Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2012, 3(4)

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2 Copyright THE TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF QUALITATIVE INQUIRY All rights reserved. No part of TOJQI's articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrival system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published in TURKEY Contact Address: Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdullah KUZU TOJQI, Editor in Chief Eskişehir-Turkey

3 ISSN Editor-in-Chief Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Associate Editors Cindy G. Jardine University of Alberta, Canada Işıl Kabakçı Anadolu University, Turkey Franz Breuer Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Jean McNiff York St John University, United Kingdom Ken Zeichner University of Washington, USA Lynne Schrum George Mason University, USA Wolff-Michael Roth University of Victoria, Canada Yavuz Akbulut Anadolu University, Turkey

4 Advisory Board Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Cemalettin İpek, Rize University, Turkey Cesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey Fahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNC Fawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USA Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey Gülsün Eby, Anadolu University, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA Jacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, Nigeria Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA Lynne Schrum, George Mason University, USA Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United Kingdom Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA

5 Serap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Suzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Zehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC Review Board Abdullah Adıgüzel, Harran University, Turkey Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Adeviye Tuba Tuncer, Gazi University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Naci Çoklar, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey Aytaç Kurtuluş, Osmangazi University, Turkey Bahadır Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Belgin Aydın, Anadolu University, Turkey Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Cemalettin İpek, Rize University, Turkey Cesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA Dilek Tanışlı, Anadolu University, Turkey Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey Emine Sema Batu, Anadolu University, Turkey Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey Esra Şişman, Osmangazi University, Turkey Fahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNC

6 Fawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USA Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Figen Ünal, Anadolu University, Turkey Figen Uysal, Bilecik University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey Gülsün Eby, Anadolu University, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey Handan Deveci, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA Jacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, Nigeria Jale Balaban, Anadolu University, Turkey Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA Kerem Kılıçer, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey Lynne Schrum, George Mason University, USA Mehmet Can Şahin, Çukurova University, Turkey Meltem Huri Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Mehmet Fırat, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Ören Çevikalp, Anadolu University, Turkey Mine Dikdere, Anadolu University, Turkey Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey Mustafa Nuri Ural, Mevlana University, Turkey Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey Müyesser Ceylan, Anadolu University, Turkey Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United Kingdom Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey Nilgün Özdamar Keskin, Anadolu University, Turkey Nilüfer Köse, Anadolu University, Turkey Osman Dülger, Bingöl University, Turkey Ömer Uysal, Anadolu University, Turkey Özcan Özgür Dursun, Anadolu University, Turkey Pelin Yalçınoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA Sema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey Semahat Işıl Açıkalın, Anadolu University, Turkey Serap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan İzmirli, Anadolu University, Turkey Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey

7 Servet Çelik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey Sezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, Turkey Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Suzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Şemseddin Gündüz, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Tuba Yüzügüllü Ada, Anadolu University, Turkey Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Yusuf Levent Şahin, Anadolu University, Turkey Zehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC Zülal Balpınar, Anadolu University, Turkey Language Reviewers Mehmet Duranlıoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey Administrative & Technical Staff Elif Buğra Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan Çankaya, Anadolu University, Turkey The Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) (ISSN ) is published quarterly (January, April, July and October) a year at the For all enquiries regarding the TOJQI, please contact Assoc.Prof. Abdullah KUZU, Editor-In-Chief, TOJQI, Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Yunus Emre Campus, 26470, Eskisehir, TURKEY, Phone #: /3519, Fax # : , [email protected]; [email protected].

8 Table of Contents Modeling Cognitive Strategies with Complex Task Performing Process Sacide Güzin Mazman Arif Altun 1 A Case Study on Use of One-to-One Laptops in English as Second Language Classrooms Güliz Turgut 28 ICT Student Teachers Judgments and Justifications about Ethical Issues Turgay Alakurt Salih Bardakçı Hafize Keser 48 Reflections of Prospective Teachers Regarding Case-Based Learning Serkan Çelik Yasemin Demirarslan Çevik Tülin Haşlaman 64 Investigating Education and Support Needs of Families Who Have Children with Intellectual Disabilities Atilla Cavkaytar Esra Ceyhan Oktay Cem Adıgüzel Hakan Uysal Ömer Garan 79

9 Modeling Cognitive Strategies during Complex Task Performing Process Sacide Güzin Mazman Hacettepe University, Turkey Arif Altun Hacettepe University, Turkey Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine individuals computer based complex task performing processes and strategies in order to determine the reasons of failure by cognitive task analysis method and cued retrospective think aloud with eye movement data. Study group was five senior students from Computer Education and Instructional Technologies Department at a state university. A computer based complex task including a logical reasoning process was developed and utilized. Data was collected with cued retrospective think aloud containing a gaze video replay and eye tracking. All the retrospective protocols were transcribed for analysis then a coding schema was developed iteratively from segments. By drawing area of interest fields(aoi) of task panel, eye movement data in specific processes and fields were analyzed by using fixation duration and fixation count metrics. None of the participants completed the task successfully within the given amount of time (max-10 min.). The findings yielded seven cognitive strategies ( information gathering-reviewing, identification well-defined instructions, cue-seeking, using cues, assumption, trial and error and crosschecking ) and their actions obtained from the task performing process. Furthermore, this process is modeled by defining sequences and the relations between the actions and cognitive strategies. It has been revealed that trial and error is the most employed strategy and participants used trial and error without reasoning. Moreover, it has been revealed out that participants mostly failed in choosing and using the right strategy. Keywords: cognitive task analysis, retrospective think aloud, eye movements, complex task Introduction When approaching a complex cognitive task during problem solving process, individuals are reported to determine and apply various cognitive strategies on the way of reaching a solution. Determining successful and unsuccessful strategies is crucial when making instructional decisions. Moreover, it is equally important to describe what makes task a complex task. In his well cited study, Campbell (1988), reviewed the related research on task complexity and concluded that task complexity changes across personal characteristics (experience, familiarity, interests, working memory, span of attention and substantial cognitive demand) and task characteristics (multiple ways to arrive at desired endstate, multiple desired outcomes to be attained, conflicting interdependence among paths to multiple 1

10 outcomes and the presence of uncertainty). Web based environments or online learning environments can be considered as rather complex environments since they consist of various related or independent visual, audio or textual components. When individuals participate to these environments for various purposes and tasks i.e. learning, information seeking, reading or writing, there have been different intrinsic and extrinsic factor that effect to this process. In research related to performing complex tasks in learning environments, researchers generally focus on describing a successful process of task, modeling the process of successful individuals (i.e. experts) (Ertmer et.al., 2008a) and determining the differences between experts and novices (Ertmer et.al., 2008b; Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis & Vermetten, 2005). However it is critical to determine factors that cause failure by examining thoroughly the reasons of why individuals become unsuccessful, at which stage and how frequent failure emerges and which processes cause them to fail. These findings would help to modify learning environments with regard to elimination of problems and training of individuals with strategies related to solutions of these problems. Thus, in this study, it was aimed to examine individuals computer based complex task performing process and strategies in order to determine the reasons of failure by the cognitive task analysis method and cued retrospective think aloud containing eye movement data. In this section, first, what makes a task complex in learning environments will be outlined. Secondly, cued retrospective think aloud methodology through eyemovement replay will be explained. Complex Tasks in Learning Environments Complex tasks are cognitively demanding tasks in which individuals have to organize a large number of different types of cognitive processing, often not possible to make an automated or standardized response to a situation, which requires some predicting and comparing to choose a sequence of activity since there are usually several simultaneous goals to be met (Bainbridge, 1997). Marmaras and Pavard (1999) stated that complex task could be complex both at the cognitive level and at the level of the environment and these tasks require different types of problem solving such as decision making, diagnosis and planning, and complex cognitive activities such as anticipation, monitoring and mental calculations. Complex task environments have some common characteristics which are generally specified as (Marmaras & Pavard, 1999; Funke, 1991); They consisted of interrelated and interacting dynamic components and factors. Complexity of the task as defined by the number of variables can be depending on also the degree of the connectivity among the variables and the type of functional relationship. Semantic content of the task is rich. This richness of semantic content often reduces the uncertainty. Events can occur at undetermined times and the nature of the problem to be solved can change There is uncertainty regarding the time at which one or more events occur, and the severity of changes they cause to the work system. Not every action shows immediate consequences, effects often can occur with time delay. There are multiple quantitative and qualitative objectives to be achieved, often conflicting, and with no predetermined hierarchy. Precision of goal definition, whether the goal is defined, whether there are multiple goals or are they contradictory. There is a time limit in complex tasks which require immediate decisions. Making a mistake could cause the successive mistakes. 2

11 Cognitive load has been argued as main characteristics of complex task performance (Sweller & Chandler, 1994) and it has been stated that the individuals can compensate for an increase in cognitive load (e.g., increasing task complexity) by investing more mental effort to maintain their performance at a constant level (Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). Van Merrienboer, Kester and Paas (2006) suggested that in well-designed instructional environments extraneous load should be decreased and germane load should be optimized within the limits of total available capacity in order to prevent cognitive overload. Four key components of learning environments for complex tasks are claimed as (Merrienboer, 1997; van Merrienboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003; van Merrienboer, Kester, & Paas, 2006); Learning tasks should based on real-life tasks and fulfill the role of a backbone for the training program. There is supportive information available to learners to help them to perform the problemsolving and reasoning aspects of learning tasks. Procedural information is presented to learners to perform the routine aspects of learning tasks. Part-task practice are included to provide learners with additional practice for routine aspects of the complex task that need to be developed to a very high level of automaticity. Using Cueing Retrospective Think Aloud Method in Cognitive Task Analysis through Eye- Movement Replay Retrospective think aloud is a method which is based on gathering information by think aloud not concurrently but after the performance is over. Concurrent think aloud is stated to have some limitation especially when the task involves high cognitive load (i.e. complex tasks) since verbalizing information while performing tasks might distract subjects attention and concentration and increase cognitive load. (Russo, Johnson and Stephens, 1989; Branch, 2000). Retrospective think aloud method is suggested to overcome these negative effects of concurrent verbal protocols (Guan, Lee, Cuddihy, & Ramey, 2006). Even so, since retrospective think aloud is also have been criticized for forgetting information and fabrication of process (van Someren, Barnard, & Sandberg, 1994; van Gog, Paas, van Merrienboer, & Witte, 2005), presenting visual cues belonging the task process stated to stimulate verbal reports of individuals (van Gog, 2006; Guan, Lee, Cuddihy, & Ramey, 2006). The general technique to stimulate retrospective think aloud is to present users a playback video of task session which facilitate the retrieval information from memory and provide veridicality which is an important issue for research related to memory processes and problem solving strategies (Hyrskykari et.al. 2008). Since eye movement provides an objective measurement of cognitive processes (Rayner, 1998), they might additionally facilitate reporting thoughts and eliciting comments from users when they are used as cue (Russo, 1979). It is suggested that containing information about information processed and area focused during the task, eyes provide a window into mental life and eye movement have the characteristics to continuously track both in space and time the evolution of mental events (Nakatani & Pollatsek, 2004; De'Sperati, 2003). However, since solely eye movement data is limited to show the experimenter where the participant looked but not reveal out the answer of the why questions with user s intention, it is important to support eye movement data with verbal reports (Seagull and Xiago, 2001; Eger, Ball, & Dodd, 2007; Hyönä, 2010). 3

12 Both of the verbal protocols and the eye movements reveal valuable information about cognitive processes. Therefore using them together provides both subjective and objective data to the researcher and allows the researcher(s) triangulate data to enhance validity of the findings. Already there have been usability and cognitive task analysis studies that applied these two methods together (Guan, Lee, Cuddihy and Ramey, 2006; Tobii 2009; (Jarodzka, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Van Gog, 2010; De Koning et al., 2010). Since cognitive task analysis is a process to determine cognitive activities required accomplishing a given task and yield information about the knowledge, thought processes, and goal structures (Chipman, Schraagen, & Shalin, 2000), choosing appropriate knowledge elicitation techniques to obtain the underlying cognitive processes and structures is important (Seagull & Xiago, 2001). Cooke (1999) suggested three main categories of cognitive task analysis techniques as; (a) observation and interviews, (b) process tracing, and (c) conceptual techniques. In process tracing techniques, to increase the information yield for practical applications, protocols may be supplemented with retrospective review of videotapes with probe questions and eye movement data to provide an effective memory cue facilitating recall (Chipmann, Schraagen, & Shalin, 2000; Seagull & Xiago, 2001). Guan, Lee, Cuddihy and Ramey, (2006) compared subjects verbalizations with their eye movements and found that stimulated with gaze data RTA is valid and reliable method that provides a valid account of what people attended to in completing tasks, has a low risk of introducing fabrications, and its validity is unaffected by task complexity. Consequently, supporting and validating users subjective verbal data which has limitations and deficiencies, with objective eye movement data can be regarded essential to provide rich and valid data (Hyönä, 2010). From this point of view, this study aimed to investigate cognitive processes of individuals during a complex task performing process, executing a cognitive task analysis with stimulated retrospective think aloud containing a gaze video replay and eye tracking techniques to overcome user s loss of concentration and distracting cognitive resources problems. Method This study employed the cognitive task analysis to examine individuals complex task performing process in a computer based task. Data is collected with cued retrospective think aloud containing a gaze video replay and eye tracking techniques. Participants In this study, purposive sampling procedure was applied as a qualitative sampling method. In purposive sampling, subjects are selected because of some their characteristics to define a distinctive subgroup from a small sample. This selection method which focuses on a particular unit or subgroup that is considered homogeneous, doesn t aim to generalization but providing information rich cases for in depth study (Patton, 1990; Marshall, 1996). Since only a single difficulty level complex task was used in this study, study group was selected from same department and the same degree class to fix complexity and difficulty of the task with respect to age, class, department, prior courses variables etc.. The complex task was consisted of problem which is similar to Academic Personnel and Graduate Education Entrance Examination questions. Due to the purpose of this study was to examine reasons of failure, especially novice participants, in other words students who have not experienced this exam and also have not started to study for this exam 4

13 yet, are considered. From this point senior students who have not entered but also proximate to enter this exam completing their undergraduate education and will practice their theoretic information in real life problems were chosen for this study. Accordingly, eight seniors from Computer Education and Instructional Technologies Department were selected randomly and interviewed to inform about the study. They were also asked if they started to study for Academic Personnel and Graduate Education Entrance Examination by solving any pilot exam tests. Six of the seniors were accepted to be volunteers to participate in this study and declaring that they have not started to prepare to the exam yet. One of the participants was excluded from study because of the problematic data. Consequently, study group is consisted of five senior students from Computer Education and Instructional Technologies Department who were considered as novices. Instruments and Materials Complex Task: A computer based complex task which is based on logical reasoning was used. The task consisted of a set of cues, an empty 5X5 matrix field and information items. A screen view of task is presented in figure 1: Cue Field Information items field Placement matrix Figure 1. Screenshot of the Computer Based Complex Task 5

14 Problem solution field is comprised of 5X5 matrix. Using the cues and deducing the logical conclusions individuals are required the match five different nationalities with five different color houses, five different animals, five different car models and five different beverages. None of the car models, animals, beverages or house colors must not to match more than once. Participants are required to place the information items (right side) to the matrix field (on left side) by utilizing from the given 15 cues (upper part). While some of the cues were well defined, having explicit certain statements, some of them were ill structured not containing precise information to go on but only usable after utilizing from well defined cues to make inference by making their relations with other cues. Participants had the flexibility to re-change information items places or undo the actions. Totally 10 minutes were given everybody to solve the complex task. A pilot study was conducted with 3 graduate students, as experts. Since two of experts could solved the problem in given time, time is set to with ten minutes. Eye tracking: Tobii T120 eye tracker was used to record video of complex task performing process and eye movements. Eye tracker was integrated within the panels of the monitor and the tracking system had a 120 Hz sampling rate and an accuracy of 0.5. Participants were seated cm distance from eye tracking monitor and calibration was executed for each participants. Tobii Studio s RTA feature was used to playback to participants their task process video and to record audio of retrospective think aloud verbal reports. Data Collection Process Data were collected in individually sessions independently from others for each participant. A total experiment session was lasted in an average 40 minutes for each participant. Task implementation process consisted of three stages; 1) prior practicing and training individuals about original task (approx., 12min); 2) performing task (10min.) and 3) retrospective think aloud (approx min). Pre-training and practice session: Individuals solved a pre-experiment task which is a simpler reasoning problem similar to the original task, to practice and become familiar with the solving principles of the experimental task. This practice problem is consisted of matching items and information cues as in original task but on a 4X3 matrix field. This task was executed paper-pencil based. Correctness or falseness was not taken into account in the analysis or anywhere of the study. After the pre-experimental task a demo tutorial video was watched to the participants that contained instructions about to solution of experimental task. This training tutorial video was prepared by using Captivate program and consisted of audio visual instructions and small examples about problem. This video took approximately minutes and if the participants needed they are allowed to watch more than one times. Experimental complex task: After the pre-training session participants were seated to computer which has an integrated eye tracker and the task was opened on the computer. After the participants were calibrated they were cautioned to sit inactively so far as possible and informed about the task will be finished end of the 10 minutes. After the 10 minutes, researcher notified the participants time is up and terminated the program. 6

15 Retrospective think aloud session: After the task performance participants had a five minutes break. Then participants were instructed about directives of think aloud procedure. Researcher told that a recording of eye movements during their own task performing process will be shown and they are required to tell through what were you doing and thinking at the time. Participants were informed that red dots represent where they were looking and these dots become larger when/where they look longer. The playback control and the play speed control were given to the participants, so they had the flexibility of re-watching, stopping or forwarding. If the participants fell silent a long time, researcher intervened to think aloud. After the retrospective think aloud session participant were informed the experimental session has finished and were thanked for their participation. Data Analysis Data analysis process was conducted according to stages of Cresswell s (2007) data analysis spiral. At first all the retrospective verbal reports were transcribed into separate text files for each participant. Then all the transcription files were imported into QSR-Xsight qualitative data analysis program. Text data was disaggregated into segments by analyzing content data for similar patterns and grouping conceptually similar contents. After that a code scheme was developed by an iterative process by comparing all segments with others and with video records until a sufficient coding scheme developed çalışılmıştır (Glaser & Strauss, 1995). Coding scheme was developed to reveal out individual s task performing strategies and actions that are employed with those strategies. Although individuals verbal reports constituted the primary source to inference strategies and actions, but also researchers checked those verbal reports from video recording for verifying inferential and making up missing statements. At first, 20 strategies and 31 actions that are put into with those strategies were eliminated. After that, by continuing recursive analysis, some of the similar or overlap categories were gathered under same category and also some categories were excluded since found to be not reflecting the original action in the video record. As a result, after the iterative coding process seven strategies and nine actions that are employed with one of those strategies were determined. A flowchart of the algorithm of complex task process was developed that shows sequence of the actions and relations of with each other and complex task performance process was modeled with frequency of the strategies and the actions. Triangulation, member checking and peer review were employed for credibility and trustworthiness of the study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Triangulation of the method by conducting research with both of the qualitative and quantitative data provides a broader, deeper perspective, minimize the bias and enhance the validity, reveal the various dimensions of given phenomena (Perone & Tucker, 2003). Especially using the objective and subjective data together and supporting these data with each other will enhance reliability and validity of the research (Cresswell, 2007). In this study, data was collected by both retrospective think aloud and eye tracking for cognitive task analysis. Subjective verbal reports from retrospective think aloud was supported by objective eye movement data from eye tracking. Member checking is also another most crucial technique for establishing credibility which is based on verifying or testing the data, categories, coding scheme, interpretations or conclusion with participants 7

16 (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Within the scope of this study, the process model of the task performance that includes strategies and actions of participants were presented and described one of the participants and asked whether this process model reflects his own task performance process. He confirmed that this model reflects his general task solution process. For the inter rater reliability peer debriefing was used to legitimaze the interpretations and intercoder agreement coefficient was calculated. Miles and Hubberman s (1984) formula (agreements / (agreements +disagreements)) was used to calculate intercoder agreement coefficient and found to be %94,5. The mean interrater reliability was adequate with respect to the suggestion that 70 per cent intercoder reliability is considered satisfactory (Miles and Huberman, 1984). Findings The findings of this study will be presented in two sections. First, task completion performance will be analyzed and narrated. Secondly, cognitive strategies and actions during complex task performance will be presented. Task Completion Performance The task contained 25 information items to be placed in a correct order in a given period of time. None of the participants completed this task successfully in the given period of time. The first participant (P1) matched all of the 25 information items but only 2 of them were in their correct places while others were incorrect. However, when the participant checked his answer with cues he realized he made mistake. Due to the time limitation, he did not have time to go back to correct his choices. The second participant (P2) placed 14 of the information items on the matrix, among which 11 of them were on correct but 3 of them were on incorrect positions. The third participant (P3) placed 21 of the information items on the matrix, among which 5 of them were on correct position, yet 16 of them were on incorrect positions. The participant four (P4) placed 15 of the information items on the matrix, among which 9 of them were placed on their correct position, but 3 of them were not. Similarly, participant five (P5) could not complete the task in the given time period (ten minutes). P5 placed 12 of the 25 information items on the matrix, among which 6 of them were placed on their correct positions. Cognitive Strategies and Actions during Complex Task Performance The common cognitive strategies with the actions of these strategies were determined by cognitive task analysis during a complex task solution for five participants. Cognitive strategies are defined as procedures or mental routines that support individuals as they develop internal procedures which enable them to perform higher-level operations or accomplishing cognitive goals (Rosenshine, Meister and Chapman, 1996; Dole, Nokes and Drits, 2008). As well as determining cognitive strategies and action of participants, their eye movements also recorded to verify verbal reports and to facilitate participants think aloud. To clarify where the participants more and longer fixate on and for which strategy they use which part, four main area of interests (AOI) were driven on the problem field: cue field, placement matrix, information items and rules. The drawn AOIs of the problem field are presented in Figure 2: 8

