 7.5m. inh., and the Soviet Far East with 6.2m. sq. km and about 6m. inh.): the biggest cities (Sverdlovsk with.3m., Chelyabinsk with.m., Omsk with. m., Novosibirsk with.4m. inhabitants, Irkutsk and Vladivostok) are all situated along or near the Trans-Siberian Railway. Composition of the population (979 census) 82.6% Russians 3.6% Tatars 2.7% Ukrainians.2% Chuvash.0% Dagestani 0.9% Bashkirs 8.0% other minorities (e.g. Belorussians and Mordovians)

13 Karelian ASSR Komi ASSR Yakut ASSR Buryat ASSR Tuva ASSR Bashkir ASSR Udmurt ASSR Tatar ASSR Mari ASSR Chuvash ASSR ASSR -Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic AR -Autonomous Region NR - National Region. Mordovian ASSR 2. Kalmyk ASSR 3. Kabardino-BalkarASSR 4. North Ossetian ASSR 5. Checheno-lngush ASSR 6. Dagestan ASSR A. ADYGEIAR B. KARACHAYEVOCHERKESSAR C. GORNO ALTAI AR D. KHAKASS AR E. JEWISH AR a. NenetzNR b. Komi-Permyak NR c. Khanty-Mansi NR d. Yamalo-Nenetz NR e. Taimyr NR f. Evenki NR g. Ust-Ordynsky-Buryat NR h. Aginsky-Buryat NR i. Chukot NR j. Koryak NR Language groups (979) 87.2% Russian 3.2% Tatar.0% Chuvash Official language: Russian While the RSFSR in the aggregate has a homogeneous population structure, other nationalities constitute a local majority in several of the 6 Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics, the 5 Autonomous Regions and the 0 National Areas. All in all, the RSFSR has more than 00 nationalities, which makes it prone to separatist movements within its own territory. This became evident by virtue of declarations of independence by the Karelian and Tatar Republics, the Komi Area and the Yakut ASSR). The level of education of the RSFSR population, as a percentage of college and university graduates, and persons with vocational training and secondary education, is slightly below the national average.

14 Agriculture The RSFSR has more than 00 research institutes to assist its 2,000 state farms and 2,200 collective farms, and more than 0,000 agriculturally-oriented enterprises and organizations. The 5 million people employed in agriculture produce more than half of the total Soviet grain output, 50 per cent of potatoes, 43 per cent of other vegetables, and 25 per cent of sugar beet. With regard to livestock farming, the republic's share in the union accounts for approximately 50 per cent or more of dairy and meet products (cattle, pigs and sheep). On the other hand, the RSFSR has to import primary textile products from the other constituent republics. Minerals The RSFSR boasts huge deposits of coal, mineral oil, natural gas, peat, apatite, phosphorites, potassium salts, iron ores, gold, diamonds, rare metals, copper, lead, tin, bauxite, manganese, magnesium, silver, molybdenum, graphite, nickle, uranium, among others. The RSFSR possesses, for example, one fifth of the world's known (!) gold deposits. Two thirds of the Soviet Union's energy resources are in Siberia. Siberian deposits acccount for half of the world's coal reserves, and more than half of mineral oil and natural gas. The Siberian forests represent one fifth of the world's total tree stands. The big Siberian rivers represent an enormous energy potential. The area around the Urals is especially rich in natural resources. One of the USSR's biggest centers for processing raw materials is located in that area (Magnitogorsk, Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, et al.). In the northern Urals (Vorkuta), there are important coal reserves. On balance, the eastern regions of the RSFSR (including the Urals and Bashkiria) produce about three quarters of the coal mined in the RSFSR. In 987, 9 per cent of the mineral oil and 75 per cent of the natural gas of the USSR came from the RSFSR.The principal areas are the Volga-Ural mineral oil and natural gas districts (Tatar and Bashkir ASSR, Kuibyshev area), the west Siberian fields, the Komi ASSR, Northern Caucasus and the Sakhalin Island. The mineral oil and natural gas deposits are essentially in the same regions. Increasingly the trend is to exploit the enormous deposits in western Siberia (Urengoi, Yamburg,Tsapolyarnoye, Medvestie). Natural gas processing plants are located primarily in the Volga region. The European part of the RSFSR boasts deposits of iron ore (Kursk basin, Urals), coal (e.g. south of Moscow, eastern Donetsk basin), phosphates, mineral salts, and non-ferrous metals (notably in the Urals area). Industry For many products, the per capita industrial output in the RSFSR is proportionally higher than for the total USSR population. In addition to a high proportion of output of primary materials (iron ore, steel stabilizers, precious metals and almost all the other important minerals and ores, the oil and gas industry, and coal mining with a share of 55 per cent of total Soviet production), heavy industry constitutes the dominant sector in the Russian economy. Steel output in the territory of the RSFSR accounts for 50 per cent of total Soviet production.

15 Agriculture The RSFSR has more than 00 research institutes to assist its 2,000 state farms and 2,200 collective farms, and more than 0,000 agriculturally-oriented enterprises and organizations. The 5 million people employed in agriculture produce more than half of the total Soviet grain output, 50 per cent of potatoes, 43 per cent of other vegetables, and 25 per cent of sugar beet. With regard to livestock farming, the republic's share in the union accounts for approximately 50 per cent or more of dairy and meet products (cattle, pigs and sheep). On the other hand, the RSFSR has to import primary textile products from the other constituent republics. Minerals The RSFSR boasts huge deposits of coal, mineral oil, natural gas, peat, apatite, phosphorites, potassium salts, iron ores, gold, diamonds, rare metals, copper, lead, tin, bauxite, manganese, magnesium, silver, molybdenum, graphite, nickle, uranium, among others. The RSFSR possesses, for example, one fifth of the world's known (!) gold deposits. Two thirds of the Soviet Union's energy resources are in Siberia. Siberian deposits acccount for half of the world's coal reserves, and more than half of mineral oil and natural gas. The Siberian forests represent one fifth of the world's total tree stands. The big Siberian rivers represent an enormous energy potential. The area around the Urals is especially rich in natural resources. One of the USSR's biggest centers for processing raw materials is located in that area (Magnitogorsk, Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, et al.). In the northern Urals (Vorkuta), there are important coal reserves. On balance, the eastern regions of the RSFSR (including the Urals and Bashkiria) produce about three quarters of the coal mined in the RSFSR. In 987, 9 per cent of the mineral oil and 75 per cent of the natural gas of the USSR came from the RSFSR.The principal areas are the Volga-Ural mineral oil and natural gas districts (Tatar and Bashkir ASSR, Kuibyshev area), the west Siberian fields, the Komi ASSR, Northern Caucasus and the Sakhalin Island. The mineral oil and natural gas deposits are essentially in the same regions. Increasingly the trend is to exploit the enormous deposits in western Siberia (Urengoi, Yamburg,Tsapolyarnoye, Medvestie). Natural gas processing plants are located primarily in the Volga region. The European part of the RSFSR boasts deposits of iron ore (Kursk basin, Urals), coal (e.g. south of Moscow, eastern Donetsk basin), phosphates, mineral salts, and non-ferrous metals (notably in the Urals area). Industry For many products, the per capita industrial output in the RSFSR is proportionally higher than for the total USSR population. In addition to a high proportion of output of primary materials (iron ore, steel stabilizers, precious metals and almost all the other important minerals and ores, the oil and gas industry, and coal mining with a share of 55 per cent of total Soviet production), heavy industry constitutes the dominant sector in the Russian economy. Steel output in the territory of the RSFSR accounts for 50 per cent of total Soviet production.

16 Other important industries are the chemical industry (with a more than 50 per cent share of total Soviet fertilizer output) and the automotive industry (the majority of Soviet passenger cars are produced in the RSFSR). The building materials industry (60 per cent of Soviet cement is produced in the RSFSR) and the timber industry occupy an important place, the latter accounting for almost all Soviet timber exports. RSFSR timber is also the basis for the region's paper industry, which produces 84 per cent of all Soviet paper. In 987, the Russian Federation produced 62.9 per cent of all electricity generated in the USSR. Two thirds of the republic's electrical energy are produced in central Russia, in the Volga area, the Urals, and in eastern Siberia. The RSFSR is trying to attract Western investors by establishing free trade zones and special economic zones in Leningrad, in Vyborg on the Soviet-Finnish border, in Kaliningrad, in the Siberian town of Chita, and in the Far Eastern city of Primorsk as well as on Sakhalin Island.

17 2 Estonia - I Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic The secret protocol of the German-Soviet agreement of 939 assigned Estonia to the Soviet sphere of interest. An ultimatum of the USSR led to the formation of a socialist Soviet republic on July 2,940, and a few weeks later Estonia joined the USSR (August 6,940). General Overview Size: 45,00 sq. km (0.2 per cent of the total area of the USSR). Climate: moderate. Estonia is a comparatively small, but highly developed republic with a good transport system. Population,573,000 inhabitants (989), 0.5 per cent of total Soviet population, low population growth of 0.5 per cent per annum, comparable to western European levels. Religions: predominantly Protestant. Most of the population lives in towns. Capital: Tallinn with 478,000 inhabitants (also main Baltic Sea port), Tartu, Narva, Kohtla-Jarve, Pa'rnu. Heterogeneous population with a high Russian proportion (979 census) 64.7% Estonian 27.9% Russian 7.4% other minorities (Ukrainians, Belorussians, and Latvians) Language groups (979): 65.% Estonian 3.7% Russian min..0% Ukrainian The level of education in Estonia is high (large number of university and college graduates). Owing to its traditional ties with Finland (the two languages are similar) Estonia has a strong western orientation. Agriculture In agriculture, dairy farming, cattle and pig raising, as well as the cultivation of grain, potatoes and flax constitute the main activities. Estonia is a net exporter of foodstuffs. Minerals Estonia lacks raw materials. But oil shale and peat deposits are processed and used for power generation.there is even a pipeline, which supplies the Leningrad area with gas extracted from oil shale. Phosphorite deposits in the vicinity of Tallinn are used to produce fertilizers.

18 Baltic Sea Haapsalu Paide ESTONIA Parnu Viljandi Industry The Estonian electrical engineering and electronics industries, which among others produce computers, electric motors (the Volta combine in Tallinn), measuring instruments, and computer-controlled equipment, the garment industry (textiles and shoes) and the Estonian fishing industry are also of great importance to the Soviet Union. Large quantities of wood have to be imported from the north of the RSFSR for the timber (skis, furniture, veneers, cellulose and the like) and paper industries.

19 3 Latvia - Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic In the Constituent Assembly elections held in November 97, the Bolsheviks (communists) won 72% of the votes. Soviet power was overthrown when the Germans occupied Latvia in February 98. After they had withdrawn and power had changed several times, a democratic government was finally set up in 99. But the secret protocol of the Hitler-Stalin pact assigned Latvia to the Soviet sphere of interest in 939. Consequently, the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on July 2,940, and since August 5,940, it has been part of the USSR. General Overview Size: 64,500 sq. km (0.3 per cent of the total area of the USSR). Climate: moderate. Latvia is a small, but densely populated republic, with a well-developed transport system of railways and all-weather roads. Population 2,68,000 inhabitants (989), 0.9 per cent of the total Soviet population, low population growth j rate of 0.6 per cent per annum. Religions: predominantly Protestant). \ Most of the population lives in towns (7 per cent in 986). j Urban centers: Riga, the capital, with 0.9 million inhabitants (987, also the second most important j Soviet Baltic Sea port after Leningrad), Daugavpils, Liepaja, Jelgava,Ventspils. I Highly heterogeneous population with a large proportion of Russians (979 census) 53.7% Latvians j 32.8% Russians 4.5% Belorussians 9.0% other minorities (Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, etc.) Language groups (979) 53.6% Latvian 40.2% Russian The level of education is average. Latvians have a western orientation. Agriculture Agriculture plays a minor role in Latvia. It is a net importer of foodstuffs. Potatoes and grain are the main crops. Eggs and dairy products are also important. Flax is a major renewable raw material. Cattle breeding focuses on dairy and beef cattle. Pigs and poultry are also raised.