17 Rules Cue Field Information items Placement matrix Figure 2. Area of Interests of Complex Task Field Seven cognitive strategies ( information gathering-reviewing, identification well-defined instructions, cue-seeking, using cues, assumption, trial and error and crosschecking ) were obtained from the task performing process. In addition eight actions were observed related to strategies. The frequency of these strategies and their related actions are presented in Table 1: Table 1. Frequency of the Strategies and their Related Actions Strategy Action Frequency of action Information gatheringreviewing Identification well-defined instructions Cue-seeking Using cues Frequency of strategy Identifying problem/task 8 8 Seeking for well defined cue statements. 13 Choosing/placing well defined cue statements. 7 Scanning 4 Relating 5 Relating 10 Placement =20 4+5= =26 Assumption Placement 9 9 Trial and error Placement Crosschecking Detecting mistakes 16 Confirmation =21 9

18 Complex task performing process is modeled by defining sequences and relations between the actions and cognitive strategies based on verbal report and observations of video records (Figure 3). Figure 3. Complex Task Performing Process 10

19 As seen in figure 3, three main processes were emerged in complex task performing. The first process was described as information gathering and problem comprehension process with the use of information gathering-reviewing strategy. Second process was the searching and selecting cue process, which is divided into two sub-processes: 1) starting a searching and selecting cue process with well defined instructions with the use of identification well-defined instructions strategy; 2) directly searching- relating selecting across all the cues process with the use of cue-seeking, using cues, assumption and trial error strategies. Individuals started with one of the sub processes, but sometimes switched between them. The third process was labeled as placing-crosschecking process with crosschecking strategy. Process 1: Information Gathering and Problem Comprehension Information gathering-reviewing strategy By this strategy, participants read the given rules or other task related things i.e cues, information items etc. to understand what they were required to do and to comprehend problem logic not taking much action. This cognitive process occurred generally at the first minutes after task started. This process is followed with identifying task/problem action. Example statements were presented below from this process that reflects how the participants verbalized he/she used this strategy and attempted to identify problem/task: P1: Here I mused on solution of the task looking the cues as German s car, English... At first, I did not already do too much thing because I tried to comprehend the logic of the problem. I focused on the rules P2: In the first place I read the givens and look over task components. Then I tried to understand what there were in the cues. And I looked over other givens, information boxes at the right... P4: Here I am checking the cues to see what they are standing for. I tried to memorize. Then I looked to the drag and drop information boxes. I realized... Identifying the task/problem action by the information gathering-reviewing strategy was articulated 8 times by three of the participants. P1 used this strategy four times, P2 used two times and P4 also used two times along the task solution process. As seen from above example statements participants generally take a look at to the givens to them, read the cues to comprehend and investigate the other given information items i.e. information boxes, matrix field, rules Only P1 re-reviewed the rules more than one times to remind himself directives of task. Derived from the information gathering-reviewing strategy process, fixation durations on area of interests of also support verbal report of participants (Table 2). 11

20 Table 2. Fixation Durations and Total Duration Times in Seconds per Participant for Information Gathering-Reviewing Strategy Cue field Placement matrix Rules Information items Duration (sec) P1 38,759 1,749 4,747 7, P2 6,639 2,179 0,383 4,89 18 P4 16,031 7,029 0,000 6,6 32 P1 P2 P4 Fixation Duration Cue Field Placement matrix Rules Information Items Figure 4. Fixation Duration in Each AOI in Information Gathering-Reviewing Strategy As seen in Table 2 P1, used information gathering-reviewing strategy for four times, had the longest time (53 sec) for this strategy. P2, who used this strategy for two times, spend 18 sec. and P4 who also used this strategy for two times spent 32 sec. Total fixation duration chart (Figure 4) already shows that P1 had the longest fixation duration following by P4 and P2 had the least fixation duration time for this strategy. Fixation duration per each AOI in figure 4 shows that the participant mostly fixated on the cue field. Also, individuals verbal reports were in the support of their eye movements since they stated that firstly they looked at the cues and information items and then read the cues in depth to understand clues. Succeeding the cue field participants second most fixated on information items. However they also reported that since they are attempting to identify task problem, they needed to check embedded information in cues from information item boxes part or taking a glance at those information items. But, since they tried to comprehend cues by reading but only taking a glance to scan at information items, fixation duration on the information items is pretty fewer than the cue field. Placement matrix area and rules area were found to be least fixated on. This can be due to only P1 read the rules but not two other participants and none of the participants not started to place any information. Apart from these three participants, other two participants did not report they started with this process; they started directly placing information on the matrix with second process. 12

21 Process 2: Searching and selecting cue After the information gathering and problem comprehension process participants started to second process which is the selection process to place information after reading cues. This process divided into two sub-processes: 1) starting the searching and selecting cue process with well defined instructions with the use of identification well-defined instructions strategy; 2) directly searchingrelating selecting across all the cues process with the use of cue-seeking, using cues, assumption and trial error strategies. In the second process, two of the participants started the cue searching and selecting process with well defined instructions while other three started directly searching- relating selecting across all the cues. Eye movement related to second process also verified the two different starting strategies. Heatmap belongs to process of four participants placing first three information item is presented below (Figure 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b) Figure 5a. Process Regard to Placing First Three Information Items Starting with Well Defined Items(P4) Figure 5b: Process Regard to Placing First Three Information Items Starting with Well Defined Items (P1) Figure 6a. Process Regard to Placing First Three Information Items Starting without Well Defined Items (P2) Figure 6b. Process Regard to Placing First Three Information Items Starting without Well Defined Items (P3) 13

22 Figure 5a and 5b show the process of two participants who started with well defined instructions and Figure 6a and 6b show the process of two participants who started directly with all the cues without discriminating the well defined or not. Three information items placed by first two participants (5a, 5b) are being well defined ones; however the first three information items placed by the other two participants (6a, 6b) are the not well defined and placed indefinitely. As seen in figure 5a and 5b, participants, who started with well defined instruction, focused and fixated mostly on cue field and read all the cue statements to select well defined items among others. They only scanned the information items area to drag selected information box not fixating longer here. One of the participants, P4, being started with well defined instructions reported his/her process as: The thing I have attended now is the item which I found a cue, it is the part that I thought it stands me in good stead. That choice. I looked for, how I can replace the value of that choice. Here it was the first cue (9. item) which I determined as could be useful for me, it was also an item which includes direct and clear a cue statement. I think, at this moment I am looking for the Norwegian to place it on the matrix. There, I put it to its place with drag and drop and I marked that cue to indicate that it is done. At that moment, I am looking for an another cue which is direct and exact to place as prior, there. I found an item and this was the item which I decided clearly through the Norvegian, I also put it to its place. On the other side, as seen in figure 6a, P2 read only first three cue statements to place first three information items without being sure accurateness of this placement. So, the initial cues were the most focused area for that person. Also P3, started without well defined instruction as seen in figure 6b, read firstly the 9 th cue (Norwegian lives in the first house) which was given in the example demo before the task and placed the information item given in that cue. After that he/she focused on information item boxes to find information related to that he placed (Norwegian-first house) and placed another two information randomly not being accurate (car, beverage.). As a result he/she focused mostly on the information items area but looked over the cues only for reading the 9 th cue. So the participants who did not started with well defined instructions focused different area not reading at first all the cues and comprehend them. One of the participants, P3, who did not start with well defined instruction, stated his/her process as: I have started to fill the matrix. I put the Norvegian at the first field. I put it at the first field utilizing from the Norvegian lives in the first house cue. After that I browse the car brands again in order to find who uses what, which car brand. I entered the all nations first, one by one. I did not act upon any rule, I put all of them being law unto myself. Then, I placed the German into the second column. I placed the Danish into the third column, Sweeden into fourth column and English to the fifth column. After that I looked over English lives in the red house cue. I looked Danish drinks tea section. Then, utilizing from the Sweeden feeds dog cue I placed the dog item under the Sweeden. Utilizing from Danish drinks tea cue, I placed the tea item under the Danish Lastly, although P5 also did not start with well defined instructions and placed randomly, he/she was not taken into account in that analysis. Because of unclear process of him, not doing anything at the first 2.5 minute, reading only cues, and did not think aloud in that process. 14

23 Process 2a: Searching and selecting cue with well defined instructions process Identification of well-defined instructions strategy In this process, participants either identified firstly well defined instructions to place these clearly precise items or searched for other well defined precise item from cues, after placing well defined, to sustain this process. So, the actions performed with this strategy were determined as seeking for well defined cue statements and choosing/placing well defined cue statements. Some of the examples verbal reports form participants were presented below P4: Now, I am looking for a condition between items which could guide me to act in no uncertain terms not by chance.. Reading through and through, I am seeking which one is useful for me P2: Henceforward, I was looking for exact items to place on matrix and I was placing the indefinite ones at the right side. Because, I thought this is the only way to could get out. Even though I was late for this P5: at the end, I placed the well defined items on the matrix. I read all the cues again from the beginning. P3: I put the Norvegian at the first field. I put it at the first field utilizing from the Norvegian lives in the first house cue As seen above examples, identifying well defined instructions, participants either selected those and placed or re-searched for other well defined instructions. Identifying well defined instructions strategy was occurred totally 13 times for seeking for well defined cue statements and 7 times for choosing/placing well defined cue statements. Process 2b: Directly searching - relating selecting across all the cues In this process participants used all the cues not discriminating well defined or not, conditional or not conditional. Also, after placing the well defined items and not finding anymore, participants tried to make the relations between cues to continue in this process. Cue seeking strategy: This strategy was employed by participants for seeking information among others that facilitates their process, guides to them or helps them to progress, so they can plan the next steps or obtain further data. By using this strategy participants either scanned the information items or related the cues with other data to determine next step. So the actions performed by this strategy are determined as scanning and relating. Two example statements are presented below that show participants scanned for information through the cue seeking strategy: 15

24 Cue seeking Cue Field Placement matrix Information items Rules Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2012, 3(4) P2: Here I reviewed all the cues again, and read again. Thinking that can it be something unnoticed or can I find a new cue? P3: After that I looked to Alfa Romeo car, thinking that is there an information about it, I tried to find it among given cues. Then I take brief look at all of them. Firstly, I looked the animal they feed. Following that, I scanned the car brands, I looked over them. Another two example statements are presented below that show participant make relations between cues through the cue seeking strategy: P1: Just than here I tried to make a relation between cars and beverages. At first I wanted to continue on Audi car model. But after that, since I could not much cue about it I go toward to the BMW and Ferrari models here. P2: All I do at that moment was looking for a cue among the data to make a relation. After that I tried make a relation in my own way, thinking that if I put that there, could it fulfill other cue. However cue seeking strategy was used while in either actions scanning the cues and relating the cues, these two actions are differed from each other. While scanning the cues, individuals did not fixated too long anywhere but rather take a cursory glance, on the other hand while searching the cues for relating they fixated longer on specific cues or information items to make a relation finding a new cue. Although all participants used this strategy, their eye tracking metrics also signaled different outcomes when scanning and relating the cues. Table 3 represent the fixation duration per AOI, total duration times, frequency of actions, mean of fixation duration and mean of total durations during the scanning and relating via cue seeking strategy. Table 3: Fixation Duration and Total Duration (Sec) in Scanning and Relation Actions Fixation Duration (sec) AOI Total Time (sec) Mean Total fixation duration f Fixation Duration Total time Relating 73,52 26,8 4, ,2 Scanning 24,27 2,18 3, , ,75 16

25 As seen in Table 3 scanning via cue seeking strategy was occurred 4 times while relating via cu seeking strategy occurred 5 times. Totally 31 second was spent for scanning and 11 second was spent for relating, while the mean time for one scanning action was 7.75 sec. and 22.2 sec. for relating action. Similarly, participants total fixation duration while scanning via cue seeking strategy was 29,62 sec. and sec. for relating via cue seeking strategy. Finally, mean fixation duration time for one scanning action was 7.4 sec. while this mean was 21sec. for relating action. All of these findings indicate that participants spent approximately three times more fixation and spent three times more time while relating cues as compared to scanning them. So it can be suggested that, while making relations, individuals focus more heavily on the task process by making more mental effort than while they scan something taking glance superficially. Using Cues Strategy This strategy is used by participants to relate their data with given information in cues without discriminating well defined or not, try to obtain new well defined instructions by identifying the relationship with other cues or to place the cues directly on the matrix with regard to any of read information. So, since participants placed items on the matrix directly with regard to any information in the cues or related their cues with others, relating and placing were determined the two of action which were performed by this strategy. An example of participants relating action with using cues strategy is given below: P1: Later on, thinking that a top down approach would be logical, I focused on the cue of where does English live. I read all the cues one by one. After that, I came toward to Norvegian. Here I could not decide on which one should I put first. I attempted to take a look at cues. Eleventh.. That is, the person feed horse who lives next to the house of the Ferrari model car user, I mean I tried to match uppers and downs mostly tried to reason on them at first. P2: At that moment, I was mostly attempt to relate green and coffee, since there was a cue as the owner of the green house drink coffee. I was trying to connect this relation. Actually there was a very simple logic of this task. I only need the match given cues according to items on the right side. That is, ıııııııı, for example considering the cue of German uses Alfa Romeo if I juxtapose the information items of Alfa Romeo and German, afterwards I could find a field on matrix to place them. An example of participants placing action with using cues strategy is given below: P3: Starting from the point of, the person, who lives next to the house of Ferrari user, feeds horse, I put the horse there, since German was next to the Norwegian. P1: Afterwards I tried make relation between colors and beverages. It was the cue there is white house next to the green house which prompted me to placed the white house here. Since green house was drinking coffee I placed the coffee under the green house. As seen above examples from verbal reports of participants, using the cues they either directly placed information items or attempted to make a relationship between information in the cues. While relating the cues by using the cues occurred 10 times, placing the information utilizing from the cues occurred 16 times. 17

26 Assumption strategy This strategy was used by participants as a method to speculate their next action by utilizing from the given cues, analyzing these cues and defining the relations between those cues and also to inexact hypothesizing or finding solutions by reasoning. In this complex task context, participants employed this strategy to be able to place information items and to speculate the possible placement action which will promote the process. By using this strategy, participants did not directly placed the information items but only made assumptions about the possible placement action. Some of the verbal reports from participants that reflect they used assumption strategy were exemplified below: P2: Here I thought the relation of BMW in quite a while. That is, I thought were water and cat under the same or different columns, if the person who lives next to the house of cat feeder, uses BMW car and if the person who is the neighbor of the water drinker uses the BMW? Later, I thought about the fields which I could place those. I mean.could I place water and cat under the same column or must they be placed under different columns. P4: After that, again I tried to make a relation with beverages. I thought that blue house owner could drink tea. Assumption strategy was used totally 9 times. Sometimes participants either made assumptions and then by acting in this assumption placed items by trial and error or after making assumption since they are not sure exactly they returned to seeking information to make exact relations. Trial and Error Strategy This strategy was defined as the strategy of making the placement action not being sure about accuracy but only by experience acting in their assumption. Participants used trial and error strategy generally for examining the factual truth or falsity of their assumptions. They placed information items on the matrix not being sure the exact accurateness of their action. So placing is determined as the action that was performed by trial and error strategy. P1: In that section I checked all the cues again. Using horse, feeding cat, that s. models of cars got my attention. After that there was a cue statement as Audi model car user also drinks mineral water as well. I thought about that the person who drinks mineral water could be the Norwegian. I totally left my choice to chance. And I dragged the Audi there and thinking that he can also drink mineral water, I dragged the mineral water under Audi. P3: After that I put the Ferrari under the Norwegian. And I put it there since only BMW car remained for English,.since I thought BMW is more logical, to tell the truth I did not placed it so meaningfully. P5: And now I started to strive at matching. Here I placed all the nations by chance. After that, I returned to cues and rethought about them. Trial and error strategy was performed totally 21 times in the study by the five participants. 18

27 Process 3: Placing - Crosschecking In this process, participant placed the information items which they selected after the second process. Placing action was employed by either of three strategies namely identifying well defined instructions, using cues and trial error strategy. One example from verbal reports of participants for each strategy presented below: Placing by identifying well defined instructions: P4: Yes, I found an item which I could benefit. This a well defined and exact cue. This an information which I could place it to its own place by checking. The person who lives in the center house. Placing by using cues; P3: I put the mineral water under the Sweeden based on the user of Audi drink mineral water cue. Placing by trial and error; P1: Here I thougth that Sweeden could feed dog. Because, no more much animal name remained. And I trust to my chance. Trial and error strategy was the most used strategy for placing action being performed 21 times, while followed by using cue strategy with the 16 times and the identifying well defined instruction was the least used strategy for placing items with the frequency of 7. Crosschecking Strategy After the placing action, individuals mostly applied to examine the accuracy of their processing or right after realizing their mistakes they checked on consistency of their actions with the information at the cues to find error source. This process was performed by the crosschecking strategy. This strategy was defined as the process of checking accuracy of the action by examining the consistency of the given cues and their placements. Participants used crosschecking strategy to correct their error when realized that they made mistake or to control their process until that time. Detecting mistakes and confirmation were revealed out as the actions that were performed by crosschecking strategy. An example statement was presented below that show detecting mistakes by crosschecking: P1: I realized that I have made a mistake between cars. I thought about to change the places of Alfa Romeo and Audi, but when I returned to cues I thought this could be a error. But afterwards, when I rethought, it seemed that this was the most logic replacement. I wanted the replace at first here, but when I returned to cues, the error between beverages..the Audi car user also drinks mineral water.. but BMW is next to the Alfa Romeo, ımmmm there was a conflicting here I thought this would not be correct even I replace the Audi and then I put back both of them to their own places. 19

28 Crosschecking Cue Field Placement matrix Information items Rules Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, October 2012, 3(4) P5: I surmised about not to place nations by chance. Returning to cues, I tried to place them again. I endeavored the place correctly. For this reason I undid all the nations, except Norwegian. An example statement was presented below that show confirmation of action by crosschecking: P1: Not to make a mistake I checked that the Norvegian lives in the first house again and again. Because I was thinking this was the way for me to solution. P3: Again, I looked over the Norvegian lives in the first house to check if it was correct. By crosschecking strategy participant detected mistakes 16 times and confirmed their actions 5 times. This result showed that rather than checking and confirming step by step their process, participants generally detect their mistakes after they realized. As seen above examples crosschecking strategy was employed by participants only for making sure themselves and verifying themselves by reviewing their progress. On the other side, while they are detecting mistakes they go through various cognitive processes as undo the actions or changing the location of placed items on the matrix, identifying the error source by comparing the new information with old ones or thinking on correcting solution of their errors. So participants spent more time for detecting mistakes as against to confirmation and their eye movement also supported that finding (Table 4). Table 4: Total fixation duration and total time spent in confirmation and detection mistakes Fixation Duration (sec) AOI Total fixation duration Total Time (sec) f Fixation duration Mean Total Time Confirmation 22,59 6, , ,78 8 Detecting Mistakes 147,61 168,19 39, , ,2 25,9 As seen in Table 4 confirmation with crosschecking was occurred 5 times while detecting mistakes occurred 16 times. Totally 40 sec was spent for confirmation and 415 sec. was spent for detecting mistakes, while the mean time for one confirmation action was 8 sec. and 25.9 sec. for one detecting mistakes action. Similarly, participants total fixation duration was 28.9 sec. while confirmation via crosschecking strategy and sec. while detecting mistakes via crosschecking strategy. Finally, mean fixation duration for one confirmation action was 5.78 sec. while this mean was 22.2 sec. for one detecting mistake action. All of these results indicate that the participants fixated approximately 20

29 four times more while they are detecting mistakes as compared to confirming and spent three times more time while detecting mistakes as compared to confirmation via crosschecking. Ultimately, totally seven cognitive strategies were derived from the complex task performance of five participants. Apart from the specific processes of these strategies, to examine where the participant mostly carry out the cognitive processes fixation duration per AOI, fixation count and heatmap visual of all the task completion process was obtained (table 5, figure 7). Table 5: Total fixation count and fixation duration per AOI in general task completion process Cue field Placement Matrix Rules Information Items Fixation Count Fixation Duration Fixation Count Fixation Duration Fixation Count Fixation Duration Fixation Count Fixation Duration P , , , ,102 P , , , ,011 P , ,04 3 0, ,225 P , , , ,1 P , , , ,744 Min , , , ,102 Max , , , ,1 Tot , , , ,182 Mean 672,6 277, ,6 186,014 10,8 4, ,8 79,236 SD 113,09 61,602 94,11 28,728 8,10 3,631 63,69 21,733 Rules Cue field Information Items Placement matrix Figure 7. Heatmap of Task Completion Process of Five Participants 21