20 Minerals Latvia is poor in raw materials (only peat, gypsum, and amber are indigenous) and is therefore highly dependent on deliveries of raw materials, semi-finished products and investment goods from other parts of the Soviet Union. Industry Latvia's industry is important for the Soviet Union as a whole. The Latvian electrical industry, for example, is the largest procuder of telephone switches in the USSR. It is the main producer of electrical railway cars, buses and motorcycles. Every second motorcycle manufactured in the USSR comes from Latvia. The output of wool textiles ranks forth in the Soviet Union's garment industry. In terms of value produced, the paper industry takes fourth place in the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the republic has a biotechnological industry, a chemical industry (ranking high in synthetic fibers and fertilizers), light industry (every fifth radio set and every third washing machine are produced in Latvia) and foodstuffs industry (fishing industry, dairy products, canned goods).

21 4 Lithuania - Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic Lithuania became part of the USSR on August 3,940 following the creation of the Lithuanian SSR on June 2 of that year. The declaration by the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet in March 990 of the reestablishment of its independence was not accepted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. General Overview Size: 65,200 sq. km (0.3 per cent of the total area of the USSR). Climate: moderate. Lithuania is a relatively small republic with a well-developed transport system. Population 3,690,000 inhabitants (989),.3 per cent of total Soviet population, a low population growth rate of 0.7 per cent per annum. The majority of the population lives in towns (66 per cent in 986). Urban centers: Vilnius, the capital, with 566,000 inhabitants (987) and one of the USSR's biggest airports, Kaunas, Klaipeda (Memel), an important ice-free Baltic coast port, Siauliai and Panevezys. Relatively homogeneous population (979 census) 80.0% Lithuanians 8.9% Russians 7.3% Poles 3.8% other minorities Language groups (979): 80.3% Lithuanian 0.9% Russian min. 6.4% Polish The republic (independence 98-40) has strong national traditions. Religions: predominantly Roman-Catholic as in neighboring Poland, partly Protestant. Religion has helped to unify the Lithuanious. The population is well educated (a high percentage of college and university graduates as well as skilled labor force. Its orientation is decidedly western. Many Lithuanians live abroad (Chicago being the biggest "Lithuanian city"). Traditional links with Poland. Agriculture A well-developed and relatively productive agricultural sector suffices to supply the Lithuanian population with all basic foodstuffs. Grain, potatoes, sugar beet, other vegetables, beef cattle, pigs, poultry, flax and timber are the main products that are supplied to the other constituent republics. For stock breeding, the mainstay of Lithuanian agriculture, fodder concentrates have to be imported.

22 Railway km 00 SiauliaiX Radviliskis Panevezys LITHUANIA utena Taurage Kedainiaj Minerals The Lithuanian economy's indigenous supply of raw materials is very restricted. Apart from amber, there is only peat, which is used to ensure the country's power supply. Therefore there is a high import demand for raw materials (petroleum, natural gas, steel, non-ferrous metals, etc.). Similarly, chemicals and heavy engineering products (principally investment goods) have to be imported in large quantities. Industry Industry is concentrated in Vilnius and in the surrounding areas, and is closely integrated in the Soviet economy (80 per cent of imports and 90 per cent of exports is with other constituent republics). The Lithuanian electronics industry (most importantly industrial robots and computers) and light industry (e.g. fuel pumps supplied to the automobile industry,tv sets, and cassette recorders) play a significant role at the national level. A number of shipyards are along the coast of the Baltic Sea (e.g. construction of cooling trawlers and floating docks). Other industries are high precision mechanical engineering (turbines), chemicals, wood (furniture etc.) and paper products, building materials, and a fishing industry (around the Baltic sea ports).

23 5 Belorussia - Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic Belorussia became part of the USSR on December 30,922, following the creation of the Belorussian SSR on January, 99. In 939, former Polish territories were incorporated (regions of Brest and Grodno). General Overview Size: 207,600 sq. km (0.9 per cent of the total area of the USSR), relatively well developed. Climate: moderately continental. Large parts in the south of Belorussia are heavily contaminated with radioactive materials (mass resettlements following the Chernobyl accident in 986). Population 0,200,000 inhabitants (989), 3.6 percent of total Soviet population, low population growth rate compared with union-wide average of 0.6 per cent per annum. Relatively homogeneous population (979 census) 79.4% Belorussians.9% Russians 4.2% Poles 4.5% other minorities (e.g. Ukrainians) Language groups (979) 69.8% Belorussian 28.2% Russian min..0% Ukrainian min. 0.3% Polish Important towns: Minsk, the capital, with.5 million inhabitants (987). Brest, Gomel, Grodno, Bobruisk, Mogilev, Vitebsk. The level of education, in terms of the number of university graduates, people with secondary education, and skilled labor is above average compared with the national level. Agriculture The relatively productive Belorussian agriculture is concentrated on the cultivation of potatoes (about one fifth of the Soviet output), grain (barley, rye), and flax (share of 30 per cent). Livestock farming is dominated by pig raising, beef and dairy cattle breeding (6 per cent of the Soviet meat and milk production). Belorussia is a net exporter of foodstuffs within the union. Minerals Belorussia is essentially poor in mineral resources. It possesses major deposits of mineral salts, phosphorites and peat. In its efforts to achieve self-sufficiency in the energy sector, the extensive use of peat has had a significant impact on the environment.

24 LATVI BELO- LITHUANIA :i Railway 0 km 00 U K R A Industry The industrial sector generates approximately 60 per cent of the national income. The Belorussian industry is heavily concentrated on the construction of automobiles and agricultural machinery (approximately 20 per cent of motorcycles and 5 per cent of tractors are produced in Belorussia), on the light industry (computers and consumer durables such as refrigerators, TV sets, watches, radios and bicycles), the machine tool building sector (share in union: 4 per cent), and the chemical industry (20 per cent share in union for synthetic fibres, in addition to petrochemistry and the fertilizer production). The garment industry (shoes and textiles, in particular products of artificial silk and linen) and the foodstuffs industry (canneries, sugar refineries), together with the manufacture of prefabricated construction materials, the timber and glass industries, constitute the principal Belorussian industries.