30 As seen in Table 5, participant mostly and longest fixated on the cue field area. Following the cue field, placement matrix field was the second most fixated area by participants. Information items area was at the third rank and rules area was the least fixated area. Heatmap of the general task completion process also supported those statistical data indicating that the cue field and matrix placement was the most heavily focused by the participants. Discussion This study investigated the individuals cognitive processes during a complex task performance. However all of the novice participants failed to complete the task successfully. A cognitive task analysis with cued retrospective think aloud through eye movements was executed to determine the cognitive factors of the failure. As a consequence of analysis, the task process was modeled by cognitive strategies and the actions of these strategies employed by the participants during the task performance. Two of the participants did not use information gathering and reviewing strategy to identify problem/task and started directly solving task. On the other side two of three participants who attempted to identify the task problem before starting solution spent rather a short time in that process while one of them focused longer in this process. Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis & Vermetten (2005) also found that individuals generally start to problem solving process with defining the problem; however, reading the task instructions more often to activate their prior knowledge experts spend more time than the novices on defining the problem. Since, all of the participants failed to complete the task with success in this study, one of the reasons of this failure can be seen as that they did not spend enough time to identify problem and comprehend the task or directly skipping this process. Some of the participants started to task with well defined instructions while some of them started without discriminating well defined. Nonetheless, all of the participants failed to complete the task successfully regardless of the different starting strategies. This could be because all of the participants, regardless of starting with well defined instructions or not, used trial and error strategy to progress in the process after a while. Time limitation can be the reason, why participants employed to trial and error strategy in the course of time despite they started identifying well defined instructions. Because it was found that participants who started with well defined instructions, focused and fixated more and spent more time to select well defined items among others while the others who started directly with all the cues, fixated shorter and spent less time without discriminating the well defined. Rayner (1978) also stated that longer fixation durations indicate an intensive cognitive processing or having difficulties in information processing. Trial and error was found to be the most and the identification of well defined instruction is the least employed strategy for placing. Considering the reasons for failure, it has been revealed that trial and error is the most employed strategy when deciding to place information. Users verbal reports showed that participants used trial and error without reasoning. Similarly, this finding is in line with other research in that novice people tend to work with trial and error strategy (Breslow, 2001) and unsuccessful individuals used random trial and error approaches more frequent than successful individuals (Hackling, 1984).. Participants employed quite frequently crosschecking strategy but more frequently for detecting mistakes rather than confirmation. Although participants spent more time for detecting mistakes as 22

31 against to confirmation, their eye movement also showed that, they fixated approximately four times more while they are detecting mistakes as compared to confirming. So it can be suggested that individuals make much mental effort during the detecting mistakes (Rayner, 1978). Since individual progressed in the task process without verifying their action and spent much time to correct their mistakes which they detected at quite later stages, this can be reason of why they failed to complete the task within the prescribed time. So it can be suggested that, especially in complex learning tasks which include various component and steps that are in interaction with each other, regular feedback must be given to individuals in the process to inform them about their progress in the task. In this way, individuals don t spend too much time and effort to correct their mistakes in the end. Examining the general task processing areas showed that participants most heavily focused on the cue field and secondly on placement matrix field. However, when this finding is taken into account from the perspective of cognitive processes, these areas of interests are the two fields on which the most heavily cognitive processes are executed. All the participants read the cues continuously, make a relationship between them and compare them to determine the next action. Finding regarding to cognitive strategies of this study also support this result. Because the strategies of the cognitive model i.e. scanning by cue seeking, relating by cue seeking, placing by using cues, discriminating well defined instructions, crosschecking, making assumptions generally and mostly requires the using the cue field and placement matrix. On the other hand, since individuals use information items fields only to drag the information after the cognitive selection process and drop them to the matrix field, not too intensive mental processes executed on it. Lastly, since demo video and example questions with instructions were given to participants to guide them, they did not need to utilize from rules too much. As a result participants did not fixate and focused on information items field and rules field too much. Taking into account this finding from the viewpoint instructional design of learning environments, it can be suggested that determining the most important areas for cognitive processes and make clear instruction and precise information on this areas could help the user to spend less time and less mental effort to progress. This study showed that although novices employ various cognitive strategies they still remain incapable to perform a complex task successfully under the time pressure. A lack of metacognitive knowledge of novices about cognitive strategies of their own process could be one of the reasons of this finding. Flavell (1979) stated that cognitive strategies are invoked to make cognitive progress, metacognitive strategies to monitor it. Individuals with high metacognitive knowledge are aware of their own cognitive process reflecting on their task process (Hill and Hannafin (1997) and able to decide where, when and what strategies are likely to be effective in achieving a goal (Flavell, 1979). Also in this study, participant s verbal reports showed that they were not aware their own strategy, i.e while one of the participants was using inductive method to match the information cues with the items, he stated in his verbal report that he was using a deductive method. Novice people are suggested to adopt a suboptimal strategy and maintain it during the task, not switching between other appropriate strategies (Hill & Hannafin, 1997; Lazonder, 2000). On the other side experts are specified as being faster and better at selecting appropriate strategies, also executing a strategy correctly and switching between strategies swiftly when needed (Allen & McGeorge, 2011; Strobel, & Pan, 2010; Lazonder, 2000; Strube, 1991). Similarly in this study, participants as being novices could not used strategies effectively and could not switch between them correctly or swiftly under limited time. So they mostly used trial and error strategy and even they realized they made mistakes they did not changed their strategy. 23

32 Examining the five novice participants complex task performance process in depth, a common cognitive process model was suggested in this study. However, individual problem solution processes and individual verbal reports showed the various differences within the participants. In further studies, besides making general interferences from the results of small samples, each individual can be examined as a case to show individual differences. Participants mostly failed in choosing and using the right strategy. Considering the reasons for failure, it has been revealed that trial and error is the most employed strategy when deciding to place information. Users verbal reports showed that participants used trial and error without reasoning. It can be asserted that, if participants are provided with strategy instruction and raised their awareness about their current strategy by using attention guidance methods, they can become more successful. From this point of view, in the second phase of this study, it is aimed to train participants based on a strategy instruction model and examine their strategy and success during performing complex tasks. By doing so, it is intend to point at the importance of strategy instruction for novices to become successful (experts). References Allen, R. & McGeorge, P. (2011). Enumeration: Experts Take Their Time, Applied Cognitive Psychology, Bainbridge, L. (1997). The change in concepts needed to account for human behaviour in complex dynamic tasks. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Part A: Systems and Humans, 27, Branch, J. L. (2000). Investigating the information-seeking processes of adolescents: The value of using think-alouds and think afters. Library and Information Science Research, 22(4), Brand-Gruwel, S., Wopereis, I., & Vermetten, Y. (2005). Information problem solving by experts and novice: Analysis of a complex cognitive skill. Computers in Human Behavior, 21, Breslow, L. (2001). Transforming Novice Problem Solvers Into Experts. Teaching and LEarning Library. Vol: XIII, No. 3. Retrieved January 10, 2011, from Campbell, D. J Task complexity: A review and analysis. Academy of Management Review, 13: Chipman, S. F., Schraagen, J. M., & Shalin, V. L. (2000) Introduction to cognitive task analysis. In J. M Schraagen, S. F. Chipman & V. J. Shute (Eds.), Cognitive Task Analysis (pp. 3-23). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Educational research: Planning, condacting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Cooke, N. J. (1999). Knowledge elicitation. In F. T. Durso (Ed.), Handbook of applied cognition (pp ). New York: Wiley. De Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Paas, F. (2010). Attention guidance in learning from a complex animation: seeing is understanding? Learning and Instruction, 20(2),

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36 A Case Study on Use of One-to-One Laptops in English as Second Language Classrooms * Güliz Turgut Boston College, USA [email protected] Abstract One-to-one laptop programs, where each student has their own laptop to use in classroom, are becoming popular in schools especially in Australia and the Unites States. The purpose of the study was to contribute to the limited knowledgebase explaining the implementation of laptop programs specifically with English language learners. Four ESL classroom teachers, six ESL students, and three school administrators participated in individually conducted, semi-structured interviews. Additionally, a total of twelve observations were completed in four ESL classrooms. Data was interpreted through Grounded Theory and open-, axial-, and selective-coding was used for coding. Three themes emerged from data analysis. The first theme focused on explaining how teacherlaptops were used. Results indicated that use of teacher-laptops ranged from making instruction visual to playing music to create a soothing classroom environment. The second theme explained use of student-laptops and indicated that they were mainly used to develop English language skills and complete projects. The third and last theme portrayed some concerns teachers and students had about technical issues and overreliance on laptops impacting instruction and classroom culture unfavorably. Implications are discussed while reporting findings of the study. The study concludes with limitations of the study and suggestions for future research. Keywords: Ubiquitous computing; one-to-one laptop; English as a second language (ESL); English language learners (ELL). Introduction In technology- and information-rich 21 st century, some important skills are accessing information effectively and efficiently, evaluating it critically, and incorporating it into one s knowledge base (American Library Association, 2000). Furthermore, the accessed, evaluated, and incorporated information needs to be used to accomplish a specific purpose and understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information (American Library Association, 2000). In order to equip new generations with these skills, schools began to attain new responsibilities such as educating information- and technology-literate citizens by offering technology rich environments and teaching technology literacy (ISTE 2007; Molnar, 1997). * This study was part of a larger study investigating factors involved in establishing a one-to-one laptop program in an urban school with a focus on ESL students. The findings presented in this paper has not been reported or used in any research paper or conference. 28

37 In order to support schools fulfill their new responsibilities, investments on instructional technologies have increased drastically. For instance, in the U.S. approximately $2 billion had been spent on microcomputers in public schools during the 1980s (Woodward, 2001). However, in the school year alone, school districts spent $7.87 billion on technological equipment (Hew & Brush, 2007). Although more current technologies such as flip cameras, Smart Boards, Kindle, and most recently the ipad, began to be used more frequently in classrooms, computers are still one of the most commonly used technology in schools. However, rather than using desktop computers located in classrooms or computer labs along with cable network connection, a current trend in schools is establishing one-to-one laptop programs, also known as ubiquitous computing, and using wireless network connection. (Hirsch, 2005; Greaves, 2008). In one-to-one laptop programs, all students in a class or school receive laptop computers to use throughout a school day and, in most programs, they can take their laptops home (Grimes & Warschauer, 2008). The goal of one-to-one laptop initiative is to improve achievement among all student groups by providing equal access to technology-rich environments in which technology is no longer shared within groups (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005). Laptop programs are believed to provide opportunities to integrate technology more naturally into instruction by eliminating computer sharing, computer lab scheduling, student transitioning, and unequal computer access (Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997; Warschauer, Knobel, & Stone, 2004). Australia and the United States of America are the leading countries in integrating one-to-one laptop programs into schools. While Australia has been implementing one-to-one laptop programs nationwide, some states in the U.S., such as Maine, Virginia, Texas, South Dakota, and Pennsylvania are implementing one-to-one laptop programs statewide (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005). Following the growing popularity of laptop programs, research studies examining these programs also increased. Current studies on one-to-one laptop programs mostly investigated factors that limit the integration of one-to-one laptops (Garthwait & Weller, 2005; Lowther, Ross, & Morrison, 2003; Silvernail & Lane, 2004) and their impact on student achievement (Bebell & O Dwyer, 2010; Franklin & Bolick, 2007; Gulek & Demirtas, 2005; Russell, 2002; Russell, Bebell, & Higgins, 2004; Shapley, Sheehan, Maloney, & Caranikas-Walker, 2010). Some studies also examined the frequency of laptops use through quantitative methods (Lei & Zhao, 2008; Russell et al., 2004). Review of existing one-toone research literature indicates that there is limited number of qualitative studies that examine use of laptops in classrooms in detail. Moreover, there are very few, if any, studies that investigate use of laptops in one-to-one programs in English as Second Language (ESL) classrooms, with English Language Learners (ELL). Available studies on one-to-one laptop programs commonly focused and reported their findings related to students racial demographics, rather than linguistic demographics (Donovan, Green, & Hartley, 2010; Grimes & Warschauer, 2008; Shapley, Sheehan, Maloney, & Caranikas-Walker, 2010; Suhr, Hernandez, Grimes, & Warschauer, 2010). Therefore, there is a critical need for understanding how laptops in the laptop programs are implemented in ESL classrooms with ELL students and how laptops address their needs. Considering the increasing popularity of one-to-one laptop programs and the need for in-depth understanding of their use in ESL classrooms, the purpose of this case study was to investigate the implementation of a one-to-one laptop program in ESL classrooms in an ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse middle-school. The research question guiding the study, data collection, and data analysis was: How laptops are utilized in ESL classrooms as part of a one to one laptop program in an urban school context? This study was aimed to be one of the very first efforts to attract one-to-one laptop researchers attention to specific student groups and their needs. Additionally, findings of this 29

38 study were aimed to increase the limited knowledgebase explaining how laptops are used with ESL students as part of a one-to-one laptop program. Methods and Procedures Context of the Study The study was conducted at Cross Middle School *, an urban public school located in the Northeastern part of the United States. The school served a total of 632 sixth through eighth grade students that were linguistically and culturally diverse and were from low-income family backgrounds. Table 1 shows the school students racial and ethnic demographics and compares it to the district and state students demographics. Additionally, Table 2 compares the school s ELL students to district and state ELL student population for the academic year. Table Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity in Park Middle School Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity ( ) Race % of School % of District % of State African American Asian Hispanic Native American White Native Hawaiian, Pasiific Islander Multi-Race, Non-Hispanic Table Comparison of ESL students in Park Middle School, District, and State Title % of School % of District % of State First Language not English Limited English Proficient Low-income Special Education Free Lunch Reduced Lunch The school had an ESL program divided into five levels. Level 1 and Level 2 were for beginner ESL students. Levels 3, 4, and 5 were for intermediate and advanced ESL students, who were mainstreamed into classrooms that used Sheltered English Instruction (SEI) model. Furthermore, ELL students that had interrupted formal education were placed into a program called Students with Interrupted Formal Education (SIFE). Since these students had interrupted education before coming to the U.S., they did not necessarily have literacy skills in their native languages. Therefore, these * Pseudonyms are used for all institutions and participants throughout this study to maintain anonymity. 30

39 SIFE students had different needs than ESL students that were born in the U.S. and had uninterrupted education. While the native language of students in ESL program was predominantly Spanish, the first language of students in the SIFE program were varied which included Vietnamese, Haitian Creole, and Somali to name a few. In 2006, a three-year Wireless Learning pilot program was launched in the school to investigate the potential of a one-to-one technology program in an urban school context. The school was one of the 33 schools that earned the distinction to be Apple Distinguished School in the U.S. Although the piloting period ended in 2009, the school was able to sustain its laptop program through community support and budget rearrangements. Participants In order to answer How laptops are utilized in ESL classrooms as part of a one to one laptop program in an urban school context? the school and participants were selected through purposive sampling procedure because the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned (Merriam, 1998). Purposive sampling is a dominant strategy in qualitative research, especially in case studies, because it seeks information-rich cases that can be studied in depth (Patton, 1990). In this case study, the participating school was selected after examining other schools that had been implementing one-to-one laptop initiative for at least two years and had large numbers of ELL students. Cross Middle School fit the selection criterion and was contacted requesting to participate in the study. After identifying the school and acquiring necessary permissions, ESL classrooms in the school were identified and ESL teachers, who experienced the laptop program for at least two years, were requested to participate in the study. All of the four ESL teachers in the school met the selection criterion and agreed to contribute to the study. The ESL teachers taught different content areas and had different ESL student populations. Two of the ESL teachers taught to 6 th, 7 th, and 8 th grade Level 1 and Level 2 Spanish-English bilingual students. These two ESL teachers shared the same students, but Mrs. Park taught ESL content and Mrs. Couple taught Math content. Both ESL teachers were bilingual in Spanish and due to their students newly developing proficiency in English, they used Spanish frequently to clarify confusions, give directions, have quick casual chats with students, and to teach new content. The third ESL teacher taught to Level 1 and 2 ELL students in the SIFE program. Her students were recent arrivals to the U.S. and spoke various languages other than Spanish, such as Vietnamese, Somali, and more. Therefore, although she was bilingual in Spanish, she could not use Spanish with her students during instruction. The fourth ESL teacher was an ESL literacy couch with the main responsibility to support mainstreamed ESL students in various content areas and had limited knowledge of Spanish. In order to present student views, a total of 6 students from participating ESL classrooms were purposefully selected for an interview. 7 th and 8 th grade students with higher English proficiencies were selected so that they would have used laptops for at least one year and would have enough English proficiency to share their thoughts and experiences during interviews. Moreover, based on the suggestions of researchers working in the field of technology integration in educational settings (Cuban, 2001; Hew & Brush, 2007; Inan & Lowther, 2010) some school administrators were asked to participate in the study to gather additional insightful information about the investigated topic. One of the three administrators was the school s ESL director, who worked in the school for about four years 31

40 and helped the school adjust the laptop program to the needs of ELL students. Another administrator was the school principal that initiated and led the establishment of the laptop program in the school. Finally, a teacher actively involved in the program from the beginning, who was later promoted to administrator position, was interviewed to collect more information about the program. Data Collection and Analysis In order to fulfill the goals of this study, a qualitative, single-case study with exploratory purposes was used. As Merriam (1998) explains, in a case study by concentrating on a single phenomenon or entity, the researcher aims to uncover the interaction of significant factors characteristic of the phenomenon. The case study focuses on holistic description and explanation (p. 29). Furthermore, case studies with exploratory purposes examine a situation in which little theory is available or measurement is unclear (Yin, 2003). One of the data collection methods was semi-structured interviews (Berg, 2007), which were 40 minutes long on average. The interview questions were constructed after a rigorous, iterative, multistep process. The interview protocols in existing studies examining one-to-one laptop initiative, as well as technology integration in general, were found. A list of interview questions was generated in the light of the research question of this study. After creating the list of interview questions, they were examined for their language to ensure that they were clear and simple. The questions for teachers and administrators were piloted with a teacher and some questions were eliminated or reframed and the order of some questions was changed. The questions created and piloted for teachers were later simplified and adapted to students. Interview questions created for the students were piloted with an ESL student and based on the results of piloting the student interview protocol was further simplified. Interviews were individually conducted, one-time interviews and took place at the school. Interviews were beneficial for collecting in-depth information (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2006). Although interviews can be used as the primary source for data, they can also be used in conjunction with other sources such as observations and document analysis (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982). In this study, semi-structured interviews were used in conjunction with classroom observations for triangulation purposes. During the observations, Classroom Observation Protocol, which was adapted from the Classroom Observation Tool (ICOT ) by International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), was used. The Protocol was piloted and some minor changes were made for practical purposes. Each of the four ESL classrooms was observed three times within one week. Each observation started with the arrival of students to school and ended with their departure for home. A total of twelve observations were completed. The researcher was in the non-participant role to be as unobtrusive as possible while sharing the same context with students and teachers. The observations offered a first-hand account of how students and teachers used laptops in ESL classrooms and the problems experienced while using them. Observations were conducted after the interviews were completed, enabling the researcher to compare teachers and students statements to their classroom practices. Finally, conducting classroom observations assisted the researcher become familiar with classroom contexts, helping her understand and interpret interview data more meaningfully. Collected data was analyzed through grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) using open, axial, and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998). In open coding, data are conceptualized and given names as the first step of data analysis. The researcher reached saturation in open coding when no 32

41 new codes were identified. The purpose of axial coding is to reassemble data that were fractured during open coding and to create a core category (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Finally, during selective coding relationships among the categories are created and related to the core category (Strauss & Corbin 1990). HyperRESEARCH, a software program, was used for managing and coding qualitative data, which allowed easy retrieval and analysis of large interview and observational data. Memberchecks were done by sending interview transcripts to participants and asking them to elaborate, change, or delete their statements if needed. Findings and Discussion Teacher and student interviews as well as classroom observations indicate that laptops are used in various ways in ESL classrooms. The results are grouped under three themes. The first theme explains use of teacher-laptops, the second theme discusses use of student-laptops, and the third theme portrays some concerns around use of laptops. Each theme has subsections that explain findings in more detail based on interviews and classroom observations as summarized in Table 3. Within the subsections, complementary and contradictory information collected from interviews and classroom observations will be mentioned. Table 3. Summary of Findings with Three Major Themes and Subthemes How laptops are utilized in ESL classrooms as part of a one to one laptop program in an urban school context? Theme 1: Uses of Teacher Laptops in ESL Classrooms To make instruction visual To show videos Theme 2: Uses of Student Laptops in ESL Classrooms To support language development and practice To differentiate reading levels of texts Theme 3: Concerns about Use of Laptops Limited amount of ESL specific software programs Limited ESL software programs in unique languages such as Somali or Taiwanese To practice learned content To write Technical issues with laptops and network system To prepare instruction and communicating To create a soothing environment To complete projects and presentations: To assess students Overreliance on laptops Uses of Teacher Laptops in ESL Classrooms Analysis of interviews and classroom observations related to use of teacher-laptops showed that teacher laptops were used mainly for five purposes: to make instruction visual, show videos, play online games to practice learned content, prepare instruction and communicate with colleagues and parents, and create a soothing classroom environment by playing background music. 33

42 Making Instruction Visual: All of the four ESL teachers mentioned frequently using their laptops along with an LCD projector to make instruction visual, which was confirmed by classroom observations. Teachers stated that their laptops and LCD projectors was important because they were able to make instruction as visual as possible for their ESL students, who were still improving their English language proficiencies. Mrs. Park expressed this importance as, I have a laptop and a projector, so we have that technology [projector] too, which I do not know how I would teach without a projector. Teachers efforts to make their instruction visual is parallel to Meskill and Mossop (2000), who state that supporting instruction visually is important to lighten the cognitively overwhelming and exhausting process ESL students experience while trying to understand and communicate in another language. Teachers also mentioned that when they presented information visually, students are more motivated to listen to the instruction because they are able to follow and understand the instruction better and stay focused longer. Previous quantitative studies on ubiquitous computing also reported increased levels of engagement among students (Bebell & Kay, 2010; Lowther, Ross, Strahl, Inan, & Pollard, 2005; Suhr et al., 2010). However, these studies did not discuss the reasons. This study may contribute to existing research by suggesting that a potential reason for increased student engagement and interest in learning might be related to presenting instruction more visually through laptops and other available technologies. Despite receiving visualized instruction, students requested even more visualization and asked their teachers to, show [them] new vocabulary from websites, photos, and videos so that [they] can understand better. Showing Videos: Besides making instruction visual, a few student interviews indicated that some teachers used their laptops and LCD projectors to show videos from the Internet. A student explained that his teacher put[s] videos of the TED talkers and talk about the main points of the video and then put them on open response. Despite the student accounts about watching videos through teacher laptops, classroom observations did not indicate any instances where laptops were used to watch videos. One reason for lack of observations capturing the use of teacher laptops in the stated way could be that at the time of observations teachers had recently received their laptops for the academic year, which might not have given them enough time to integrate laptops into their instruction. Practicing Learned Content: Another way some teachers used their laptops was to practice learned concepts through online games. During interviews students explained that in Math teacher put[s] some questions that [they] have to solve and got them all right in a certain amount of time. The classroom observations confirmed the student statements about how teacher laptop was used for practice purposes in ESL math class. During an observation Mrs. Couple used her laptop along with an LCD projector to connect to a Math website to practice solving equations. The activity was in a game format and was based on the TV competition program named who wants to be a millionaire. The teacher divided the class into two groups and each group had to answer the question the website presented. When they answered correctly, they earned money. Students were observed to be highly engaged in the activity. Preparing Instruction and Communicating: Besides making instruction visual, showing videos, and doing practice activities, teachers also mentioned using their laptops to prepare instruction and communicate with colleagues and parents. Teachers explained that they use their laptops to prepare lesson plans and upload their plans to their personal school WebPages. They mentioned that parents and students could access these pages to learn about the topics that will be covered during the week. 34

43 Teachers also stated to use their laptops during the day to check their s since it was one of the most commonly used methods of communication between teachers, administrators, and parents. Creating a Soothing Environment: Finally, although teachers did not mention it in the interviews, classroom observations revealed that they also used their laptops to create a soothing environment in their classrooms. For instance, some teachers were observed to play music from their laptops as students came to classrooms in the mornings. Moreover, they also played soothing music while students worked silently on some activities, such as independent reading. Uses of Student Laptops in ESL Classrooms Interviews and classroom observations indicated that student laptops were used for five purposes in ESL classrooms: to develop and practice English language skills, differentiate reading levels of texts, write essays, prepare and present projects, and complete assessments. While using student laptops to fulfill these purposes, specific tools and software programs were used, which is described in detail. Language Development and Practice: Participants mentioned using student laptops to support ELL students language development. In order to fulfill this purpose subscription-based software programs, Rosetta Stone (RS) and Achieve 3000, and non-subscription programs, such as GarageBand and imovie, were used in the ESL classrooms. All ESL teachers praised RS and Mrs. Park mentioned RS to be great for the most basic students who don t have any English skills because: there is a speaking component, so the kids can talk into the computer, building basic literacy skills, so being able to recognize sight words, a lot of basic grammar that you can teach in class but you do not need to spend a lot of time on, so Rosetta Stone kind of get that into their heads, so you can just go pass that in class. Besides finding RS beneficial to practice listening and speaking skills, ESL teachers found it helpful also because it allowed them to give individual support to those in need as other students proceed learning at their own pace on RS. The ESL teachers statements about providing individual attention to students through the individual use of educational technologies confirms previous studies that mention similar benefits of instructional technologies (Meskill & Mossop, 2000; Whitehurst & Fischel, 2001). In addition to the teachers, ESL students also praised RS. When talking about RS, a student said that [i]t is a program that helped [her] a lot. Multiple students similarly expressed that they learn a lot through RS and they get so happy while using it. Students interest in using and learning English through RS positively surprised some ESL teachers. A teacher explained her surprise by stating that the levels of RS are very, very basic, so [she] thought maybe they d [students] become bored by that, they d think it was too easy. But they really enjoy doing it, and it really does help them practice English. Students explained that they enjoy learning English through RS because it is entertaining. Teachers elaborated on students explanation by discussing multiple factors. One factor was the points system RS had for each activity. Teachers stated that the point-score system turned the learning process into an entertaining experience. Additionally, the point system showed students their improvement over time. Finally, another reason teachers gave explaining students interest in using RS was the listening and speaking features of the program that made the language learning process more active. 35

44 Despite the praise it received from ESL teachers and students, classroom observations revealed that only Mrs. Park s ESL classroom used Rosetta Stone. Mrs. Park used it specifically with 6 th grade students because their English proficiency was at early stages of language development compared to higher-grade ESL students. Mrs. Couple did not use the software since she taught Math. Mrs. Years expressed her consideration to use RS with her mainstreamed ESL students but did not start using it because she was not familiar with it and also she was informed that her students would be too advanced to use it. Finally, Mrs. Frances found the program very beneficial but, similar to Mrs. Years, she did not use it because she was not familiar with it. Teachers limited knowledge in using available educational technologies was also acknowledged by students. A student said, sometimes the teacher just say Oh, you gotto do this and they do not explain and [he does] not know how to do it and it is on the laptop. Existing studies also illustrate that teachers limited knowledge and skills in available technologies impact their technology use negatively (Baylor & Ritchie 2002; Drayton et al., 2010; Eteokleous 2008; Hernandez-Ramos, 2005; Inan & Lowther, 2010; Office of Educational Technology, 2004; Russell et al. 2004; Wenglinsky, 2005). These teacher and student statements about teachers limited knowledge and skills in using some available tools highlight the importance of receiving appropriate professional development. An implication of this finding could be providing continuous professional development sessions, which are also considered important by Jaber and Moore (1999). In addition to offering continued professional development sessions, these sessions should be adjusted to the needs of teachers based on their content area, but more importantly based on the features and needs of ESL student populations teachers have. As Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry, and Hewson (2003) state, [p]rofessional development does not come in one-size-fits-all. It needs to be tailored to fit the context in which teachers teach and their students learn. (p. 53) Besides using RS, teachers also mentioned using non-subscription programs to support students English language development. Most commonly mentioned non-subscription programs were GarageBand and imovie. The ESL director explained that when she was teaching in ESL classrooms before being promoted to the director position, she asked her ESL students to record their voices or make videos through GarageBand and imovie. She explained that recording their voices or making movies allowed her students to produce language, which is considered to be an essential part of language development by the most recent second language acquisition theories (Swain, 1995). According to Swain (1995) actively using a second language to produce output requires a higher level of engagement with the language than simply listening and receiving input. This higher engagement involved in using language increases language learners awareness about what they already know and what they need to know to produce the intended language and meaning in the second language (Lucas, Villegas, & Freedson-Gonzalez, 2008). The ESL director added that after asking students to record their voices, she would ask them to send their recordings and movies to her for feedback. Some students even sent their recordings proudly to their relatives back in their home countries. The ESL director stated that GarageBand and imovie encouraged students to practice their English speaking skills and made recording easier, which in return increased their motivation to learn English and be proud of their learning process. Despite the detailed explanation the ESL director provided about how she implemented GarageBand and imovie with her ESL students, classroom observations did not capture any use of these tools in current ESL classrooms. A reason explaining the failure to capture use of GarageBand and imovie through observations could be again related to the fact that teachers received their laptops late in the 36

45 semester. As a result of this late distribution of laptops, teachers might not have had enough time to integrate them to their instruction. Differentiating Reading Levels of Texts: Another subscription-based software program the school purchased that all participants mentioned was Achieve Teachers praised the program mainly because it enabled them to adjust texts reading levels to appropriate student levels without making students with low-reading abilities feel uneasy or stigmatized about their reading levels. Another teacher mentioned that the program allows her to constantly challenge her students by slowly increasing the reading level of texts without their knowledge, which was important to her because students did not loose their motivation to read a text knowing that it was slightly higher than their current reading level. Finally, a few teachers mentioned that since Achieve 3000 differentiated reading levels of texts, they were able to save time from differentiating texts personally and give more thoughtful planning elsewhere. Despite the commonly and positively mentioned features of Achieve 3000, classroom observations revealed that it was used only in Mrs. Frances s SIFE classroom. Classroom observations also revealed that another feature of Achieve 3000, which could be beneficial for ESL students, was not used in ESL classrooms. Achieve 3000 had texts available both in English and Spanish. According to Cummins s (1979) language transfer theory, once something is learned in the first language, it may be transferred to a second language. This is why strong language skills in native language are associated with successful learning of a second language and high academic achievement (Thomas & Collier, 2002). ESL teachers in the Cross Middle School did not mention and were not observed to use Achieve 3000 to support Spanish-speaking students first language development. On the other hand, although Mrs. Frances used Achieve 3000 in her SIFE classroom, she was not able to use the program s discussed feature because her students native languages were not Spanish. This finding is important for one-to-one laptop research field as it uncovers the need for software programs available in unique languages to support ESL students second language development through first language. Therefore, an implication of this study is to encourage companies that produce educational software programs, to create programs with multiple languages so that ESL students native language could assist their second language acquisition. Writing: Besides using student laptops to facilitate students language development and to differentiate reading levels of texts, teachers collectively mentioned that student laptops, specifically Word document (WD), were used for writing. However, classroom observations captured limited use of WD in ESL classrooms. Moreover, further analysis revealed conflicting beliefs among teachers towards students use of WD for writing. While some teachers considered WD helpful for writing, some teachers discussed it as a potential disadvantage. There were also teachers who believed that benefits of using WD might change based on the purpose of writing. One of the ESL teachers that considered using WD helpful for students writing process was Mrs. Park. She explained that through word processing, kids learn how to type proficiently, and use the computers to type their work and polish their writing Similarly, Mrs. Years explained that students get immediate feedback from the automatic spell checker available in WD about their misspellings and correct them. She further added that through the automatic spelling corrections, students do not get so frustrated with the mini things and they just let their ideas flow on their paper. Moreover, these teachers considered writing through WD as an important skill for every pace of life including high school, college, and work. 37

46 Unlike Mrs. Park and Mrs. Years, Mrs. Frances believed that using laptops for writing was a hindrance to ESL students writing development. She expressed her disapproval of using WD as: A lot of teachers are about typing papers out, and then when you ask the kids to write something, they can t even print. And they can t spell, because when they re typing, they use the spell check. So it really takes away from the language development in the written sense. I don t allow my kids to type out papers for me. I don t care if it s a thousand typos or they can t spell simple words, I want it written out. Mrs. Years did not approve use of WD since the automatic spell check [took] away from the language development. She did not want her students to become dependent on automatic spell check, but instead wanted them to fully experience the writing process. Some ESL students also shared Mrs. Years s concerns about excessive dependence on spell-check. Despite the opposite views teachers had about use of spell check, the ESL director discussed use of WD and spell check from a more neutral perspective. She mentioned that a positive feature of WD is the flexibility it offers to its users to turn on and turn off the spell check based on the purpose of the writing activity. She said that when she was teaching in ESL classrooms, she would leave the spell check turned on when she wanted her students to focus on accuracy and receive immediate feedback on the functions of writing, such as capitalization. However, when she did not want the students to worry about accuracy and wanted to hear their ideas she would turn off the spell check. Despite the collective statements about using student laptops for writing, classroom observations captured only one instance supporting the statements. Students were observed to use WD for writing only in Mrs. Years s ESL classroom only for once. At the time of the observation, students used WD to type their already written texts. Observations also revealed that all the student essays displayed on the classroom walls were handwritten. Student interviews confirmed the limited use of WD as a student said, [they] write a paragraph that [they] will put in a project then [they] type it in the computer and print it and post it. The limited use of student laptops for writing that observations and student interviews revealed might potentially be explained by a student comment, which stated: they [teachers] saw that our class got the lowest scores [on standardized tests] and they do not want us to use many computers. They want us to solve how to answer open response question. In other words, teachers might have limited students use of laptops for writing in order to prepare students to the writing section of standardized tests, which is completed through paper and pen. This finding indicating tests unfavorable impact on use of educational technologies supports Schneiderman (2004) and Watts (2009), who state that emphasis on testing and achievement press undercuts the potential promise of technology as a teaching and learning tool, and lowers levels of teachers technology use. Besides repressing the potential promise and use of educational technologies in classrooms, findings also indicated that some participants perceived standardized tests disadvantageous for students who are used to utilize educational technologies. For instance, the school principal complained about the old-fashioned nature of standardized tests that require students write through paper and pencil. She critiqued the tests as: 38

47 And the testing they [state officials] use does not allow technology, which I find incredibly ironic since none of us would write a paper without technology and they are expecting kids to write 4 page essays by hand. While the school principal finds it ironic that using 21 st century technologies during tests is prohibited, multiple studies repeatedly show that tests underestimate student performance on open-ended items when students are not allowed to use the writing tools they are accustomed to utilize (Russell, 1999; Russell & Haney, 2000; Russell & Plati, 2001; Russell & Plati, 2002). Therefore, researchers recommend giving students an option to choose writing tools they would like to use to complete openended sections of state tests (Russell & Plati, 2002). Furthermore, researchers indicate that there is a misalignment between the skills measured in standardized tests and the 21 st century skills technology use could promote because current tests do not and cannot accurately assess 21 st century skills (Baker, Gearhart, & Herman, 1994; Grimes & Warschauer, 2008; McNabb et al., 1999; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2006; Russell, 2002). Therefore, there is a need for creating new measurement tools that assess not only the skills expected by the federal policies, but also the 21 st century skills (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2006). Alternative evaluation methods and instruments, such as essays, portfolios and projects, should be used to evaluate student learning with technology (Lei & Zhao, 2008). Finally, although teachers did not mention it, student interviews and classroom observations revealed use of student laptops to access Google translator for writing. Some students stated that writing through the help of translator was easier because: our problem is with writing now because we do not really know all the words. We do not really know how to write everything. Writing on the computer is more easy because if you go to the Google translator you will write in Spanish and it will translate it in English in the computer. But writing in the paper, not always you say oh, I know how to write this. Although the student stated that Google translator helps him with vocabulary and writing, the same student also believed that writing with laptops on a regular basis would not help their writing development. He explained this potential disadvantage as: if we write on the computer, we will learn almost nothing because if we write on the computer we will go to the translator for everything. Therefore, the student added that they should use laptops only to type their written papers. Projects and Presentations: Besides using student laptops for writing, another way students used their laptops was for projects and presentations. The school principal explained that with the launch of the laptop initiative, teachers adopted a project-based learning approach. Existing studies investigating one-to-one laptop programs also indicate an increase in student-centered and inquiry-based learning practices that use hands-on activities (Lowther & Ross, 2003; Lowther, Strahl, Inan & Bates, 2007; Norris & Soloway, 2004; Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997; Swan, Van T Hooft, Kratcoski, & Schenker, 2007; Swan, Kratcoski, Mazzer, & Schenker, 2005). Teachers explained that depending on the projects, students worked individually or in groups. An individually prepared student project discussed during interviews asked students to search and choose a college they want to attend. After the selection process, they collected information about it and wrote a short essay introducing the college and explaining why they want to attend to that college. They presented the college and their essays to their classmates. While the visual section of the presentation was prepared on PowerPoint along with short scripts, the essay part of the project was 39

48 completed on Word Document. The essays were later hung on the walls in the hallways. Although the presentation section of the project had already been completed before the classroom observations, the essays were still on the walls. Students were also reported to prepare medium scale projects in small groups, which were presented to the whole school. Moreover, a few participants mentioned that students used their laptops for bigger projects, in which the audience was not simply the class or the school, but the whole neighborhood. A participant explained that after the flood in Gonaives, Haiti, students in the school, majority of whom was Haitian, prepared a presentation about Haiti. Students were reported to read many resources to collect information, which was beneficial for their reading skills. After collecting and synthesizing information they narrated an essay, which addressed their writing skills. Following the narration of the essay, they presented their work to the whole school- and neighborhood-members, which promoted their speaking skills. Finally, after the presentation, students planned and executed a march to collect donations for Haiti. Teachers reported that ESL students collaborated with their peers, became more active and engaged in their learning process in order to complete the projects. Similarly, Lowther, Strahl, Inan, and Bates (2007) also observed increased collaboration and engagement through use of laptops. Different from existing studies, the findings of this study revealed that in the ESL classroom in Cross Middle School laptops were used for projects that required use of higher-order thinking skills. Existing studies reported lower-use of laptops for practice and drill activities at high-risk schools (Newman, 2002; Ross, Smith, Alberg, & Lowther, 2004). Additionally, Ross, Smith, Alberg, and Lowther (2004) found that student-centered activities such as project-based learning and independent inquiry were rare at high-risk schools. Cross Middle School was also a high-risk school due to being an urban school serving linguistically and culturally diverse students from lower income backgrounds. However, despite being an at-risk school, the ESL teachers in the school used laptops for projects and student-centered learning, which contradicts findings of existing studies. Assessment: Finally, student laptops were used to assess and monitor students language development. The subscription-based software programs the school purchased, Rosetta Stone or Achieve 3000, had assessments embedded in them and each students score was traceable. The results of these assessments were available both to teachers and students, which were also communicated to parents and other teachers. Teachers found the assessment features embedded in the programs fascinating and phenomenal for two main reasons. The first reason was related to the efficiency they provided in evaluating students. Through these easily accessible and traceable assessment results, teachers were able to obtain information about each student quicker than evaluating each student personally. As a result of this faster assessment process, teachers were also able to identify student needs more rapidly and provide necessary support quicker. The second reason for finding the assessment feature of the programs beneficial was because students were able to monitor their own improvement in short- and long-term, motivating them to strive to learn more. The results of this study regarding the use of student- and teacher-laptops was important in terms of illustrating what tools were used with ESL students and how they met ESL students specific needs. The available tools also enabled students learn English in an entertaining way and overcome language barrier they experience in their second language. A teacher, who has been involved in the laptop program from the beginning, explained the benefit as: 40

49 "It allows students to bring another skills set that may cross language barrier, that they may not be very competent in speaking English but can use a computer in any language and can create on these computers. It allows you to see students in a different light. You realize the things they can do. The teachers quote is also important because it shows that the available tools helped not only students, but also teachers to realize the things they can do. Approaching students from an asset perspective and planning instruction based on students strengths, rather than weaknesses, was a valuable lesson teachers learned. The findings of this study indicate that teachers reached this realization about student strengths when students were able to complete projects and express themselves through use of laptops and accessing various tools. Concerns about Use of Laptops During the interviews besides discussing the use of teacher- and student-laptops, teachers also shared their concerns related to use of laptops. The concerns were categorized in three main themes: limited amount of educational software programs available specifically for ELL students speaking unique native languages, technical issues that inhibit use of laptops, and heavy reliance on laptops. During the interviews multiple participants mentioned that software programs available specifically for ESL students that attend to middle or high school were limited. This limitation of sources available for ESL students created surprise, even disappointment, among ESL teachers. Besides the limited amount of ESL specific software programs, the available programs were further limited by the fact that they mostly targeted language learners with commonly spoken first languages, such as Spanish. ESL teachers were not able to find software programs available in unique languages, such as Somali or Taiwanese, which created an even deeper disappointment, especially for SIFE teachers. For instance, Mrs. Frances, who taught in the SIFE classroom stated, [she] thought there would just be more specific programs for [her] students. [She] just thought it would be easier for [her] as a teacher, but it s really not. The laptop initiative was hoped to be another way for the school to provide resources to students speaking unique languages due to the nature of its student population. The disappointment teachers experienced after realizing the limited availability of programs in unique languages may indicate that ESL teachers were aware of the impact a well-developed first language has on the acquisition of second language. A second concern teachers mentioned was technical issues experienced with not only the laptops but also the network system. At the time of the study, laptops were 5 years old and had technical issues such as missing keyboards, low battery life, lost power cables and more. Teachers mentioned that students could not use their laptops to the fullest potential due to such technical problems. Classroom observations confirmed teachers statements about the issues with student laptops and their impact on learning. In most of the observations, students were observed to use their laptops plugged into outlets continuously to charge due to laptops short battery life. However, students had to take turns while charging their laptops because classrooms did not have enough outlets. Moreover, the outlets available in classrooms were at different parts of the class, hence, students had to move their tables to be able to reach them. During students relocation to reach outlets, instruction got interrupted, classroom ambiance changed, and classroom management became problematic, which were also reported in previous studies (Lowther, Ross, & Morrison, 2003; Lei & Zhao, 2008). 41

50 This finding illustrating technical issues and their impact on learning enhances information about conditions when laptops could impact teaching and learning positively. Some researchers state that laptop initiatives may allow teachers to integrate computers more naturally into their instruction by eliminating computer sharing, computer lab scheduling, student transitioning from classrooms to computer labs, and unequal computer access (Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997; Gulek & Demirtas, 2005; Warschauer, Knobel, & Stone, 2004). However, findings of this study show that without resolving technical problems, such natural integration cannot be accomplished. Another technical concern teachers discussed was the unreliable wireless Internet network. Teachers said that the Internet would get disconnected during the school day, impacting their instruction unfavorably. Mrs. Couple indicated that the Internet problems made her and other teachers hesitant to use student laptops. She further explained that she was planning to use student laptops to watch Khan Academy, but the Internet was disconnected and she had to change her instruction. Concerns around the network issues and the limitations they caused on instruction were also captured through classroom observations. During a lesson, Mrs. Couple connected to a free website to play an online game with the whole class to practice some math equations. Towards the end of the game, the school network got disconnected and she could not ask the last question. Therefore, she had to create her own question and wrote it on the board and asked students to solve it. Such instructional changes teachers had to make due to technical issues were also reported by other scholars (Lowther et al., 2003; Lei & Zhao, 2008). In addition to impacting teachers instructional plan, technical issues also impacted students learning. Students were observed to be upset about the network problems, which changed the momentum and excitement in solving the last question. The network related issues indicate the importance of having robust network systems to support needs of laptop programs. A third and final concern teachers had about use of laptops was teachers potential to use laptops heavily. An ESL teacher expressed her concern as: I fear that some teachers would replace the technology with just the teaching I think it s very easy to be like, OK go on FastMath and let s practice this skill," and every kid is one on one, by themselves, practicing, rather than engaging and interacting with other students and learning from the community. Overreliance on laptops worried teachers because they believed that allowing students to work on their laptops individually for long periods would create a very solitary classroom, [r]ather than a community. Another teacher also added that besides creating a solitary environment, heavy reliance on laptops also create a sedentary classroom. Conclusion The purpose of this qualitative, single-case study was to explore use of laptops in ESL classrooms implementing one-to-one laptop programs. Data collected from interviews and classroom observations were helpful to triangulate findings, which were presented under three themes. The first two themes explained how teacher- and student-laptops were used in ESL classrooms. Findings indicated that teacher laptops were mainly used to prepare instructional plans and to improve delivery of instruction by making lessons visual. Student laptops were mainly used to support ESL students language development and prepare projects. Additionally, the assessment and tracking features of the programs also helped teachers and students to monitor their progress. The third theme presented 42