25 6 Ukraine - Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic The Ukrainian Republik was proclaimed on December 25,97, and was established in December 99. It became part of the USSR on December 30, 922. In 939, eastern Polish territories were incorporated as Western Ukraine. In 940, Northern Bukovina and other areas ceded by Romania, were incorporated, and in 945, Ruthenia (sub-carpathian Russia), which was ceded by Czechoslovakia.The nuclear accident at Chernobyl contaminated parts of Northern Ukraine. General Overview Size: 603,700 sq. km (2.7 per cent of the total area of the USSR; in terms of territory, an independent Ukraine would be the second largest European state). It has a relatively good road and railway infrastructure. Odessa is the chief Soviet Black Sea port. Climate: moderately continental, partly j Mediterranean. \ Population \ The Ukraine is a relatively densely populated republic with 5,704,000 inhabitants (989): 8 per i cent of total Soviet population, population growth rate of 0.5 per cent per annum. j «i= Major cities and industrial centers:! Kiev, the capital, with 2.6 million inhabitants (989), Kharkov (.6 m inh.), Lvov, Odessa, Donetsk, Dnepropetrovsk, Saporoshye, Krivoi Rog. } There are reportedly five million Ukrainians living abroad (especially in Canada). Relatively homogeneous population (979 census) 73.6% Ukrainians 2.% Russians 5.3% other minorities (Belorussians, Moldavians, Poles, Bulgarians, etc.) Language groups (979) 66.3% Ukrainian 3.3% Russian Official languages: Ukrainian and Russian The level of education is slightly above average. f Agriculture The Ukraine has some of the Soviet Union's most fertile soils (black earth). In terms of value, it produced 46 per cent of the total Soviet agricultural output in 985. It is a net exporter of foodstuffs. The most important crops are: grain (wheat 25 per cent of national output, maize 56 per cent), sugar beet (60 per cent), sun flowers (50 per cent), soya, other vegetables and tobacco (highest production in the USSR), flax (perennial), and natural rubber. Livestock breeding is focussed on beef cattle (share of Ukraine in USSR production: 24 per cent), pigs, dairy cattle, and poultry. Fur skin production, especially silver fox, is also of importance.

26 BELORUSSIA Brest :. ;.>'.:..; " Railway km 300 Rovno» L'vov Zitomi c=:^;.ternopor I I ^^5 Chmeffiickij IvaTTo'-Frankovsk Cernovc^ ernoby KIEV Belaja Cerkov' E Poltava 0 Kremencug uneproo5e*rzinsk Kramatorsk^ oro. $ Melitopol,; Zdanov Berdjansk iillpisi m f e ro p o I' 4 Minerals There are sufficient deposits of energy resources such as coal (some 60% of the union's bitumen and anthracite coal reserves), lignite, petroleum, and natural gas. Additionally, there are deposits of iron ore, mangenese, uranium, graphite, mineral salts, gypsum and alabaster. Industry Ukrainian industry plays a significant role in the Soviet Union. About one quarter of Soviet coal is mined in the Donetsk field. Iron ore mining (46 per cent share, Krivoi Rog area) and manganese mining (near Nikopol) are also important. The Ukraine also occupies an important place in the manufacture of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, steel production (about one third of total Soviet production), heavy industry (locomotive construction, among other products), chemical industry (a share of some 20 percent of total Soviet output in the field of coal and basic chemicals production; fertilizer and synthetic fiber production), and mechanical engineering (20 per cent of total Soviet output). Ukrainian light industry (for example, 2 per cent of the refrigerators and 34 per cent of the TV sets come from the Ukraine) and the automotive industry (e.g, motorcycles and small cars) figure significantly in the Soviet Union's supply with consumer durables. The garment industry (knitwear, shoes), the foodstuffs industry (especially sugar with a 5 per cent, vegetable fats with a 33 per cent, and canned goods with a 23 per cent share of total Soviet production) as well as the timber and paper industries clearly show the importance of the Ukrainian industry for the union.

27 7 Moldavia/Moldova - Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic The Moldavian SSR was formed on October 2,924 as an autonomous republic within the Ukrainian SSR, and has been a part of the USSR ever since. On August 2, 940 it became an independent Soviet Socialist Republic. Its territory included Bessarabia which had been ceeded by Romania. General Overview Size: 33,700 sq. km (only 0.2 percent of the total area of the USSR); a hilly area with forests in its central part. Warm, equable climate.the transport system is well developed. Population 4,34,000 inhabitants (989),.5 per cent of total Soviet population; the most densely populated constituent republic. At.8 per cent the population growth rate lies above the union's average of.3 per cent. Religion: predominantly Russian Orthodox. Major Cities: Kishinev, the capital, has 663,000 inhabitants (987); Tiraspol, Beltsy, and Bendery. Heterogeneous population (979 census) 63.9% Moldavians 4.2% Ukrainians 2.8% Russians 9.% other minorities (Gagauzi, Bulgarians, etc.) Language groups (979) 62.% Moldavian 2.6% Russian min. 9.7% Ukrainian The level of education is average compared with the general union level. Since the overthrow of Ceausescu.the Moldavian people has been anxious to resume its severed ties with Romania. Agriculture Favoured by a mild, equable climate, primarily grain (notably maize), sugar beet, other vegetables, sun flowers, fruits and berries, and grapes (about one quarter of the total wine-growing area is situated in Moldavia) are grown on Moldavia's highly fertile soils. Medicinal and ethereal oil plants also flurish. Livestock farming is concentrated on beef cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. Minerals The raw material resources of the Republic of Moldavia are negligible. It has to rely almost completely on supplies from the other constituent republics.

28 MOLDAVIA / \. Orgejev I \«Industry The country's industrial base is relatively small. The production of foodstuffs, beverages and tobacco is important for Moldavia's economy (especially canning and wine production). Moldavia's wine, foodstuffs and tobacco industries take third place in the USSR. Mikhail Gorbachev's antialcohol campaign has been devastating for the Maldavian wine industry. The garment industry (footwear, knitwear), light industry (manufacture of consumer durables such as refrigerators, washing machines, color TV sets), farm machinery industry (harvesting machines and tractors), and power engineering (transformers) are also important.