51 some concerns teachers had with laptops and the network system, as well as the potential to overrely on laptops. While some of the results of this study were parallel to earlier investigations, this study is one of the earliest in its field investigating one-to-one laptop programs with ELL students. This study showed that laptops are used to meet language related needs of ESL students. Related to meeting specific needs of ESL students, a suggestion for future research is investigating the role and contribution of ESL teachers and specialist in the one-to-one laptop programs, adjusting the use of laptops to the specific needs of ESL students. Additionally, this study highlighted standardized tests impact on teachers use of laptops with their ESL students as well as the need for new assessment tools evaluating 21 st century skills. Future studies could investigate the impact of laptop programs specifically on ESL students and develop new assessment tools. The results of this study were helpful to understand implication of laptop programs in ESL classrooms. However, future studies could contribute to the knowledgebase by addressing the limitations of this study. A limitation of this study was the length of classroom observations. Initially, classroom observations were planned to be conducted for 5 consecutive days in each ESL classroom to capture a fluid representation of how laptops were used in classrooms. However, based on teachers suggestions and availability, observations were conducted for 3 days. In order to overcome this limitation, teachers were asked whether they were going to use laptops on the days when the observations were not conducted. Therefore, future research should design longitudinal studies because as Lei (2010) states, most studies capture a snapshot of the one-to-one laptop by conducting research in a short and limited time frame. Another limitation of the study is related to its construct validity, external validity, and reliability (Yin, 2003). In order to increase the study s construct validity Yin s (2003) suggestions were followed: multiple sources of evidence were used, a chain of evidence was established, and some key informants reviewed the interview transcripts and interpretations. Regarding external validity, results from qualitative research cannot be generalized to other populations as in quantitative methods (Merriam, 2002). However, through detailed descriptions of context and participants as well as member checks, readers can be presented valuable information to decide whether the results could be applied to other contexts. Finally, related to reliability of this study, replication of a qualitative research study is difficult in general because of the inconsistent and changing human behavior (Yin, 2003). Based on Yin s (2003) suggestions, the reliability of this study was increased by taking notes and memoing rich details of the study through field notes. Despite the limitations of this qualitative case study, researchers should continue to qualitatively examine the laptop programs to provide rich descriptions of how they are used, what are some issues in implementing them, how they can be used more effectively, and how their use varied based on different student populations. References American Library Association. (2000). Information literacy competency standards for higher education. Retrieved from Baker, E., Gerhardt, M., & Herman, J. (1994). Evaluating the apple classrooms of tomorrow. In E. Baker, & H. O'Neil, Jr. (Eds), Technology Assessment in Education and Training (pp

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55 Shapley, K. S., Sheehan, D., Maloney, C., & Caranikas-Walker, F. (2010). Evaluating the Implementation Fidelity of Technology Immersion and its Relationship with Student Achievement. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 9(4), Schneiderman, M. (2004). What does SBR mean for education technology? THE Journal, 31(11), Silvernail D. L. & Lane D.M. (2004). The Impact of Maine s One-to-One Laptop Program on Middle School Teachers and Students: Research Report #1. Maine Education Policy Research Institute, University of Southern Maine, ME. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Suhr, K. A., Hernandez, D.A., Grimes, D., & Warschauer, M. (2010). Laptops and Fourth-Grade Literacy: Assisting the Jump over the Fourth-Grade Slump. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 9(5). Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlehofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Widdowson (pp ). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Swan, K., Kratcoski, A., Mazzer, P., & Schenker, J. (2005). Bringing Mohamed to the mountain: Situated Professional development in a ubiquitous computing classroom. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32(4), Swan, K., Van T Hooft, M., Kratcoski, A., & Schenker, J. (2007). Ubiquitous computing and changing pedagogical possibilities: Representations, conceptualizations and uses of knowledge. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 36(4), Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students long-term academic achievement. Santa Cruz: University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence. Warschauer, M., Knobel, M., & Stone, L. (2004). Technology and equity in schooling: Deconstructing the digital divide. Educational Policy, 18(4), Watts, D. C. (2009). Technology leadership, school climate, and technology integration: A correlation study in K-12 public schools. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest dissertation database. (UMI No ). Wenglinsky, H. (2005). Using technology wisely: The keys to success in schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Whitehurst, G., & Fishel, J. (2001). Enhancing emergent literacy among children in head start: A review of research and examination of the promise of computer-based interventions. Stony Brook: State University of NewYork. Woodward, J. (2001). Constructivism and the Role of Skills in Mathematics Instruction for Academically At-Risk Secondary Students. Special Services in the Schools, 17(1/2), Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 47

56 ICT Student Teachers Judgments and Justifications about Ethical Issues Turgay Alakurt Ankara University, Turkey Salih Bardakçı Ankara University, Hafize Keser Ankara University, Turkey Abstract In this study, Turkish ICT student teachers judgments and justifications in four scenarios involving ICT-related ethical problems were investigated. Scenarios were designed based on Mason s (1986) four ethical issues: privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility. The study was carried out in the fall of We used the critical incidents technique (CIT) - a qualitative research approach- and the data were gathered via a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was conducted face-toface with an in-person interview. Participants were 35 ICT student teachers from the Faculty of Educational Science at Ankara University. The associations between different categorical variables were analysed with Fisher s exact test. Open-ended questions were analysed through content analysis. The findings revealed that gender does not affect the ethical judgments and justifications of ICT student teachers. Furthermore the same reasons and justifications were reported by ICT student teachers who have taken course in ethic and those who have not taken the course. Moreover, out of the four issues considered in this study, accessibility was found as the most controversial issue. In addition to that it was observed that a number of ICT student teachers do not attain the right justifications due to the lack of knowledge on copyrights, intellectual property and the policies of web sites. Keywords: Computer ethics; ethical dilemma; gender; prior education. Introduction Fenstermacher (1986) pointed out that the teaching profession cannot be compared with other professions due to its uniqueness when ethical and moral questions are formulated (cited in Colnerud, 2006). First of all, teachers interact, formally and informally, with students. One of the main goals of a teacher is to help students to construct knowledge. Secondly, it is obligatory for a teacher to have a 48

57 certain rapport with his students so that he/she can understand them professionally. Lastly, teaching process requires reciprocal interaction between teachers and students such that a dialogue takes place between teachers and students regarding segments of text. In addition to these characteristics, professional values, ethical self-awareness and ethical responsibilities of a teacher are gaining importance over the last decade because teachers have been encountering additional concerns involving appropriate use of computer technologies (Kafai, Nixon, & Burnam, 2007). Floridi and Sanders (2002) stated that information and communication technologies (ICT) have a great impact on contemporary society and many practical concerns arise when using ICT. According to Moore (1985), use of computers incites some ethical issues because of the three properties of computers; logical malleability, transformation and invisibility. Logical malleability is a term, which defines the uniqueness of the computers since any computer can be programmed to perform any logical operations that also allow new forms of behaviour. The transformation factor refers to drastic changes in our daily life such as sending s and conducting meetings via videoconference systems. The invisibility factor of the computers also indicates that computer operations might be undetectable by the user. That is, the control of our computers might be taken by other computers and we could not be aware of this until the functionality of our machine suffers (Basandra, 1999; Buchanan, 2010). These properties of computers lead to unavoidable ethical dilemmas and unanticipated problems mostly stemming from policy vacuums and conceptual vacuums despite the international conventions and national laws, and the most evident of these problems are privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility (Moor, 1985; Mason, 1986). One of the most visible ethical issues of computer use is the privacy (Loch & Conger, 1996). In the context of personal privacy, increasing value of information and easier access to other computers and information stores lead to great concern for privacy (Mason, 1986). Hence, many countries throughout the world attempt to amend legal regulations with respect to privacy aiming to decrease these concerns of computer users. Article 20 of the Turkish Constitution entitled Privacy of Individual Life stated that; "Everyone has the right to demand respect for his or her private and family life. Privacy of an individual or family life cannot be violated. The legislation also stated that limitations on these rights will only be allowed in very exceptional circumstances if there are decisions passed by a judge on the grounds of protection of public morals and the rights and freedoms of others, prevention of crime and maintenance of public order and national security. Another legislation related with privacy issue is the Turkish Civil Code, which regulates the civil rights (Law no. 4963, updated 6/8/2003). But, despite the above-mentioned regulations, we cannot mention a specific and comprehensive regulation concerning the data protection and privacy in Turkey (Berk, 2008; Privacy International, 2011). Another important ethical issue is the accuracy of information. Inaccurate information stored in a computer system might cause intolerable damages in many cases. Considering the amount of information produced in every second, we should be vigilant in the pursuit of accurate information. Information Technologies and Communications Authority (BTK) in Turkey has made a regulation closely related to this issue entitled Procedures and Principles Regarding the Safe Use of the Internet Safe in The regulation presents two filtering options to Turkey s Internet users. However, this regulation raises concerns about access rights and Internet censorship. Hope (2010) also stated:...those who create and monitor educational technologies, such as filtering software systems, need to foster a greater awareness of how their products might negatively impact on educational outcomes, at the same time factoring an element of trust into the operation of such devices (p. 700). 49

58 Kuzu (2009) stated that intellectual property rights are the most controversial ethical issue. Weckert (1997) pointed out that intellectual property is different from other properties at least in three ways. Firstly, owing an idea or intangible thing is different from owing a physical object. It is hard to talk about those intangible things because they are not defined, explained, or measured explicitly. Secondly, the most confronted question is to what extent an idea is mine? Human being is a social creature and permanently interacts with others. So how can we make sure the extent to which an idea is mine? Lastly, there is a distinction between moral and commodity rights to intellectual property. The author or creator of something has the right to get financial profits incurred by it. What about a computer program? We can copy a software program but the creator still has the program. Turkey has signed the Bern Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works. Since the European Union (EU) recognized Turkey as a candidate for EU membership in 1999, the Turkish government has made many amendments concerning the rights related with computer and Internet such as intellectual property and regulations of publications on the Internet and suppression of crimes. Law no on intellectual property and artistic works protects intellectual property rights in Turkey. Computer programs and preparatory works, reproduction rights, distribution rights, the rights of communication to the public and protection of databases are regulated by this law. Law also includes some compulsory and non-compulsory exceptions. European Commission - Enlargement (2006) stated that The exceptions to the exclusive rights regard personal use, acts necessary for the use of the program by the legal acquirer (including correction of errors), back-up copy, and reverse engineering (p. 3). For example, a computer program might be replicated for personal use, adaptation and error correction by user who got it legally (Article 38 of Law no. 5846, dated 03/03/2001). Moreover, users are allowed to benefit from databases for private use, pedagogical purposes, freedom of quotation, public security and in judicial procedures, provided that they do not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work. Law 5846 also includes exceptions for disabled people. For example, scientific and literacy works written or published including textbooks for disabled people, are allowed to be used for non-profit pedagogical purposes without permission, specifying the name of the owner of the rights provided and the purpose of the specified condition (Annex 11 of Law no. 5846, dated 03/03/2004). But there is strong evidence showing that these regulations are far from resolving the existing problems. European Commission - Enlargement (2006) noted the following: Turkey's legislation is aligned to a large extent with the acquis in the area of copyright and neighbouring rights.distribution rights, rental and public lending rights, right of communicating to the public are overall in line with the acquis. Protection granted to computer programs is also comparable to the one granted by the acquis, with the general exception of exhaustion.the legislation on the protection of databases is partially aligned with the acquis (pp ). The second most controversial issue in computer ethic is the access rights. Until 2001, we cannot mention a specific law in regard to publications and crimes committed on Internet in Turkey. The most comprehensive law was arranged by Law no.5651 entitled Regulation of Publications on the Internet and Suppression of Crimes Committed in This is widely known as the Internet Law of Turkey. This law concerns the encouragement and incitement of suicide, sexual exploitation and abuse of children, facilitation of the use of drugs, provision of substances dangerous for health, obscenity, prostitution, gambling and crimes committed against Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic. A web site is subject to banning if committing those certain crimes. For example, Google, YouTube, Geocities and DailyMotion were blocked under the provisions of this law. On the other hand, numerous web sites have been blocked outside the scope of this law so that the extent is this breach is unknown (Akdeniz, 2010). 50

59 It is obvious that because of rapidly developing technology, gaps in legislation are inevitable. In addition, Jung (2009) in a study of Japanese college students ethical judgments and behavioural intentions found that moral and socio-cultural norms have greater impact on behaving ethically than legal or contractual obligations. Despite laws and regulations may often be insufficient to solve the problems and can also create new problems, there is also a necessity for written rules. Aristotle lists three reasons for the necessity of written rules: Rules facilitate an ethical decision when it requires a general view of a complex issue that would take too long to investigate as an individual case. Rules can protect against corruption in cases when partiality could distort a person s judgment. Rules provide the basis of ethical choices for people whose judgment we cannot fully trust (Nussbaum, 1995, Colnerud, 2006). Furthermore, Colnerud (2006) pointed out that in considering the ethical questions, rules should improve our own thinking and judgment instead of hindering. In a discussion about how to cope with moral dilemmas in classrooms, Clark (1995) emphasized the importance of naming ethical pitfalls that help to clarify conceptual vacuums and studying moral literature using case studies, parables, poems, biographies, proverbs, stories, myths and scenarios on teaching ethics and encouraging ethical selfexamination. In spite of certain debates starting from Moore s interpretation of the need for Computer Ethics (CE), CE is considered as a separate academic discipline and requires its own applicationspecific knowledge (Floridi & Sanders, 2002; Maner, 1996). Exploring justifications for the study of CE, Maner (1992) argued that the involvement of computers in human conduct can create entirely new ethical issues, unique to computing, that do not surface in other areas (p. 4). Moreover, the 5 th and 3 th Information Literacy Competency Standarts for Higher Education are directly related with CE. The 5 th standart includes outcomes associated with privacy, intellectual property, freedom of speech, institutional policies and research ethics in general. In the 3 th standart, it is noted that an information literate student judges the worth and quality of an information critically and integrate selected information into his/her knowledge base and value system (ACRL, 2000). According to Beycioğlu (2009), However prospective teachers tended to undermine morality of computer use. A major reason for this result is that student teachers have not been taught the basic principles of using computers ethically (p. 207). It is unfortunate that universities in Turkey do not offer alternative courses related to ethics to their students, especially computer technology students who are the candidates to teach students what is right and what is wrong of computer use. Namlu and Obabaşı (2007) stated that Computer technology students do not take a compulsory course related to ethics during their four year study in Turkey. Some, or only a few, universities offer selective courses in the subject (p. 206). For instance, Faculty of Educational Science of Ankara University offers two courses related to ethics to their students during their four-year study. One of them is Computer Ethics course. It is an elective one-semester, three credit course and composed of three hour lecture period once per week in the Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology. A central task of the course is to provide some insight into how ethics related to computer. Course content also covers ethic theories, digital problems, unethical computer using behaviours, social effects of computers, information technology crimes, professional responsibilities of ICT teachers, and discussion of numerous computer technology issues related to education and computer. The second course is Professional Ethics. It is an elective one-semester, three credit course and composed of three hour lecture period once per week in the Educational Administration and Supervision Department. Professional Ethics course components include code of ethics, student and parental rights, social responsibilities of schools, ethical decision-making process, judgments and 51

60 justifications of moral behaviour. The major objectives of this course are twofold: (1) to enhance students awareness of professional ethics; and (2) to gain knowledge and skills through sample scenarios including various professional domains. Ethics deals with human actions and beliefs. ICT offers entirely new opportunities for individuals to behave in such a way that they did not behave before in a face to face environment and raises major ethical issues for society. Hence, academic programs should offer undergraduate students a variety of courses specializing in ethical, professional and legal issues that they are likely to confront (Thompson & Edward, 2004). So, they should be aware of potential and emerging ethical issues of ICT that may affect them. Despite discussions about teachers judgments of the appropriateness of ICT use, there have been few studies of ICT student teachers judgments and justifications in this context. After graduation they will work as primary school ICT teachers and will be responsible for teaching students what is right and what is wrong of computer use. So, it is important to understand their judgments and justifications about ethical issues in order to help prepare them for future ethical issues. Specifically, it was intended to establish whether gender and prior education in ethics have any effect on the ethical judgments and justifications of ICT student teachers. The following research questions were considered: 1. Are there differences in the ethical judgments of female and male ICT student teachers in computer related situations? 2. Are there differences in the ethical justifications of female and male ICT student teachers in computer related situations? 3. Do ICT student teachers formal education in ethics have effect on their ethical judgments of computer related ethical issues? 4. Do ICT student teachers formal education in ethics have effect on their ethical justifications of computer related ethical issues? Methodology In this study, we used a critical incidents technique (CIT) - a qualitative research approach- similar to Colnerud s (1997) procedure to collect data. This method was first developed by Flanagan in the 1950s. CIT involves a step by step approach to collect and analyze information about significant instances of a circumstantial activity. It enables researchers (1) to identify practical problems, (2) to reflect real life problems and (3) support practical outcomes. As Pope, Green, Johnson and Mitchell (2009) stated, This methodology allows subjects to respond from their own perspective in their own words and thus better describe the dilemmas they face (p. 779). Participants were asked to respond one single question about the case in the scenario from a moral/ethical point of view. They then were asked to give their reasons for why they perceive that there is an ethical dilemma or not in the case scenario. Participants The participant pool for this study consisted of 54 fourth year students studying at the Department of Computer and Instructional Technologies Education in the Faculty of Education from Ankara University in Turkey. We purposefully selected the fourth year students because prior education was a major 52

61 objective of the current study. Thirty-five students volunteered to participate in this study (23 male and 12 female). Demographics of the participants are shown in Table 1. According to the survey, the majority of participants had more than five years of computer and Internet experience. Out of the participants, 57% described themselves as good ICT users. Most of them had at least one course related to ethics being either professional ethic or computer ethic. There was only one student that took more than two courses related to ethics. Table 1: Demographics of the Participants Gender Female Male How long have you been using computer and Internet? and above ICT Levels Average Good Very Good Have you ever taken any course related to ethics during your formal education? None Professional Ethic Course Computer Ethic Course Professional and Computer Ethic Courses Other n % Data Collection The study was carried out in the fall of 2010 and the data were gathered via a structured questionnaire containing twelve items. The questionnaire was conducted face-to-face with an inperson interview. Questionnaire consists of two sections. The first section includes four multiple choice questions about the gender, computer and Internet usage, ICT level and courses taken related to ethic. We used these questions to describe the ICT student teachers familiarity with ethic and ICT usage. The second section consist of a set of four vignettes illustrates scenarios of ethical dilemmas that ICT student teachers would confront in the school. Scenarios were self-designed vignettes based on our observations in the schools and informal interviews with primary school ICT teachers of critical events that may occur in the school. All participants were asked two questions after each of the scenarios. The first one was a multiple-choice question aiming to judge the appropriateness of the case in the scenario. The second question was an open-ended question to draw out their reasons for their opinions. Two specialists also revised whether the scenarios and instructions were clear and 53

62 understandable. We expected that there would be a difference between ICT student teachers judgments and justifications with regard to gender and formal education. Scenarios To investigate ICT student teachers judgments and their justifications, four scenarios were designed based on Mason s (1986) four ethical issues: privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility. They were reviewed by two academic staff who taught computer ethics course in higher education. All the reviewers agreed that the four scenarios represented ethical dilemmas in ICT use that Turkish ICT teachers could encounter in their real life. The scenarios were as follows: Scenario #1 highlights the issue of privacy violation Scenario 1: The teacher announces students grades on the school website publicly. Here we argue that announcing grades publicly might be expected to be closely related to ethical judgments. The behavior is widespread even if it is not illegal or it does not violate a contract. Scenario #2 presents an accuracy issue Scenario 2: Mrs. P wants to get an appointment from the social science teacher to discuss the performance of her son in the school. Therefore, she checks the office hours of the social science teacher from the school web site. She then goes to the school by obtaining permission from the workplace. But she can t get in touch with the teacher during office hours. The school officials say that information on the web was not up-to-date and teachers office hours had changed a long time ago. When considering Internet use, we argue that the misinformation on the web when people rely on it might foul up peoples lives. Scenario #3 relates to property issue Scenario 3: Student K needs a software program that is able to create 3D images to prepare the term paper on science and technology course. He talks with his ICT teacher and wants a copy of the software which would exceed his budget. ICT teacher gives him a copy of the software which is purchased by National Education Center for school use. Here we argue that giving a copy of proprietary software to students for educational purposes is an ethical dilemma even if it is illegal or violates a contract. Scenario #4 relates to access right Scenario 4: Miss. E wants to prepare a project on the protection of the natural environment. She proposes to develop a blog site and to add videos about environment and nature to her blog. But she has no access to the Internet at home and therefore, she wants to use the computer lab to search videos on the video-sharing web sites. However, accessing to the video-sharing web sites at school has been blocked by the school management because of the inappropriate content. 54

63 Here we argue that it is unethical to block the entire website because of some inappropriate contents. For each of the four scenarios, we asked participants two questions. The first question asked was to judge whether there exist an ethical dilemma in the case of the scenario. The second question asked them to elicit their reasons for their justifications. Data Analysis All categorical data were analysed using the SPSS (Version 17, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) system. The associations between different categorical variables were analysed with Fisher s exact test. Openended questions were analysed through content analysis. Conceptual analysis was used to identify themes and justifications of ICT student teachers reasons for why they perceive that there is an ethical dilemma or not in the case scenario. Each justification was presented using direct quotations in a conversational format. Familiarity with the text was achieved by repeated reading. We also identified words and sentences including information relevant to the research questions as analysis units. The whole data were analyzed in more detail by reading and searching for new associations and meanings in the data. Quotations illustrate the ICT student teachers' expressions. As the study was conducted in the Turkish language the quotations were translated to English by the authors. The quotations start with S (Student) and end with the participants' code, numbered from 1 to 35. We first present the results of ICT student teachers judgments and then justifications in computer related ethical issues. Results Research Question One To address the first research question, Are there differences in the ethical judgments of female and male ICT student teachers in computer related situations?", we conducted Fisher exact test to assess whether there are gender-based differences in the ethical judgments of ICT student teachers with respect to ethical issues. The majority of them made accurate judgments and indicated that there exist ethical dilemmas in the cases of scenarios. However, none of these results were statistically significant for each scenarios outlined in this study (Table 3). The proportion of the male ICT student teachers was approximately the same value with the proportion of female ICT student teachers. Overall, these results suggest that gender does not affect the ethical judgments of ICT student teachers. 55

64 Table 2: Gender and ICT Student Teachers Judgments Scenarios 1 (Privacy) n % n % 2 (Accuracy) n % n % 3 (Property) n % n % 4 (Accessibility) n % n % Judgments Male Exist Not exist Exist Not exist Exist Not exist Exist Not exist Gender Female Total P Research Question Two To address the second research question, Are there differences in the ethical justifications of female and male ICT student teachers in computer related situations?", we used content analysis method. This research question explores possible differences in the gender-based ethical justifications of ICT student teachers with respect to ethical issues. The results will be explained in a more detailed way below: Scenario 1: The majority of male and female ICT student teachers indicated that there exists an ethical dilemma in the case of this scenario (Table 2). Most frequently they emphasized that announcing students grades publicly is an invasion of students privacy. They also stated that it is inappropriate for teachers to announce the students who got low grades publicly because it may adversely affect those students emotions. For example, one student expressed: I experienced the same situation last semester. I got the sense of inferiority when I got low grade. Teacher behaves unethically (S24). Furthermore, male ICT student teachers stressed that it is appropriate to announce students grades publicly on the Internet so that students could do their self-assessment. One male student, for example, expressed: By comparing his scores to classmates scores, students can review their status and be more careful for future exams (S2). Moreover, the same reasons and justifications were reported by female ICT student teachers. Consequently, we found that privacy, psychological effects and self-assessment were all reasons for the case of this scenario. Scenario 2: Male ICT student teachers who believed that there exists an ethical dilemma in the case of scenario 2 reasoned that it is inappropriate to provide incorrect information on a website. Publishing incorrect information is an invasion of accuracy. Moreover, they also stated that teacher/school management has not fulfilled his/her obligations appropriately. Those who believed that there exists no ethical dilemma pointed out that it might be tolerated because of teachers heavy workloads. For 56

65 example, one male student stated:...there is just neglect and it may have been caused by teachers heavy workload... (S8). Similarly, the same reasons and justifications were reported by female ICT student teachers. Overall, we found that accuracy, professional responsibility and heavy workload were all reasons for the case of this scenario. Scenario 3: Male and female ICT student teachers who believed that there exists an ethical dilemma in the case of this scenario reasoned the same justifications. They expressed that it is inappropriate for a teacher to share school property with a student because it may violate the property rights. On the other hand, it is interesting that there is just one female ICT student teacher who pointed out that there exists no ethical dilemma in this scenario. She reasoned that it is appropriate to share a software program because it looks like a good and goods can be shared. On the contrary, male ICT student teachers who believed that there exists no ethical dilemma stated that it is appropriate to use software program for educational purpose. One male student, for example, stated:...it is for educational purpose, not for commercial use (S7). Overall, we revealed that intellectual property, perceiving software like a tangible property and pedagogical purpose were all the reasons for the case of this scenario. Scenario 4: This was the most controversial issue among ICT student teachers. The majority of male ICT student teachers, who believed that there exists an ethical dilemma, stated that it is inappropriate for school management to block websites. Banning website violates users accessibility rights. In addition, some of them also reasoned that it is inappropriate for students to download videos without uploader s or copyright holder s permission. For example, one male student expressed: Because the student did not get permission to use the videos from the rightful owners (S4). On the other hand, a large number of female ICT student teachers who believed that there exists an ethical dilemma reasoned that it is inappropriate for students to download videos without permission. One female student, for example, expressed:...it is not ethical to download videos without uploaders permissions (S31). Similarly, one of the female ICT student teachers stated that it is inappropriate for students to download videos if downloading such videos is not permitted by school management. Furthermore, the same reasons and justifications were reported by ICT student teachers who believed that there exists no ethical dilemma. The majority of them pointed out that it is appropriate for school management to block those web sites having harmful contents since students should be protected from such contents. Consequently, we found that accessibility, permission, authorized rules and harmful content were all reasons for the case of this scenario. Research Question Three To address the third research question, Do ICT student teachers formal education in ethics have effect on their ethical judgments of computer related ethical issues?", we conducted Fisher exact test to assess whether there are differences in computer related ethical judgments between ICT student teachers who have previously taken course related to ethic and those who have not. In response to all four scenarios, the majority of them indicated that there exist ethical dilemmas. However, none of these results were statistically significant for each scenarios outlined in this study (Table 2). The proportion of ICT student teachers, who have taken course related to ethic, was approximately the same with the proportion of those who have not. Overall, these results suggest that taking a course in ethics does not affect the ethical judgments of ICT student teachers. 57

66 Table 3: Prior Education in Ethics and Judgments of ICT Student Teachers Course Scenarios Judgments None Course taken Total P 1 (Privacy) n % n % 2 (Accuracy) n % n % 3 (Property) n % n % 4 (Accessibility) n % n % Exist Not exist Exist Not exist Exist Not exist Exist Not exist Research Question Four To address the fourth research question, Do ICT student teachers formal education in ethics have effect on their ethical justifications of computer related ethical issues?", we used content analysis method. This research question explores whether there are differences in ethical justifications between ICT student teachers who have previously taken course related with ethic and those who have not. The results are explained in more detail below: Scenario 1: The majority of ICT student teachers indicated that there exists an ethical dilemma in the case of this scenario (Table 2). The vast majority of them, who have taken course related to ethics, stated that announcing students grades publicly is an invasion of students privacy. Some of them also expressed that it is inappropriate for teachers to announce students private knowledge. A few of them also pointed out psychosocial factors and stated that it is inappropriate to announce students grades publicly since it would be embarrassing for other students who got scores below average. On the other hand, ICT student teachers who indicated that there exists no ethical dilemma expressed that they would prefer openness so it was okay for them. Some of them also reasoned that it is appropriate to announce grades on the Internet so that they could assess their own success by comparing others. The results indicated that same reasons and justifications were reported by ICT student teachers who have previously taken an ethics course and those who have not. Overall, we revealed that privacy, psychological factors, openness and self-assessment were all reasons for the case of this scenario in regard to formal education. Scenario 2: When we analysed the justifications of ICT student teachers, who have taken course related to ethics, we saw that they consider the reasons from the viewpoints of professional ethics and computer ethics. Some of them expressed that it is inappropriate for a teacher or school management not to keep the web site up-to-date because this means that the teacher or school 58

67 management has not fulfilled their professional duties and responsibilities. Besides that, the others stated that school management should ensure the accuracy of information on the school website. On the other hand, ICT student teachers who believed that there exists no ethical dilemma in the case of this scenario stated that keeping the web site up-to-date is a time consuming process and it might be tolerated because of the teachers or school managements heavy workloads. They most likely believed that not to keep the website up-to-date is due to negligence. Furthermore, the same reasons and justifications were reported by ICT student teachers who have taken course in ethics and those who have not taken the course. We found that professional responsibility, accuracy and heavy workload were all reasons for the case of this scenario in regard to formal education. Scenario 3: The majority of ICT student teachers believed that there exists an ethical dilemma in the case of this scenario (Table 2). The vast majority of them who have previously taken a course related to ethics reasoned that it is inappropriate for teachers to share the school property because it violates the property rights. For example, one female student expressed:... software that has been purchased by National Education Center can only be used in the ICT class. Instead of giving the software to student, it would be more appropriate for teacher to offer opportunities for student to study in the ICT class (S13). On the other hand, ICT student teachers who indicated that there exists no ethical dilemma expressed that it is appropriate for teachers to share school property because it is for an educational purpose. When we analysed the reasons of ICT student teachers who have not taken any course related to ethics, we see that they have the same justifications with those who have taken. It is interesting that one female ICT student teacher stated that software program is like a good and it is okay for her to share a software program. Consequently, we found that intellectual property, pedagogical purpose and perceiving software like a tangible property were all the reasons for the case of this scenario in regard to formal education. Scenario 4: As we said before, this was the most controversial issue among ICT student teachers. It seems that the students who have taken formal education in ethics are separated into two groups with polar viewpoints. One of the groups indicated that it is inappropriate to block the web sites because it violates the accessibility rights. Conversely, the others believed that it is appropriate in the school to make such restrictions because students should be protected from harmful content. A few students also stated that there is no ethical dilemma in the case of this scenario since even if access is blocked in the school, students could access and download the videos beyond the school walls. When we analysed the justifications of ICT student teachers who have not taken course related to ethics, they stated that blocking access to information and the restriction of the freedom of information are inappropriate for school management. One male student, for example, expressed:... Whatever the purpose it may serve, the student should not use or access the website with harmful content (S17). A few of them also expressed that it is inappropriate to download and embed videos to the blog without uploaders permission. In fact, it is obvious that they have incorrect and misleading information about topics such as copyrights, intellectual property and the policies of video-sharing web sites. Therefore, they have a justification that is wrong. Overall, we revealed that accessibility, harmful content, multichannel access to information and authorized rules were all reasons for the case of this scenario in regard to formal education. Conclusion The findings showed that almost all ICT student teachers in this study have the same judgments and reasoned the same justifications regarding the scenarios related with Mason s (1986) four ethical issues. We found that gender does not affect the judgments and justifications of ICT student 59

68 teachers. Prior, Rogerson and Fairweather (2002) stated that A number of studies have examined the extent to which gender is an influencing factor in ethical attitudes. However, there is little consistency in their findings (p. 29). For instance, Khazanchi (1995) explored that women are more capable of recognizing the unethical behaviours depending upon the ethical dilemma. Kreira and Cronan (1998) also concluded that men and women have different assessment structures regarding what is ethical or unethical behaviour. Moreover, a recent study by Beycioglu (2009) showed that gender has an influence on the ethical judgments depending on the social impact, safety and information integrity components. By contrast, Hay, McCourt Larres, Oyelere and Fisher (2001) revealed that gender does not have a significant influence on ethical behaviours of undergraduate students and they also stated that male and female ethical perception depends on the particular scenario with which the subjects are confronted (p. 335). Although our results do not indicate any possible association between gender and ethical judgments, we suggest that further research is sorely needed with larger samples on this context to be able to draw meaningful distinctions between gender and ethical judgments and justifications. Similar to Hay, McCourt Larres, Oyelere, & Fisher s (2001) study, another interesting finding in this study is that by focusing educational background of ICT student teachers, we found that whether or not to take a course related to ethics does not affect the judgments and justifications of ICT student teachers. Lack of difference between those two sets of ICT student teachers is quite surprising and raises the questions regarding the practical value of courses related to ethics. One possible explanation for this result is that they in this study are getting special education on ICT, and they have opportunities for informal interaction and engagement beyond both the classroom walls and physical environment with classmates even they all have not taken the same courses. We argue that social interaction has a strong impact on enhancing ICT student teachers ethical decision-making process. So, we believe that a transition from a lecture-centred teaching approach to a more learnercentred teaching is necessary and a way to get better learning outcomes is to use discussion-centred activities based on the real-world problems. Our results also showed that few ICT student teachers tend to obey school or institutional rules strictly. For instance, in Scenario 3, a teacher lends student a software program, ICT student teachers mostly relied on constructed rules to judge the behaviours as appropriate or inappropriate. This finding is partly consistent to Kreire and Cronan s (1998) study. Their results showed that men judgments are mostly based on personal values and the legal authenticity of the act, and women judgments are based on environmental cues such as personal values. But their results offer no adequate explanation (Adam & Ofori-Amanfo, 2000). Jung (2009) also stated that legal obligations have a weaker impact on students ethical judgments. However, we discovered that legal obligations and regulations have a strong impact on male and female ICT student teachers judgments and justifications. Findings from this study showed that they are not capable of distinguishing the virtue and rules. Colnerud (2006) defines virtue as practical wisdom and argues that while handling ethical issues, our thinking should not be limited by rules. We should develop our judgments as thinking all cases in its uniqueness so it helps us to give the right decision at any moment. It is unfortunate that there are many policy and conceptual vacuums in Turkish legislation and teachers confront various ethical issues in their classrooms. We argue that it is not possible to solve the problems encountered in the classroom by strictly adhering to rules so we see the needs for new approaches to develop ICT student teachers virtues. Findings also revealed that, of the four issues considered in this study, accessibility is the most controversial issue and about half of the participants indicated that banning access to a web site is not 60

69 an ethical dilemma in the case of scenario 4. A few of them also think of restrictions as a solution. Our results also showed that ICT student teachers do not attain the right justifications due to the lack of knowledge. One possible explanation for this result is that since they, 4 th grades, mainly focus on preparing for the annual Public Personnel Selection Exam (KPSS), they ignore the courses, for example computer ethic course, in the last two semesters just before graduation. This finding is very positive in light of the need for educators to be able to understand the source of lack of knowledge and to make necessary regulations in the curriculum, especially the general topic of student learning outcomes. To sum up, ICT student teachers should be aware of the ethical issues, so that they can be ready for incidents that may arise in the classroom. We need to modify, adapt, and construct our judicial system in accordance with the law of the knowledge age so that we could help students understand the ethical issues in the digital world, such as cyber bullying and cyber victimisation, surrounding them. Li (2007), in a study of Canadian and Chinese seven grades students cyberbullying experiences, stated that...restricting Internet usage, s or any other technological tools cannot stop bullies... (p. 453). He also suggested empowering students awareness of what they are doing is considered a form of cyberbullying. Furthermore, considering the rules that might cause new problems, we should make the effort to develop our students highest virtues. To begin with, we should identify and understand their reasons and justifications for their ethical choices. We believe that future research is needed to more clearly identify students ethical decision making process. Future studies can focus on a greater variety of ethical issues, other age groups and higher order thinking skills. References Adam, A., & Ofori-Amanfo, J. (2000). Does gender matter in computer ethics? Ethics and Information Technology, 2(1), doi: /a: Akdeniz, Y. (2010). Report of the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media on Turkey and Internet Censorship (pp. 1-36): Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Retrieved January 25, 2011, from ACRL ( Association of College and Research Libraries) (2000). Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. Retrieved July 10, 2011, from Basandra, S. K. (1999). Management information systems. Allahabad: A. H. Wheeler & Co. Ltd. Berk, E. (2008). Turkey: A General overview on data protection and privacy law in Turkey. Retrieved March 12, 2011, from Beycioglu, K. (2009). A cyberphilosophical issue in education: Unethical computer using behavior - The case of prospective teachers. Computers & Education, 53(2), Buchanan, W. D. (2010). What is computer ethics?. Retrieved January 21, 2011, from Clark, C. M. (1995). Thoughtful teaching: Cassell. Colnerud, G. (1997). Ethical conflicts in teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, Colnerud, G. (2006). Teacher ethics as a research problem: Syntheses achieved and new issues. [Reports - Descriptive]. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 12(3),

70 European Commission - Enlargement. (2010). Screening report Turkey: Chapter 7 Intellectual property law. Retrieved January 23, 2011, from et_en.pdf Floridi, L., & Sanders, J. W. (2002). Mapping the foundationalist debate in computer ethics. Ethics and Inf. Technol., 4(1), 1-9. doi: /a: Hay, D., McCourt Larres, P., Oyelere, P., & Fisher, A. (2001). The ethical perception of undergraduate students in computer-related situations: An analysis of the effects of culture, gender and prior education. Teaching Business Ethics, 5(3), doi: /a: Hope, A. (2010). Seductions of risk and school cyberspace. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(5), Jung, I. (2009). Ethical judgments and behaviors: Applying a multidimensional ethics scale to measuring ICT ethics of college students. Computers & Education, 53(3), doi: DOI: /j.compedu Kafai, Y. B., Nixon, A. S., & Burnam, B. (2007). digital dilemmas: How elementary preservice teachers reason about students' appropriate computer and Internet use. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(3), Khazanchi, D. (1995). Unethical behavior in information systems: the gender factor. Journal of Business Ethics, 14, Kreie, J., & Cronan, T. P. (1998). How men and women view ethics?. Communication of the ACM, 41(9) Kuzu, A. (2009). Problems related to computer ethics: Origins of the problems and suggested solutions. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 8(2), Li, Q. (2007). Bullying in the new playground: Research into cyberbullying and cyber victimisation. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23(4), Loch, K. D., & Conger, S. (1996). Evaluating ethical decision making and computer use. Commun. ACM, 39(7), doi: / Maner, W. (1996). Unique ethical problems in information technology. Science and Engineering Ethics, 2(2), doi: /bf Mason, R. O. (1986). Four ethical issues of the information age. Mis Quarterly, Moor, J. H. (1985). What is computer ethics? Metaphilosophy, 16(4), Namlu, A. G., & Odabasi, H. F. (2007). Unethical computer using behavior scale: A study of reliability and validity on Turkish university students. Computers & Education, 48(2), Pope, N., Green, S. K., Johnson, R. L., & Mitchell, M. (2009). Examining teacher ethical dilemmas in classroom assessment. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 25(5), Prior, M., Rogerson, S., & Fairweather, B. (2002). The ethical attitudes of information systems professionals: outcomes of an initial survey. Telematics and Informatics, 19(1), doi: Doi: /s (00) Privacy International (2011). Turkey - Privacy profile. Retrieved February 28, 2011, from 62

71 Thompson, B., & Edwards, H. (2004). Providing graduate computing students with an appreciation of appropriate the ethical, professional and legal issues. Ethicomp. Syros, Greece: University of the Aegean. Retrieved February 21, 2011, from Weckert, J. (1997). Intellectual property rights and computer software. Business Ethics: A European Review, 6(2), doi: /

72 Reflections of Prospective Teachers Regarding Case-Based Learning Serkan Çelik Kırıkkale University, Turkey Yasemin Demirarslan Çevik Hacettepe University, Turkey Tülin Haşlaman Bilkent University, Turkey Abstract The growing interest toward case-based learning for teacher education can be attributed to the inherent potential of cases in terms of providing prospective teachers with opportunities to engage in analyzing and solving realistic teaching cases and to apply what they learned in classes to solve these practical teaching issues. The objective of this research is to determine the perceptions of prospective teachers toward case-based learning in a teaching methods course. Participants of the current study were 38 prospective teachers (17 males and 21 females) attending the third year of a computer education and instructional technology department in Turkey. In the present study, qualitative research methods were utilized to explore prospective teachers perceptions regarding case based learning. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participating teacher candidates and to analyze and interpret the data content analysis and concordance method were exploited. The results suggest that in general the cases provided a valued opportunity to engage developing teachers in solving real life problems that tend to occur in actual teaching. The other evidences emerged from the study suggest that cases can help prospective teachers be prepared for their early teaching experiences in real classrooms by improving their understandings of how to respond to actual problems they will encounter in their fields and how to apply what they learned in classes to solve practical teaching issues. Suggestions were made for further research. Keywords: Case-based learning; teacher education; problem solving; qualitative analysis. Introduction Professional pedagogical literature records the use of cases in various domains of education such as law, business, medicine, and education (Merseth, 1996; Sykes & Bird, 1992). Case-based learning (CBL), which can be rooted from storytelling to share history, teach morals and illuminate concepts, is the modern way of using narratives developed to provide authentic learning for students. Shulman (1992) states that, a case has a narrative, a story, a set of events that unfolds over time in a particular place (p. 21). CBL is deemed to provide opportunities for richer, profound exploration of 64