29 8 Armenia - Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic Armenia became a member of the USSR on March 2, 922, having been proclaimed a Soviet Socialist Republic on November 29,920. From 922 to 936 it formed part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic. In 936, Armenia was made a constituent republic of the USSR. General Overview Size: 29,800 sq. km (0. per cent of the total area of the USSR), mostly mountaineous, its arable land is very fertile (volcanic soils). Climate: continental. The transport system is relatively good. Armenia is an earthquake area. In December 988, a major earthquake claimed about 25,000 lives. One tenth of industrial capacity was destroyed. Population 3,283,000 inhabitants (989),. percent of total Soviet polulation. Homogeneous population (979 census) 89.7% Armenians 5.3% Azerbaijanis 2.3% Russians 2.7% other minorities (e.g. Kurds) Language groups (979) 89.5% Armenian 3.% Russian min. 5.2% Azerbaijani Major cities: Yerevan, the capital (.2 m. inh. in 987), Leninakan and Kirovakan. The level of education is far below average, despite a high number of college and university graduates. National pride is very marked and is based on the predominance of the national Armenian Catholic Church (world's oldest Christian Church). There are also large Armenian ethnic minorities in Turkey (Kars area) and in western countries (especially France and United States). Agriculture Grain, potatoes, other vegetables, sugar beet, and fruit (in particular grapes) are the chief crops. The cultivation of plant oil distillates for the production of perfume, as well as tobacco are also significant.

30 Q E 0R Railway km 80 Stepanavan 4 fleninakan Spitak ~ Kirovakan Razdan V AZERBAIJAN Astarak Kamo r-*-.^ ECmiadan YEREVAN ^g^->» ^ARMEN i A^ sararat ^ Jechegnadzor ^..>^-.:;-»r,-o.^.. '\ Goris m^'m^i^st^ ^"':^:U ':*. Black Sea ARMENIA v Kafan Minerals Armenia has major deposits of copper, zinc, aluminium (bauxite), molybdenum, precious metals, marble, pumice and volcanic basalt. Industry The predominant industries are mechanical engineering (especially machine tools, presses, foundry equipment), mining, chemicals (rubber, synthetic and plastic materials, fertilizers), building materials, textiles (also carpet weaving), footwear, foodstuffs and beverages (e.g. wineries).

31 9. Azerbaijan - Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic Azerbaijan became a member of the USSR on March 2, 922, having been founded on April 28, 920. From 922 to 936, together with Georgia and Armenia, it formed the Transcaucasian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic. In 936, it became an independet constituent republic. Since January 990, there have been armed clashes in Baku, Sumgait and along the Armenian border. The dispute concerns the Autonomous Region of Nagorno-Karabakh, which belongs to the Azerbaijan SSR, while its population is 75.9 percent Armenians. General Overview Size: 86,600 sq. km (0.4 per cent of the total area of the USSR); relatively well-developed transport system. The Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, situated as an enclave between Armenia, Turkey and Iran, and the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, which is mainly populated by Armenians, are also part of Azerbaijan. Population 7,029,000 inhabitants (989), 2.5 percent of total Soviet population. At.6 percent, the population growth rate is above average. Relatively homogeneous population (979 census) 78.% Azerbaijanis (mainly Shiite Muslims; in addition to the 5.5 million Azerbaijanis in the USSR, there are some 7 million in nothern Iran. Attempts to broaden contacts with the Iranian Azerbaijanis have recently increased.) 7.9% Armenians 7.9% Russians 6.% other minorities (Dagestani and Tatars) Language groups (979) 77.6% Azerbaijani (a turkish language).6% Russian min.6.% Armenian Major cities: The capital, Baku, (.7 million inhabitants in 987), Kirovabad, and the industrial center of Sumgait. The level of education is well below average (i.e., a very low percentage of the workforce has secondary school education or vocational training), despite a high number of college and university graduates. Agriculture Azerbaijan's agriculture is menaced by droughts. The republic has specialized in cotton, grain (winter wheat, rice), and tea cultivation, as well as in viniculture and citrus fruits. Sheep and cattle are the most important livestocks.the fishing industry is quite significant because of the large sturgeon breeding grounds in the Caspian Sea. (The caviar production, however, is threatened by environmental pollution.)

32 AZERBAIJAN NAGORNO- KARABAKH? AKHICHEVW «ii^. : ;': jnakhichevirj Minerals Azerbaijan has oil fields (including offshore) and abundant deposits of iron ore, pyrite, barite, cobalt, bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, mineral salts, limestone, and precious metals. Industry The Azerbaijani economy is still largely based on the production of mineral oil and natural gas; high-quality crude oil is extracted on the coastal strip along the Caspian Sea, especially in the area around Baku (where there are also important refineries) and offshore. From Baku a twin pipeline leads to Georgia (Batumi on the Black Sea). Oil output is, however, down from its all-time peak and accounts for only 2.4 per cent (987) of total Soviet output. The chemical industry is mainly based on petrochemical products (rubber goods, plastics and synthetic fibers). Other industries are iron and steel manufacturing, the production of non-ferrous metals, mechanical engineering (a major part of Soviet drilling equipment is manufactured in Azerbaijan), building materials, garments (footwear, textiles such as knitwear and silk articles), and foodstuffs (canned fruit and fish).

33 0. Georgia - Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic In 98, the Georgian Social Democratic Republic declared its independence.lt was subsequently recognized by the Soviet Union. During the uprisings of 92, it was occupied by Soviet troops. On February 2,92, the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed, and a few weeks later, on March 2, it became part of the USSR. In December 922, Georgia, together with Azerbaijan and Armenia, formed thetranscaucasian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic. In 936, the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the constituent republics of the USSR. In April 989, there were demonstrations throughout Georgia which were bloodily suppressed (20 dead). General Overview Size: 69,700 sq. km (0.3 per cent of the total area of the USSR). Climate: generally mild, Mediterranean on the Black Sea coast. Well-developed transport system (notably in the coastal region). Population 5,449,000 inhabitants (989),.9 per cent of total Soviet population, above-average population growth rate of.7 per cent per annum. Relatively heterogeneous population (979 census) 68.8% Georgians 9.0% Armenians 7.4% Russians 5.% Azerbaijanis 9.7% other minorities (Ossetians, Abhazians, Greeks, Ukrainians, Kurds) Language groups (979) 68.5% Georgian 0.5% Russian min. 7.4% Armenian min..6% Abhazian Georgia is densely populated.the most important cities are its capital Tbilisi (.2 m. inhabitants in 987), Kutaisi, Batumi and Sukhumi. The level of education is well below average, although there is a great number of college and university graduates. There have also been efforts to win independence in the two autonomous republics located in Georgia -the Abhazian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic,which has an Abhazian population of only 7 per cent, and the Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Agriculture The warm, moist climate favors the cultivation of sub-tropical plants in the coastal regions. The most important crops are fruits (grapes, citrus fruits - most important area of cultivation in the USSR), vegatables, spices and tea (Georgia is the USSR's biggest producer of tea and bayleaves).