73 concepts and ideas through which learners obtain experience with analyzing ideas and solving problems rather than acquiring abstract knowledge. Blackmon, Hong and Choi (2007) describes the CBL as the catalyst for class discussions and lectures as it is carefully implemented by the teachers and enthusiastically engaged by the students. In CBL environments learners are expected to sort out factual data, apply analytic tools, articulate issues, reflect on their relevant experiences, and draw conclusions (Boehrer & Linsky, 1990). The literature proposes case-based learning as an alternative pedagogy in teacher education and highlights its potential to enhance prospective teachers higherorder thinking skills and profound comprehension of educational cases (Choi & Lee, 2009; Kim & Hannafin, 2009; Quek, 2010; Wang, 2002; Youngs & Bird, 2010). Case-based Methods in Teacher Education Cases and case methods have been used in teacher education for more than thirty years. A relatively common definition of a case is that a case is the context for the representation of knowledge and experience embedded in the description of a real (teaching/learning) situation (Kagan, 1993; Shulman, 1986a, 1986b). Several researchers have suggested that cases representing the simulations of a variety of classroom conditions be included as part of teacher education curriculum in order for prospective teachers to be better prepared for their future profession (Choi & Lee, 2009; Harrington, 1995; Merseth, 1996; Shulman, 1992; Sykes & Bird, 1992). Having prospective teachers interact with real-life classroom cases has been argued to be a powerful method to allow experimentation and practice in making teaching decisions and to help students come to better understand the values, intentions, and actions of inservice teachers in a real classroom context (Baeten, Dochy, & Struyven, 2012; Bowers & Doerr, 2003; Harrington, 1995; Kim & Hannafin, 2009; Merseth, 1996; Schrader et al., 2003; Sykes & Bird, 1992). There is an extensive body of research in which case methods have been used to study prospective teachers learning and skill development. The presentation format of the cases varies among the studies involving text, video, and audio formats. In addition, the method of case use differs across the studies. Some studies used written or video cases as instructional tools or resources to help preservice teachers solve a problem or make a decision about a teaching/learning situation (e.g., Bruning et al., 2008; Cherubini, 2009; Choi & Lee, 2009; Doebler, Roberson, & Ponder, 1998; Harrington, 1995; Koç, 2011; Santagata & Angelici, 2010). Other studies utilized cases as exemplars to present and demonstrate how theories and principles are applied in practice (e.g., Hughes, Packard, Pearson, 1999, Kim & Hannafin, 2009). The results of these and other studies have demonstrated that cases can facilitate and improve preservice teachers (a) ability to apply theoretical knowledge to practical teaching situations (Baeten et al., 2012). Boling, 2007; Bruning et al., 2008; Kinzer et al., 2001; Kim & Hannafin, 2009; Koç, 2011; Koç, Peker, & Osmanoglu, 2009; Mayo, 2004; Moreno & Valdez, 2007), (b) awareness of multiple perspectives and solution alternatives in analyzing a realistic classroom situation (Choi & Lee, 2009; Doebler et al., 1998; Edwards & Hammer, 2006; Harrington, 1995; Hughes et al., 1999; Koç, 2011; Lundeberg & Levin, 2003, Santagata & Angelici, 2010; Youngs & Bird, 2010), and (c) sense of self-confidence as professionals (Edmunds, 2007; Ertmer, Conclin, & Lewandowski, 2001). As an instance from the relevant literature, Kim and Hannafin (2009) exemplify how computer supported case-based learning supported prospective teachers in understanding and gaining experts knowledge. Generally, prospective teachers reported that the activities are useful and expressed willingness and confidence to use them in the future. They also found the cases and templates useful for them to gain a more concrete idea about the teaching contexts, teachers role, student characteristics, and educational strategies. 65

74 In regard to student perceptions, research showed that prospective teachers perceived cases as an important motivating factor for their learning (Lundeberg, Levin & Harrington, 1999; Koç, 2011) and that they found cases helpful in terms of increasing their awareness of potential issues and teaching strategies that they will likely encounter in their professional lives (Edwards & Hammer, 2006; Joseph, 2002, 2004; Koç, 2011; Lee & Choi, 2008; Moreno & Valdez, 2007; Schrader et al. 2003). To illustrate, in a recent study by Koç (2011), preservice teachers, in small groups, were asked to identify a classroom management issue, create a small video case in which each group member played a role, analyze the case in light of classroom management theories they learned in the course, write a case analysis report, present their analysis to the class, and write an individual reflection paper describing their experiences of the video project. In their reflection papers, students reported that the video project as an authentic learning experience increased their motivation and interest to the course, enhanced their understanding of course content, increased their confidence in their ability to teach, and helped them develop their professional identity as a teacher. Similarly, in an early childhood education class, Lee and Choi (2008) investigated the impact of web-based case instruction on 23 students understanding of real-life classroom management. Results from an evaluation questionnaire and a focus group indicated that students found the web-based case instruction valuable because it provided an experience in real-life problem solving on classroom management, encouraged understanding of multiple thinking about multiple solution ideas, and making reasoned decisions. Research on case-based method has focused on the impact of this approach on students learning outcomes. Students perceptions of the effectiveness of learning environments influence how they engage in tasks in such environments. Accordingly, as Prosser and Trigwell (1999) pointed out, understanding students perceptions of a learning environment is essential to better interpret their learning outcomes. We, therefore, aimed at examining the extent to which students perceptions of case-based method are in accord with our intention that the method is beneficial in improving students conceptual understanding and effective application of teaching methods in problematic classroom situations. As part of the study, a group of prospective teachers engaged in solving realistic teaching cases that portray problematic situations about inservice teachers use of teaching methods in real classroom environments. Based on this purpose, the following research questions were directed: 1. What are prospective teachers perceptions toward the overall effect of case-based learning? 2. What are prospective teachers views on the effect of case-based learning on their problem solving skills? 3. What are prospective teachers opinions on the role of case-based learning on improving their understandings toward teaching methods? Research Design Methods In the present study, qualitative research methods were utilized to explore prospective teachers perceptions regarding CBL. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participating teacher candidates and to analyze and interpret the data content analysis and concordance method were exploited. The data for the study were collected in February-May

75 Implementation Throughout the process, prospective teachers worked individually to analyze and solve cases related to teaching methods issues such as selecting the most appropriate method or methods for the children with learning and motivation problems. The cases used in instruction consisted of three cases involving typical teaching methods issues selected or adapted from instructional materials designed for preservice teacher training. Each case was examined by three faculty experienced in teaching methods. In the first week, task process including case based learning activities was introduced to prospective teachers and the duration allocated to finish the assignments for each case was determined as three weeks. During the ten-week intervention that took place between March 19 th and May 25 th, prospective teachers studied on the cases adorned with instructional tasks such as deciding on the most appropriate method/s for the pupils with learning and motivation problems. Prospective teachers were asked to review and analyze each case, generate alternative solutions to the problem, evaluate the alternatives, come up with decisions, and generate an explanation justifying their decision/s. Cases In the first case, a nine-year experienced computer education teacher, who generally exploits drill and practice and lecturing, seeks for solutions to enhance active participation into the course. He then tries to implement discussion, brainstorming, and group work but encounters with class controlling problems. The second case focuses on a computer education environment with restricted technological facilities. The goal of the teacher is to utilize constructivist teaching philosophy and encourages her students to collaboratively work on the tasks and do out-of-class research. She provides the students some online information and communication platforms in order to sustain the interaction among the students. However, there have been some problems with organizing the groups and some students get lost in Internet and navigate through other sites which are not related to the course goals. The teacher feels as her attempts failed. The last case elaborates on a made up learning environment in which a seven year experienced computer education teachers fails in determining the correct method for assessment of learners` performances. The theme of the course is organizing and grouping electronic files according to their extensions. The case tries to make prospective teachers pay attention to the mismatch of the in-class activity and selected assessment method. All of the case solutions are evaluated within the perspective of the questions below: 1. Did the prospective teachers clearly indicate the problem provided in the cases and did they define the strong and weak aspects of the problem situation? 2. Are the proposed solutions of the prospective teachers adequate for realistically solving the given problem? 3. Are the proposed solutions of the prospective teachers feasible and compatible to the targeted teaching method? 4. Did the prospective students cite any resources while proposing solutions to the problems? 5. Is there any rationale for the proposed solutions? 67

76 6. What are the strong and weak aspects of the proposed solutions? 7. What would be the potential benefits and pitfalls if the proposed solutions were implemented into the problem situation? Participants Participants of the current study were 38 prospective teachers (17 males and 21 females) attending the third year of a computer education and instructional technology department in Turkey. Age of the participants ranged from 20 to 23 years. They were enrolled in the third grade Teaching Methods II course in spring Data Collection Instruments Semi-structured interview forms developed by the researchers were used to collect the data of the study. Experts opinions were received for the validation of the instrument. Considering these opinions, the final version was prepared after necessary corrections and rewording. The final version of the interview form consists of four questions as two main and two sub questions. The questions in the form inquire on the participants opinions about the significance of case-based learning in the process of learning teaching methods. Data Collection and Analysis This qualitative study followed the content analysis approach to elaborate on the interview data and participants solutions to the cases. Content analysis is considered as an appropriate way for analyses of themes in which no theoretical aspect is available in qualitative research (Yildirim & Şimşek, 2006). Before the interviews, consent forms for their volunteer participation were signed. Gathered data were analyzed through determining the themes and relating the data with those themes. In this regard, perceptions of prospective teachers regarding their experiences on case-based learning were explored. The findings obtained via the examination of the interviews were presented as frequency distributions. Then, the prospective teachers views were interpreted. To maintain the reliability of the study, following the application, the interview-coding keys and the interview transcriptions were read by three independent researchers, who discussed the subjects they agreed and disagreed on. Necessary adjustments were made accordingly. For the purpose of calculating the reliability of the study, the reliability formula suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 64) was used, which revealed a reliability value of 98 percent. Findings While direct quotations were used regarding the prospective teachers views, the participants names were kept secret and coded. For the direct quotations from the participants within the framework of the main theme determined, the prospective teachers were coded as Sn. In line with the research 68

77 questions and findings obtained on the interviews held with the students in the process of the collection of the research data, themes were determined and presented. The prospective teachers perceptions toward the overall effect of case based learning The most crsytallized theme occured as the impact of the case-based learning activities on the participants understandings toward the concept of teaching and teacher roles. All the prospective teachers interviewed in the study agreed that case studies helped them to gain a teaching sense from various aspects. The findings explaining the participants perceptions on their case-based learning experience as would-be teachers are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Prospective Teachers Perceptions toward the Role of Case-Based Learning Activities on their Instructional Improvement Themes Learning/experiencing to think as a real teacher/teacher thinking 17 Conceptions about teaching profession 13 Required teaching skill 9 Linking theory to practice 8 f Regarding the first sub-theme of learning/experiencing to think as a real teacher/teacher thinking, most of the participant teachers agreed that case studies helped them to enhance an empathy with the teachers in the cases. Besides, they have also expressed the joy of thinking as an active teacher. To exemplify, S 1 stated that: What made me very happy and excited about the cases was to think as a real teacher. Cases provided us to involve in an atmosphere of being a teacher and gave me the chance to observe myself as a teacher. I put myself into the teacher s position in the cases and thought what would I do if I had such a problem in my class (S3). I loved the way each case handle very different situations and contexts. I have never felt myself as such close to my occupation before, though I have attending this department for these years. I had the chance to observe relations between the theoretical and practical knowledge (S5). With respect to the second theme focusing on participants views related to teaching profession, S 1 and S 5 pointed out that; I didn`t know teaching could be such complicated before studying with cases. I used to consider teaching as a very easy job. I can determine teaching mistakes easier now (S1). Cases changed my opinions on being a teacher. Cases made me to understand the need for change and dynamism in teaching (S13). Some of the prospective teachers also mentioned about the positive effect of case studies on their realizing of the required teaching skills to cope with challenges that may emerge in actual teaching. S 11 postulates that case studies envisaged them that applying teaching methods needs some skills in order to accomplish, by saying; 69

78 I experienced what kind of competencies I should possess as a teacher in the process of implementing a method or technique (S11). There has been many views underlining the effect of case-based activities on improving their understandings of teaching theory and actual teaching conditions. To exemplify; Cases linked my theoretical knowledge and teaching method with actual learning scenarios (S34). Considering the findings presented above, it can be claimed that case studies provided prospective teachers with different point of views and improved their understanding of instructional profession. One of the most frequently mentioned opinion is that CBL contributed them in realizing their own learning needs and familiarize with learner psychology from the teacher s perspective. Additionally, ideas mentioned above imply that analyzing target situation also helped them to understand the importance of classroom context, assessment and teacher competencies. Prospective teachers opinions on the effect of case-based learning on their problem solving skills. The second theme emerged from the data is observed as the students agreement on mentioning about the effect of CBL activities on improving their problem solving skills. Participants opinions on the positive effect of case-based learning on their problem solving skills are presented in Table 2. Table 2. The opinions of Prospective Teachers Regarding the Impact of Case-Based Learning on their Improvement in Problem Solving Theme Improving in problem solving skills 11 Improving in defining the teaching related problem(s) 8 Improving in comprehending problem situation 7 Improving in realizing problem solving steps 5 Improving in thinking in a critical way 3 f The first sub-theme as Improving in problem solving skills can be considered as a general picture of the following sub-themes. From a broad perspective, a consensus was attained among the participants expressions toward the role of CBL on improving their problem solving and critical thinking skills. Some of the quotations related to the issue are as follows: Case activities raised my consciousness toward the potential problems in a class and the ways that I can use to solve them. I tried to propose solutions by exploring the reasons of the problem (S12). By means of the cases, I realized that there is not only one single solution for a specific problem. Moreover, a single method/technique (solution) may not be enough to cover all aspects of the problem (S8). Cases made me drawn the implication that I cannot solve all problems by using the some formula. There are other issues to take care of.. (S17). 70

79 Cases improved my problem solving skills toward the problems I may face in the future. I understood that I should generate alternative solution to educational problems (S23). In addition to the aforementioned opinions about the role of CBL on improving participants problem solving skills, the findings indicated that the prospective teachers gained a perspective of critical thinking toward the analyzing and handling the educational problems. Correspondingly, these findings adress the fact that the main traits of CBL are derived from problem based learning activities. It is apparent that the cases offer learners opportunities to practice the comprehension and elaborating on educational problems. To sum up, participants perceptions claim that the use of case studies in the preparation of teachers is promising in terms of providing problem solving practice. Prospective teachers opinions on the role of case-based learning on improving their understandings toward teaching methods A set of concrete evidence was obtained from the gathered data that participants perceived casebased activities as a favourable instrument to enhance their understandings toward the concept of teaching methods. Most of the participant teachers agreed that case studies helped them to improve in teaching methods. Some of the examples related to the issues are presented in Table 3. Table 3. The opinions of Prospective Teachers Regarding the Impact of Case-Based Learning on their Improvement in Teaching Methods Themes Importance of methods in teaching 15 Contextual issues affecting the success of method/contextual issues that need to be 7 considered when using methods Using multiple methods/ knowledge about multiple methods 6 Perceived learning needs on teaching methods 3 Perceived improved competence 2 f Participated prospective teachers have provided many valuable themes regarding the effect of CBL activities on their comprehension of teaching methods. Briefly, participants showed an agreement on the positive role of case based learning on realizing the importance of the teaching methods and internalizing them. Some of the quotations explaining the first sub-theme are as follows; Although I have been told about teaching methods several times for the last three years, I have never valued them before I have worked with cases. Cases forced me to delve into the importance of methods and use them to solve the given problems (S11). I thought having a teaching methods course is nonsense before studying with cases. Cases made me realize that methods are the quides to find the correct way to solve a learning problem (S23). Cases made me notice that teaching methods are not just words and they can shape the instruction. I also realize that all ingredients and steps of the methods should be implemented carefully in line with conditions (S27). The shared message from the prospective teachers opinions mentioned above is that CBL process helped them to concrete the concepts such as theory, approach, technique, strategy. Most of the 71

80 prospective teachers reported similar views and supported the idea that CBL had a positive effect on them to realize the importance of the teaching methods. Regarding the second sub-theme of contextual issues affecting the success of method/contextual issues that need to be considered when using methods, many students underlined the importance of the context and referred to the contextual issues that should be taken into account. Some of the quotations related to the issue are as follows; Cases helped me to adapt teaching methods in different contexts and generate solutions. Before implementing a method, a teacher should take various issues in account such as the classroom conditions, learners pre-learning levels, materials, course length (S33). I realized that all the issues related to the course including students, teachers, facilities, age, and gender have the potential to affect the selected teaching method (S21). I drawn out that before implementing the method or technique, we should think about its compatibility to the problem we have encountered (S34). My main implication from the case studies is that you cannot use any method/technique in any classes or conditions. Cases taught me under what conditions teaching methods work or not (S7). Cases improved my understanding of how best I can modify the teaching methods according to the special conditions of my classes (S29). The above mentioned ideas imply that participants are affected from the case-based activity process to drawn the idea that each classroom requires to plan, select, and implement teaching methods in relation to its context and conditions. The excerpts also indicate the participants perceived learnings on how to implement teaching methods in different contexts having different features as in the example of the student saying cases helped me when and under what circumstances I should use teaching methods. Hence, we can conclude that the reflections of the participants on this issue claim a positive role on attaining the agreement on the fact that adaption of teaching methods is inevitable in accordance with the realities of the context. With respect to the third sub-theme about using multiple methods/ knowledge about multiple methods, prospective teachers generated various ideas on the mental change they have experienced through the case-based activities. Underlining the elaborated traits of teaching methods, some of the excerpts are presented below; Before the case activities, I was not so aware that different teaching methods have different traits and capabilities to respond to learning case (S6). Before working with the cases, I used to think that a few outstanding teaching methods would be enough for us to survive in my target station as a teacher. But now, I know it was a wrong thought (S37). I learnt a lot about the teaching methods; I noticed that my student may get bored when I do not enrich my teaching with different methods (S1). 72

81 The following sub-theme is on the role of CBL activities to make participants realize their perceived learning needs on teaching methods. In general, many students referred to the effect of studying with cases on their realizations toward the need to learn about teaching methods. Some of the ideas of the prospective teachers are given below; Before studying with cases, I thought I know teaching methods then I realized that it is not enough to know them literally, what matters is to implement them in a critical and versatile way (S16). I loved case studies much because I learnt how I can use the teaching methods when I have a problem in the class and what kind of problems I may encounter (S18). Cases studies clearly tested the validity of learning on teaching methods in real-like environment (S27). What I know about the teaching methods before studying on cases was just their definitions. But cases made me correspond them profoundly and I learnt how to use them (S35). I thought I utilize all teaching methods while working as a teacher before studying with cases. Cases led me to see what probable hinders and pitfalls that I can face with while implementing teaching methods (S13). I knew about teaching methods before but I didn`t know about the details of their implementation (S9). The examination of the prospective teachers opinions above posit that they give credit to the CBL activities and promote it due to its facilitating effect on their discovery of the need for blending the methods & techniques in problematic situations in teaching. Correspondingly, the participants declared that CBL helped them to undertand the importance of the readiness of the learners and the creativity to select teaching methods. Considering the findings presented above, it can be claimed that casebased activities improved prospective teachers in various aspects related to teaching methods and their implementation. The concepts mentioned by the prospective teachers related to teaching methods are given in Table 4. Table 4. Methods and Techniques Mentioned by the Prospective Teachers Theme Constructivism 7 Collaborative learning 4 Discussion 4 Project based learning 3 Learner-centered approaches 4 Drill & practice 3 Role-play 3 Lecturing 3 Presentation 2 Teacher-centered 2 Question-answer 2 Discovery based learning 2 Quantum learning 1 f 73

82 The list above indicates that the process in which prospective teachers studied on teaching methods in the whilst of case-based studies made them refer to many teaching philosophies and methods. That is to say, learners attached these methods with the outcomes of case-based learning activities. The constructive effect of case based activitites on the learners improvement in teaching methods can be tracked with the quotations provided below; Before studying on cases, I thought drill&practice and lecturing would be enough to keep education. But then I exposed to facts that there have been many unqiue methods and techniques (S18). I used to think that there are many teaching methods but nobody use them, cases helped me to locate them at appropriate places in my mind (S24). While working (studying) on the third case. I was much more competent to evaluate the performance the teacher in using the teaching method (S11). Before this activitiy, teaching methods were just concepts and words former. Cases helped me much to make them concerete (S4). I have noticed that I don`t know some of the teaching methods mentioned in the cases... Before these activities, I only know about the advantages and limitations of the teaching method. Cases helped us to internalize them (S26). I realized that more than one teaching method should be integrated into a class and learner-centered methods are more effective in general (S31). Given quotes may infer that implementing case-based activities into a teaching methods course helpep learners in acquiring them and made them competent in knowing about the general traits of the teaching methods as the course content. Besides, as the prospective problem solvers in their future work environments, cases seem to improve learners in formulating strategies to analyze the situation and generate possible solutions with their background knowledge on teaching methods. Conclusion and Suggestions The research in teacher development attempts to elicit effective use of case methods in novel and versatile ways. Cases are deemed as effective learning tools that bridge the gap between theory and practice (Flynn & Klein, 2001), facilitate the application of knowledge in authentic problem solving (Choi & Lee, 2009) and construct sophisticated tacit knowledge and expertise that is challenging to deliver via traditional and didactic instruction (Wang, 2002). As a respond to the research in this perspective, the current study targetted to purport the perceptions of prospective teachers toward the implementation of case-based learning in a teaching methods course. As the main inference of the data collected, all of the prospective teachers participated in the study agreed that studying on the cases based on contemporary or realistic problems makes subject matter more relevant and concrete. The results of the study showed prospective teachers perceived cases as valuable in terms of providing them with such opportunities as experiencing to think as a real teacher and applying theoretical knowledge to practical situations, as well as improving their understanding and conceptions of teaching profession. The results are in line with the existing research on students perceptions regarding the impact of case-based method on their learning and professional development (Edwards & Hammer, 2006; Joseph, 2002, 2004; Koç, 2011; Lee & Choi, 2008; Moreno & Valdez, 2007; Russell, 74