34 zugdidi Achalciche _ Railway 0 Km 00 Livestock breeding is focused on cattle in the western part and on sheep and goats in the eastern part of Gerogia. In addition, there is a silkworm industry. Minerals Georgia possesses major deposits of coal, manganese, (near Chiatura some 30 per cent of Soviet manganese ores are mined), other non-ferrous metals like lead, zinc, and tungsten, mercury, barite (purest deposits in the USSR), iron ore, semi-precious stones, marble and some petroleum. Industry The production of food and beverages (wineries, breweries, tea plants, canneries) is the principle industry of Georgia. In addition to mining (coal, non-ferrous metals, steel stabilizers, gold, barite) a well-developed metallurgical industry (nearly Tbilisi, ironworks at Rustavi, works for iron alloys at Sestafoni), shipbuilding industry (in Batumi), automobile industry (trucks and tractors) and airplanes. The oil-processing industry (near Batumi, pipeline from Azerbaijan), building material industry, light industry (e.g. color TV sets) and garment industry (footwear, knitwear, other textiles) are also important sectors of the economy. Tourism is another major industry.there are many spas on the Black Sea coast (sulphur and other medicinal springs).

35 . Kazakhstan - Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic Originally founded as an Autonomous Republic within the RSFSR on August 26, 920, Kazakhstan was made a constituent republic of the USSR on December 5, 936. At the same time, it was enlarged to include neighboring areas inhabited by a majority of Kazakhs. Since the 950's, increasing efforts have been made to develop the republic. General Overview Size: With 2,77,300 sq. km (2 per cent of the total area of the USSR), Kazakhstan is the second largest republic in the Union. Climate: Extremely continental (generally dry). More than half the territory is covered by deserts and semideserts, one third is steppes, used as pasture. The republic's transport system is poorly developed. Population 6,227,000 inhabitants (987), 5.8 per cent of total Soviet population, population growth rate per cent per annum, slightly below average. Extremely heterogeneous population (979 census) 36.0% Kazakhs (a Turkish people with a high proportion of Muslims) 40.8% Russians 6.% Ukrainians 7. % another 00 nationalities including at least 3.9% Germans Language groups (979) 35.7% Kazakh 49.8% Russian min. 3.9% German min. 2.5% Ukrainian Besides Alma-Ata, the capital, with. million inhabitants (987), the largest cities are Karaganda, Chimkent, Petropavlovsk and Semipalatinsk. Compared with the union, the level of education is well below average (low number of college and university graduates, low proportion of workforce with vocational training or secondary education). Agriculture 20 % of the USSR's arable land are in Kazakhstan. Since the 950's, Kazakhstan has been systematically developed into an important grain producer (grain growing is, however, highly vulnerable to climate changes in this semi-arid region). Grain, sugar beet, tobacco, mustard, and fruits are the chief crops. Wool, cotton, and natural rubber are the most important renewable primary products.

36 I U.S. Astrachan', Sevcenko Caspian KAZAKHSTAN N Gurjev ihiil IC^P,,-,-,,,.,...,.,...^^ Petropavlovsk ^fcmi Ipf^-K^tanaj ^^^ _r_+* 9 Pavlodar tif^ny, Kok6otav ^.*, ^** - %V:s \.f-a,t cyr cidastuzv» _ Semipalatmsk,' [AktjGbinsk ArKHyK Temirtau^ Karaganda ) Kamenogoj KAZAKHSTAN Bajkonyrl?^a p&, Aral'sk K., \ Balchas Dzezkazgan -_^ ^ ^ La/:e fcalkhasl Vfei Taldy-KiirgaT ""-^^ ALMA-ATA/ -^ "^stan D, ambu J^f^S^^?k ^ <ent Railway 0 km 500 Part of the farmland is irrigated, but water drainage from the rivers, especially the Syr Darya, has dangerously lowered the water levels of Lake Aral and Lake Balkhash. Kazakhstan is the most important meat supplier of the Asian part of the USSR and yields over one fifth of Soviet wool production.the fishing industry is another sector of the economy. Its main production is sturgeons for caviar. Minerals Kazakhstan has abundant deposits of minerals: Coal and wolfram in Central Kazakhstan; petroleum and natural gas in the Emba area and on the Caspian Sea, iron ore, nickel, chromium, vanadium, titanium, molybdenum, thallium, bismuth, copper, lead and zinc (about half of the USSR's known reserves are found in Kazakhstan), gold, silver and sizable manganese deposits in eastern and northern Kazakhstan; coal, bauxite, and petroleum in southern Kazakhstan; there are also phosphorus, asbestos and rare earth mineral deposits. Industry Kazakhstan has a well-developed primary industry which processes important minerals: Iron, steel and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry (petrochemical industry, production of jetfuel and of fertilizers), heavy engineering, farm machinery (tractors). Besides these, Kazakhstan has industries based on its agricultural produce (canned meat and fish, wineries, manufacture of footwear, textiles). Kazakhstan is also an important exporter of electrical energy.

37 2 Kirghizia - Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic After the Russian Revolution, Kirghizia became part of Soviet Turkestan, which in April 92 became an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the RSFSR. Following a territorial reorganization of the Central Asian republics, Kirghizia was proclaimed one of the constituent republics of the USSR on December 5,936. General Overview Size: 98,500 sq. km (0.9 per cent of the total area of the USSR). Kirghizia is a mountainous region; three quarters of the national territory lie,500 meters (about 5,000 feet) above sea level, and almost half is 3,000 meters above sea level. Climate: Continental and dry. Kirghizia has a poor transport system, and is frequently exposed to earthquakes. Population 4,29,000 inhabitants (989),.5 percent of total Soviet population with an above-average population growth rate of.8 per cent per annum. Religion: Predominantly Muslim.The population is concentrated in the mountain valleys, on the periphery of the Fergana Basin, and on the southern shore of lake Issyk-Kul. The capital is Frunze, with 630,000 inhabitants (987). Other large towns are Osh (23,000 inhabitants), Przhevalsk, Kyzyl-Kiya andtokmak. Very heterogeneous population (979 census) 47.9% Kirghiz (descended from Turkish and Mongolian tribes, predominantly Sunni Muslims 25.9% Russians.9% Uzbeks 4. % others (Ukrainians,Tatars, Germans, Uighurs, Kazakhs,Tadzhiks) Language groups (979): 48% Kirghiz (a Turkish language) 30% Russian min..9% Uzbek Official languages: Russian and Kirghiz The level of education is less than average. Agriculture Only 7 per cent of the country's area is arable land, of which 72 percent is irrigated.the main crops are potatoes, vegetables, sugar beet, poppy, tobacco, fruits, grain (ensuring self-sufficiency), and medicinal plants. Cotton, silk, hemp, and fodder plants (especially lucerne for livestock breeding) are the most important renewable primary products.

38 3 Tadzhikistan - Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic When the Central Asian regions of the USSR were reorganized, the Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on October 4, 924. It comprised the regions of Bukhara and Turkestan were the population consisted mainly of Tadzhiks, and was made part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic. It was elevated to the status of a constituent republic of the Soviet Union on December 5,929. General Overview Size 43,00 sq km (0.6 percent of the total area of the USSR); a very rugged, alpine region which is difficult to access (with the highest point in the USSR: Mt Communism (24,500 feet). Climate: varies from region to region (dry continental in the western alpine region, sub-tropical in the valleys, moderately warm in the regions of medium height, very rough climate in the eastern Pamir Mountains with high precipitations). Given the country's rough geography,tadzhikistan's transport system is poor. Population 5,2,000 inhabitants (989),.8 per cent of total Soviet population, population growth rate far above average: 3. per cent per annum (the population doubles every 22 years). The majority of the people live in the low altitude parts of Tadzhikistan, that is, in the south-west and the north.they live mostly in rural areas. Major cities: Dushanbe, the capital, with 582,000 inhabitants (987), Leninanbad, Kurgan Tyube and Kulyab. Highly heterogeneous population (979 census) 58.5% Tadzhiks (Sunni Muslims who speak a Persian dialect) 22.9% Uzbeks 0.4% Russians 8.2% other minorities (e.g.tatars, Kirghiz, Ukrainians, and Turkomens) Language groups (979) 58.8% 2.7% min.22.5% Official languages: Language of commerce: Tadzhikan (Iranian dialect differing only slightly from Persian) Russian Uzbek Tadzhik and Russian Russian Tadzhikistan includes the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, which is mainly inhabited by Ismaili Muslims. All in all, the level of education is well below average with an above-average share of college and university graduates in the workforce.

39 UZBEKISTAN UUanbad s ipendzikent. Communism DUSHANBE Tursunzade ~.O rdzon,k,dzeabad x /^/, ( > Kurgan-Tyube Agriculture Since only 6 % of Tadzhikistan is arable land (of which 74 per cent is irrigated), annual grazing (Karakul sheep, cattle and yaks) predominates. Grain (rice, wheat, barley, millet are even found in alpine areas as a result of special growing techniques), fruits and viniculture, sesame, sugar cane, and vegetables are the main crops. Tadzhikistan depends on the import of foodstuffs from other union republics. Cotton, jute, base products for the perfume industry and silk are Tadzhikistan's most important renewable primary products. Minerals In Tadzhikistan non-ferrous metals (lead, zinc, bismuth, tungsten), lignite, arsenic, asbestos and sulphur are mined. In the north, on the periphery of the Fergana Basin, petroleum is extracted. Deposits of uranium and radium, semi-precious stones (lapis lazuli, mountain crystals, and also corundum of industrial quality, used as abrasives) are found as well. Industry In addition to the foodstuffs industry (wineries, canned fruit) and light industry, which is still in its infancy, the textile industry (wool, cotton, and silk processing, big carpet weaving mills) are important. Electricity is primarily generated by hydroelectric power stations (energy export to other republics); electrochemical plants and aluminium precessing.

40 4 Turkmenistan - Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic The Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on October 27, 924. It comprises the former territories of the Trans-Caspian Region of Turkestan, the "Charjiui vilayet" of Bukhara, and a part of Khiva situated on the right bank of the Oxus. In May 925, the Turkmen Republic became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. General Overview Size: 488,00 sq. km (2.2 percent of the total area of the USSR); nine tenths of Turkmenistan consist of sandy deserts, which are essentially part of the Kara Kum desert. Climate: Extreme continental climate characterized by droughts and very high temperature fluctuations. Turkmenistan, which has a poor transport system, is frequently hit by earthquakes in its southern part. Population 3,534,000 inhabitants (989),.3 per cent of total Soviet population, population growth rate is well above average: 2.7 per cent per annum. Heterogeneous population in a sparsely populated country (979 census) 68.4% Turkomens (a Muslim Turkish people) 2.6% Russians 8.5% Uzbeks 0.5% other minorities (notably Kazakhs and Tatars) Language groups (979) 68.2% Turkoman (various dialects of Turk languages) 5.3% Russian min.8.% Uzbek min. 2.8% Kazakh The capital is Ashkhabad, 398,000 inhabitants (989). Other large towns are Chardzhou, Nebit- Dag, Mary and Krasnovodsk. The level of education is average. Agriculture Only two percent of the total area of Turkmenistan is arable land, of which 98 percent are irrigated, primarily by the big Kara Kum Canal. Cotton is the principal crop. Turkmenistan is the USSR's second largest cotton producer after Uzbekistan. Other important crops are: fruits (especially melons, grapes, and tropical plants such as figs, dates, pomegranates), grain (particularly maize), and vegetables.

41 Krasnovodsk JURKMENISTA Nebit-Dag Kazandzik Kizyl-Arvat ASHKHABAD Kerki i Kara Kum Canal Railway Km 300 There are large tracts of land used for grazing Karakul sheep and goats. The silkworm industry is another prospering sector. Minerals In addition to significant natural gas and relatively small mineral oil reserve, there are also major deposits of salt, sulphur, nitrogen, and magnesium, as well as earth wax and some coal. Industry Oil and gas production, notably in the west of the country, takes fourth place in the USSR. On its basis an oil and gas processing chemical industry has developed. There are salt production along the Caspian Sea and there is also a sulphur mining industry. Turkmenistan's textile industry manufactures clothing and carpets from cotton and wool. In the foodstuffs industry, the production of canned fruit figures prominently. Finally, mention should also be made of the building materials and glass industries.

42 5. Uzbekistan - Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on October 27,924, from territory which formerly belonged to Turkestan and the Soviet People's Republik of Bukhara and Khorezm (semi-independent Khanates of Khira and Bukhara until 920). In 936, the Kara-Kalpak ASSR was incorporated. General Overview Size: sq. km (2.0 percent of the total area of the USSR); nearly four fifths of the Uzbek territory are deserts. Climate: Typical continental climate with hot, dry summers and cold winters. Uzbekistan ist highly vulnerable to earthquakes. Population 9,906,000 inhabitants (989), 6.9 per cent ot total Soviet population, population growth rate far above average: 2.3 per cent per annum. Heterogeneous population (979) 68.7% Uzbeks (mainly Sunni Muslims) 0.8% Russians 4.2% Tatars 4.0% Kazakhs 2.3% other minorities (Tadzhiks, Kara-Kalpaks living in their own Autonomous Republic southwest of Aral Sea; Koreans, Kirghiz, Ukrainians,Turkomens, and others) Language groups (979) 68.7% Uzbek (Turkish language related to the Osmanli and Azerbaijani languages) 3.4% Russian min.3.8% Kazakh min.3.6% Tadzhik min. 3.4% Tatar Major cities are Tashkent, the capital, with 2. million inhabitants (989), Samarkand, Andizhan and Namangan. The level of education is below average. Although the number of college and university graduates is high,the proportion of the laborforce with vocational training and secondary school education is low. Agriculture Only 9 per cent of the Uzbek territory is arable land. Cotton is by far the most important crop. While it is the largest self-contained cotton-growing area in the USSR, monoculture, marked by decreasing yields resulting from soil depletion, presents a serious problem. Other chief crops are fruit (especially melons, grapes and tropical plants) and grain (wheat, rice, maize).

43 r~~~n K A Z W ^A. ^^"*"V/V A I J TURKMENISTAN^* Most important livestocks: Sheep (Karakul sheep) and cattle. The silkworm industry is also well developed. Uzbekistan, and especially the Kara-Kalpak ASSR, have important fur farms (mosquash, silver and arctic foxes and mink). Uzbekistan cannot feed its population, and must import foodstuffs from other union republics. Minerals Uzbekistan boasts important gas deposits (especially around Bukhara, Gazli, Kagan.and in the Fergana Basin) and minor oil fields (Fergana Basin, around Bukhara). In addition, coal, lignite (around Angren), non-ferrous metals and gold can be found. Industry Natural gas production and the chemical industry (notably fertilizer production, fourth place in the USSR) are key sectors of Uzbekistan's industry. Other important sectors are heavy engineering (iron and non-ferrous metal works) and the mining industry (coal, copper, gold, etc.). There is also a machine building industry focused on farm machinery which is useful in the cultivation and processing of cotton. The production of building materials, the garment industry (especially cotton, but also silk and the processing of Karakul sheep wool), as well as the foodstuffs industry (wineries, canned fruit, vegetable oils and fats) should also be mentioned. Natural gas and coal are the primary energy sources.

44 Appendix : Formal structure of the Soviet Union The USSR is composed of 5 Republics.These are:. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic The Russian Federation is the largest and most important constituent republic and comprises 6 Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSR), 5 Autonomous Regions and 0 National Areas.. Bashkir ASSR.2 Buryat ASSR.3 Checheno-lngush ASSR.4 Chuvash ASSR.5 Dagestan ASSR.6 Kabardino-Balkar ASSR.7 Kalmyk ASSR.8 Karelian ASSR.9 Komi ASSR.0 Mari ASSR. Mordovian ASSR.2 North Ossetian ASSR.3 Tatar ASSR.4 Tuva ASSR.5 Udmurt ASSR.6 Yakut ASSR The Autonomous Regions are: ) Adygei Autonomous Region 2) Gorno Altai Autonomous Region 3) Jewish Autonomous Region 4) Karachayevo Cherkess Autonomous Region 5) Khakass Autonomous Region The names of the National Regions are: Aginsky-Buryat, Chukot, Evenki, Khanty-Mansi, Komi-Permyak, Koryak, Nenetz, Taimyr, Ust-Ordynsky-Buryat and Yamalo-Nenetz. The Baltic Republics: 2. Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic 3. Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic 4. Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, or Republic of Lithuania respectively

45 The Western Republics: 5. Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic 6. Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 7. Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic, or Republic of Moldova respectively The Trans-Caucasian Republics: 8. Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, or the Republic of Armenia 9. Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, including the Nakhichevan ASSR and the Autonomous Region of Nagorno-Karabakh 0. Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, including the Abhazian ASSR, the Adjarian ASSR, and the South Ossetian Autonomous Region The Asian Republics:. Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic 2. Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic 3. Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic, including the Gorno-Badakhshanian Autonomous Region 4..Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic 5. Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, including the Kara-Kalpak ASSR

46 Mordovian ASSR Kalmyk ASSR Kabardmo-Balkar ASSR North Ossetian ASSR Checheno-lngush ASSR Dagestan ASSR Nakhichevan ASSR Abhazian ASSR Adianan ASSR Kara-Kalpak ASSR The Soviet Union and its Capital of the USSR Capital of the SSR Capital of the ASSR Other cities l.qookm The 5 Soviet Socialist Republics. Estonian SSR 2. Latvian SSR 3. Lithuanian SSR 4. BelorussianSSR 5. UkrainianSSR 6. Moldavian SSR 7. GeorgianSSR 8. ArmenianSSR 9. Azerbaijan SSR 0. Turkmen SSR. Uzbek SSR 2. KazakhSSR 3. KirghizSSR 4. TadzhikSSR 5. RussianSoviet Federative Socialist Republic(RSFSR) Karelian ASSR Komi ASSR 3 Yakut ASSR 4 Buryat ASSR 5 Tuva ASSR 6 Bashkir ASSR Udmurt ASSR 8 Tatar ASSR 9 Man ASSR 0 Chuvash ASSR