83 2001; Schrader et al., 2003). The previous research on using cases for developing learning posit that case-based learning experiences matches the idea of immersion in, and reflection on, authentic classroom experiences. In line with the findings of the current research, Russell (2001) reports that most of the teacher candidates, who followed the 'practice-before-theory' approach, do possess positive perceptions about the case-based teacher training programs. The results of the present study imply that cases reflecting the complexity of real classroom situations allowed prospective teachers experience, to some extent, real teaching, tie theoretical knowledge to practical situations, and develop an insight regarding necessary skills and knowledge that they will likely need in future workplace environments. According to Jonassen and Hernandez-Serrano (2002), cases could function as a substitute for direct experience, which novice problem solvers do not possess (p. 69). Although experiences gained through cases may not compensate with the value of direct, personal experiences, case-based instruction provides learners with resources to get insights about the situations where personal experiencing may be risky or hard to get. Prospective teachers generally do not experience real teaching until their last year in the teacher education program. Cases, therefore, can help prospective teachers be prepared for their early teaching experiences in real classrooms by improving their understandings of how to respond to actual problems they will encounter in their fields and how to apply what they learned in classes to solve practical teaching issues. To illustrate, one of the current challenges experienced by most prospective teachers is the disparity between the theories of classroom management exposed to in pre-service, and the practices in complex and ill-structured classroom situations (Quek, 2010). As maintained by Loughran (2002), this research suggests that cases may contribute learning environments by providing learners with the chance to observe theory in practice by developing their critical thinking abilities. The results of the current study also revealed that prospective teachers found cases influential in improving their problem solving and critical thinking skills. Similar findings were reported in other studies (Jonassen & Hernandez-Serrano, 2002; Lee & Choi, 2008; Lundeberg & Scheurman, 1997; Schrader et al., 2003). There is an extensive body of research evidence in favor of the positive impact of case-based instruction on students skill development (Baeten et al., 2012; Choi & Lee, 2009; Doebler et al., 1998; Edwards & Hammer, 2006; Harrington, 1995; Hughes et al., 1999; Koç, 2011; Lundeberg & Levin, 2003, Santagata & Angelici, 2010). As an instructional strategy, case-based instruction provides an authentic context in which learners acquire problem solving and decision making skills through engaging in the knowledge and experience of others embedded in cases (Cannon-Bowers & Bowers, 2008; Jonassen & Hernandez-Serrano, 2002; Jonassen, 2000; Kolodner, 2006; Leake, 1996). Similarly, case-based approach, in Cannon-Bowers and Bowers (2008) accounts, can be considered as a tool used to create synthetic experience to support learning by augmenting, replacing, creating, or managing a learner s actual experience with the world (p.318). Additionally, the results of the study showed that prospective teachers found cases helpful in improving their understanding of teaching methods. Prospective teachers expressed, by studying cases, they better understand the importance of methods in teaching and contextual issues that need to be considered when using methods. As stated in the literature, ill-structured domains such as teaching do not have pre-specified set of rules and essential information that can be fully presented to learners. Prospective teachers, therefore, develop better understanding of different teaching methods through the exposure to multiple contexts and perspectives, not by providing them with pre-packaged prescriptions related to the application of methods (Spiro & DeSchryver, 2009). Furthermore, the results of the current study imply that asking prospective teachers to reflect on their thought 75

84 processes helped them better understand their decision making and reasoning related to the application of a variety of teaching methods in different classroom contexts. To sum up, the current study underscored the importance of cases as a pedagogy which helps prospective teachers improve higher-order thinking ability and achieve deeper understanding of the curriculum content. An issue that was not addressed in this study was the effect of using cases on the content based improvements of the prospective teachers depending on their case solutions. Thus, it is recommended that further research be undertaken in this issue. According to Barab and Dodge (2008), class discussions focusing on eliciting students experiences and allowing them to share those experiences with each other can be used to design rich learning environments which facilitate students knowledge, understanding, and motivation. Additionally, it is the scaffolding process including timely, constructive feedback, and guidance that ensures students learning and embodiment in a case-based learning context (Barab & Dodge, 2008; Kolodner & Guzdial, 2000). Therefore, the researchers are suggested to focus on the interactional aspects of the case studies such as expert and peerfeedback during the conventional and online discussions. Another limitation of this study need to be acknowledged is the medium of the instruction. What is now needed is research to be conducted on the effectiveness of cases through online and blended environments. References Baeten, M., Dochy, F., & Struyven, K. (2012). Enhancing students approaches to learning: the added value of gradually implementing case-based learning. European Journal of Psychology of Education, DOI: /s Blackmon, M., Hong, Y., & Choi, I.. (2007). Case-Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved June 20, 2012 from Boehrer, J., & Linsky, M. (1990). Teaching with cases: Learning to question. In M.D. Svinicki (ed.), The Changing Face of College Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 42. San Francisco,: Jossey-Bass. Boling, E. (2007). Linking technology, learning, and stories: Implications from research on hypermedia video-cases. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, Bowers, J., & Doerr, H. (2003). Designing Multimedia Case Studies for Prospective Mathematics Teachers. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 12(2), Bruning, R., Siwatu, K. O., Liu, X., PytlikZillig, L. M., Horn, C., Sic, S., & Carlson, D. (2008). Introducing teaching cases with face-to-face and computer-mediated discussion: Two multiclassroom quasi-experiments. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(2), Cherubini, L. (2009). Exploring prospective teachers' critical thinking: Case-based pedagogy and the standards of professional practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, Choi, I., & Lee, K. (2009). Designing and implementing a case-based learning environment for enhancing ill-structured problem solving: Classroom management problems for prospective teachers. Educational Technology Research and Development, 57, Doebler, L., Roberson, T., & Ponder, C. (1998). Preservice teacher case study responses: A preliminary attempt to describe program impact. Education, 119(2),

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87 Investigating Education and Support Needs of Families Who Have Children with Intellectual Disabilities * Atilla Cavkaytar Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Oktay Cem Adıgüzel Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Esra Ceyhan Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Hakan Uysal Osmangazi University, Turkey [email protected] Ömer Garan Ministry of Education, Turkey [email protected] Abstract The purpose of the study was to define families of children with intellectual disabilities, needs on education and support services. Descriptive survey model was used in the study. Data was collected via semi-structured interviews. The study was conducted in 9 Training Application Schools (Eğitim Uygulama Okulu) that were formal special education school, governed by Ministry of Education. The schools were in Eskişehir, Ankara, İzmir, İstanbul, Denizli and Muğla. 18 administrators and teachers and 38 volunteer parents of children with intellectual disabilities participated in the study. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The themes defined from the interviews were: social support social support networks, personal development, skills on working with children, adjustment process, information about special education programs and school s practices, child s health. Although, there were some differences between the percentage of needs area of administrators-teachers and parents, the needs areas of administrators and teachers were parallel with parents. It is thought that the results of this study can be a source for designing programs and developing present programs on the basis of the needs of families of children with intellectual disabilities. Keywords: Parent needs; family needs; children with intellectual disabilities. Introduction Family prevails as the primary institution that forms the basis of all other communal institutions. Family could be defined as social and economic group, depends on division of work, with various types such as small, large, narrow or wide where individuals are born into, raised in or spend most of their lives in (Cavkaytar, 2010; Türk Dil Kurumu (TDK), 2010). Initially, a simple form of interaction network based on the foundation of the relationship between the couple is formed. This relationship * This study was supported by a grant from The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (110K255) and Anadolu University Scientific Research Projects (1005E102) 79

88 evolves to a different stage as a child; a new member of the family comes into the couple s world. Along with the new member, the couple, who newly became mother and father shift their expectations and roles in life, each other, occupancies, close circle and society (Akkök, Aşkar, & Karancı, 1992). Just after the birth or in school years learning that they have a child with intellectual disability disappoints parents by shattering their feeling of having the ideal child and it affects negatively the family structure and operation (Eripek, 1996). While learning the evolution in their structure and operation, causes of this evolution and also learning how to live with a child with intellectual disability family members go through processes, according to O Shea, Algozzine and Hammitte (2001) there are five stages: (1) shock, disbelief, denial, (2) anger, resentment, (3) bargaining, (4) depression and hopelessness (5) acceptance; according to Varol (2006) there are three stages: (1) shock, denial, pain, depression, (2) anger, guilt, shame, (3) acceptance and adjustment. To participate successfully in these processes, which start with the stage of shock and finish with the stage of acceptance is possible for parents with the consideration of the needs of all members of the family. This consideration is also the precondition to preserve the integrity and unity of the family (Fiedler, Clark, & Simpson, 2007). Main purpose of evaluating family needs is to make a contribution to children with intellectual disability and to settle the type, content and quality of the service which will be given to the child and to the family (Akçamete & Kargın, 1996; Bailey & Simeonsson, 1988; Varol, 2006). For that purpose, firstly, problems that families have after they learned they have a child with intellectual disability should be determined, in addition to family needs their strong ways and their supports should be settled (Bennet, Lingerfelt, & Nelson, 1990). Variety and variability in family needs prevent developing a universal and reliable need classification system for settling the needs of the families who has child with children with intellectual disability; but, it is thought that the problem will be solved by using different evaluation approaches (Berger, 2008). By using the techniques of observation and interview; it is possible to learn about families which could support their children and to learn roles, competence of each family member and the requirements that they need to survive, by making tests, surveys and inventories or using environmental assessment approach as base which allows to evaluate the family in its own natural environment (Bennett, Lingerfelt, & Nelson, 1990). Winton (1986), Bailey and Simeonsson (1988), Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Soodak and Shogren (2011) indicated that evaluation instruments, which are developed to determine families needs in different domains can be used. When the evaluation instruments, which are developed to determine the needs of families, are analyzed, it is seen that the needs are discussed under specific headings (Shea & Bauer, 1991). With the Family Needs Survey of Bailey and Simeonsson (1988) it is collected under six topics; information, family and social support, financial needs, explaining child s circumstances to others, operation of the family and community services. With the Family Information Preference Inventory of Turnbull and Turnbull, it is collected under five informational areas; teaching the child at home, support and working with professionals, planning for the future, helping the whole family relax and enjoy life more, finding and using more support (Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Soodak, & Shogren, 2011). Winton (1986) indicated that to determine families needs it should be evaluated in five informational areas; properties of child, information, help and support, nature of the interactive relation between child and parents, point of view of the family for upbringing the child and living with a child with disability and family s lifecycle and conditions. Generally analyzed, within the needs of parents of child with intellectual disabilities, need of knowledge/education, need of support, need of performing family function properly is emphasized frequently. In need of knowledge/education category, families need of knowledge/education takes part in these kind of subjects; nature and properties of disability, child s and family s legal rights, offer 80

89 education to the child, preparing an efficient environment for child s education at home, coping with child s behavioral problems and communication with the child (Bernstein and Barta, 1988). To be able to limit the expectations from child with intellectual disabilities as members of his family, to determine the convenient purpose and service fulfill the family s needs of information about child s disability, property and legal rights is essential (Çetinkaya & Öz, 2000). The researches show that the informative counseling for the parents needs of knowledge/education reduces the concern and stress and help their adjustment process (Aksaz, 1992; Böcü, 1991; Çetinkaya, 1997; Hunfeld, Tempels, & Passchier, 1999; Pelchat, Jocelyn, & Nicole, 1999). Families need to be informed about how they should cope with their child s behavioral problems and what kind of education they should offer to their child (Kendall, 1998; Kohler, 1993; Özen, Çolak, & Acar, 2002; Page, 1993; Simpson, 1996). To fulfill this need of the family, it is expected from counselors to offer behavior management, teaching skills and service and sources for the programs that parents will apply at home (Berger, 2008). There are many surveys of family education programs -relies on talent and information gaining and emphasizing the importance of family involvement during child s growth- shows that these programs; by supplying families, their need of knowledge/education about this matter, make them effective in handling child s problems about behavior and learning; and decrease the communication problems with their child (Akköse, 2008; Altunel, 2007; Ardıç, 2008; Bakkaloğlu, 2004; Batu, 2008; Canay, 2003; Charlop-Christy, & Carpenter, 2000; Çetin, 1995; Çuhadar, 2008; Erbaş, 2001; Odluyurt, 2007; Sucuoğlu, Küçüker, & Kanık, 1993; Symon, 2005; Tekin- İftar, 2008; Vuran, 2000). In addition, these researches reveal that the education, which is instructed by families, whose needs of knowledge/education are fulfilled, has a positive effect on the child s development. Besides, in the category of need of support, there are financial, social, emotional or psychological supports for the families with child with disability. Many families with children with intellectual disabilities have the need of emotional support, professional help for their psychological problems and resources of social support. Having a child with intellectual disability in the family is an emotional burden, a stressful life experience and a stressor that requires a constant reaction of tolerance (Freedman, Wyngaarden, & Seltzer, 1997; Yıldırım, & Conk, 2005; Yukay, 1998). This kind of stress sources make families feel inhibited and causes alteration of family roles and relationships. Furthermore, these families with children with disabilities can come across with different sources of stress and this situation can cause negative changes in ordinary family routines, roles, relationships and expectations. When we think about the durations of the family s acknowledgement of the child, the pressure of the explanation of the child s situation to others, the care of the child after the parents die, the parents anxiety of the child s growth, their need of knowledge, their responsibilities of the child s education and treatment, the problems about affording child s care, therapy, special education and medical expenses, the changes that the family will go through after a new member with disability, the difficulties that they will face within their social environment and common life; it is inevitable that these families will be helped all their lives for various reasons by counselors, institutions, their relatives, to cut it short: formal or informal any source (Hassall, Rose, & McDonald, 2005; Özsoy, Özkahraman, Çallı, 2006; Özşenol, Işıkhan, Ünay, Aydın, Akın, Gökçay, 2003). The support the family needs sometimes can be from a relative, sometimes from a professional and sometimes from a family who has a child with disability. There are a lot of surveys which examine the effects of financial, social, emotional or psychological support which is offered to families on their stress, concern, sense of self-efficacy, quality of life, satisfaction of life, self-respect and their attitude. Findings of these surveys show that the support offered has positive effects on factors which are ordered by fulfilling the needs of families (Çelebi, 2003; Duygun, 2001; Dyson, 1997; Frey, Greenberg, & Fewell, 1989; Girli, Yurdakul, Sarısoy, & Özekeş, 2000; Şardağ, 2010; Tamer, 2010; Tezel, 2003). 81

90 Needs of solving the family problems which have an important role in family s function, maintenance communication in family, fulfill parent roles, planning time management, making effective decisions and the difficulties of this process that families face with takes part in family s function and need of coping with the problems which comes out while functioning category (Özbeklik, 2006). Plenty of families with a child with intellectual disabilities face with frequent crisis, disagreements and problems and to overcome these problems they need to be helped to gain the skill of solving and coping with these problems (Epstein, 1995; Schalock & Alonso, 2002). Having a child with intellectual disability, requires solving the problems such as child care, doing the house work, coping with negative emotions that family members feel for each other, undertaking financial drain of family, fulfilling roles and duties of family members; planning the time for leisure times, relaxation, amusement events and tasks they have to do; carrying on with family intercommunication such as protecting each other, creating mutual peace atmosphere, supporting each other, being tolerant toward each other; taking true decisions for their child and family. This situation requires the need of coping with the difficulties of fulfilling family functions (Smith, Gartin, Murdrick, & Hilton, 2006). Determining the family needs in this category; developing the personnel skills of each family member like solving the problems, making a decision, communicating; examining the way they perceive the family functions and the relation between this perception and factors is important to cope with the problems that the family have in this period and to fulfill the limited functions. By the studies which have the same aim, the relation between families perception of family function and their level of socialization, level of solitude, life quality, level of support, difficulty that they have is examined and the relation between the factors which are ordered by the perception related with the family function is seen (Akıncı, 2007; Arslantürk, 2009; Günsel, 2010; Özşenol, Işıkhan, Ünay, Aydın, Akın, & Gökçay, 2003). As one can see, family needs consist of many subjects which parents knowabout their children's characteristics in order to help them to preparefor the present life and life in the future. Two thousands are based on the idea of offering service to all of the family members in accordance with the family-centered approaches. The most important characteristic of the family-centered approaches is to be based on the needs of the family in offering support and the service to all of the family members (Turnbull et. al., 2011). Because of that in preparing an online parent training and support education program (Cavkaytar, Adıgüzel, Ceyhan, Uysal, & Garan, 2011) for the families with children with severe and moderate intellectual disabilities; it is aimed to present families needs. The purpose of the survey arises from this subject. The purpose of the present study was to determine the needs of knowledge/education and support of parents whose child has severe and moderate intellectual disabilities. In accordance with this aim, the answers of questions below are searched. 1. How do parents of child with intellectual disabilities explain their needs of education and support? 2. How do administrators and teachers explain the needs of education and support of the parents of a child with intellectual disabilities? 3. What are the similar and different opinions of parents and administrators and teachers about the needs of education and support? 82

91 Research Design Method To determine the needs of knowledge/education and support of parents whose child is with intellectual disabilities, which is the main aim of the research, descriptive survey model is used. Within the study, between January and March of 2011, data is collected by semi-structured interviews. Participants Semi-structured interviews are conducted in private and formal Training Application Schools which are connected to Ministry of National Education placed in Eskişehir, Ankara, İzmir, İstanbul, Denizli and Muğla. Among these cities nine schools are included in this study; one school each from Eskişehir, Denizli and Muğla; two schools each from Ankara, İstanbul and İzmir. The research is realized with nine school administrators and nine teachers, one from each of the schools and 38 parents who has a child with severe or moderate intellectual disability; three mothers and three fathers are from one of the Training Application School and two mothers and two fathers from each of the other Training Application Schools. Data Collection Tools Parent interview form and administrators-teachers interview form; two forms are prepared for the semi-structured interviews, which are realized in period of determining the needs. Parent Interview Form (PIF). Parent Interview Form has two parts. In the first part, information about interview and in second part the questions are stated. To determine the possible areas of need and to prepare the questions of interview, primarily, related literature was reviewed. After the review of body of literature, subject areas repository is constituted, determined subjects are classified and each group is collected under one topic. All of these areas of need formed the questions to examine parent s needs. After completing the interview questions, the question forms were given to three assistant professors in special education in order to be control the validity of the interview questions. Administrators-Teacher Interview Form (MTIF). Administrator-Teacher Interview form has two parts. In first part, information about interview and in second part the questions are stated. Questions of administrator-teacher interview form are similar which are in parent interview form. The administrator-teacher interview form is prepared by changing the structures of the questions, which are in parent interview form. This form, which is prepared by research staff, is also given to a consultant just like the parent interview form. Three assistant professors of special education have given their ideas about the semi-structured interview forms. The questions are rewritten in accordance with the opinions of the consultants. Interviewing Process. Participants were invited to the schools as it was planned before, and the interviews were conducted as below: a) Semi-structured interviews, which are conducted swith the administrators and teacher interview, form are realized in a quiet place in school which is comfortable for two people s interview (principal s office, guidance service, etc.), as it was planned before. At the beginning of the interview all the instructions are given and the permission to record is get from the interviewee. All of the interviews are recorded with tape recorder. Interviews of administrators and teachers took approximately minutes. b) Semi-structured interviews, which are done with the parent interview form, are realized with the parents who participate voluntarily. The semi-structured interviews with parents are done in places, which are chosen by the school administration (principal s office, guidance service, etc.). At the beginning of the interview all the instructions are given and the permission to 83

92 record is get from the interviewee. All of the interviews are recorded with tape recorder. Interviews of parents took approximately minutes. Data Analysis Semi-structured interviews are analyzed with descriptive analysis method. Descriptive analysis is done by realizing the process below (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005; Blanchet & Gotman, 2001): 1. All interviews, without doing any change, are reported in the same order as in the form. 2. A thematic framework is formed based on the same data codes are given to determined themes. After completing the codes of interviews, reliability calculations are done inter-coders in %30 of interviews. According to that, two different coders coded the interviews that they didn t code before independently. Afterwards, the given codes are compared; points of hesitation are mutually agreed. Subject, which are emphasized frequently about questions or themes, are presented. 3. In accordance with the formed thematic framework, frequency counts are found out by reading the data. These determined themes are grouped under main topics. By forming subthemes, frequency count is found out for each student under these stated main themes. For the reliability of the data and the formed thematic framework, opinions of two consultants, who have the qualitative research and content knowledge, are asked. 4. By identifying the arranged data, these data are supported directly by quoted passage. Thus, findings are identified and interpreted. Findings In this part of the research, opinions of the parents of child with disability and administrators and teachers of these children about parents education and support are placed. After analyzing the answers, which are given to the interview questions, the themes of the given answers are seen in Table 1. Table 1. Distribution of the Semi-structured Interview to Themes Parents Opinions Administrator s Themes and teacher s opinions f % f % Social Support Network (SSN) Personal Development (PD) Working with Child Skills Acceptance process (AP) Information about special education programs and schooling practices (ÖB) Children s Health (CH) Total As in Table 1, in interviews with parents, the opinions that parents stated on their needs are detected to be focused on %22 social support network, %21 personal developments. Besides these two main need domains, parents stated in their interviews that they have needs in knowledge and skill about working with children (%15); acceptance process (%14); information about special education programs and school practices (%14); children s health (%13). Findings which were gained by 84

93 interviews, are parallel to literature on family needs of children with disabilities (Bernstein and Barta, 1988). In interviews which are done with administrators and teachers it is detected that even though there are differences in percentages, the needs which are emphasized are parallel with the parents. From the point of view of the administrators and teachers, needs of parents with a child with disability consist of %23 personal development; %23 social support network; %18 working with children skills; %18 acceptance process; %9 children s health, %5 information about special education and school practices. It is seen in Table 1, opinions of both parents and administrators and teachers are pointed the two main need domains primarily; personal development and social support network. That s why, these two domains are firstly examined in detail below and then analyses are developed about other need domains. Needs of parents about social support network As it is seen in Table 2, after the analyses, it is determined that need of parents about social support network is formed by five main topics. Among these needs Legal rights, socio-economic needs which are provided by public and private sector, needs of information about new services is the most emphasized one. It is detected that 34 out of 38 parents don t have enough information about their legal rights, socio-economic needs which are provided by public and private sector and needs of information about new services. Besides, 32 of the parents stated that they are in need of information about how their child s future would be; 28 of the parents stated that they need information about non-governmental organizations and voluntary agency and information about participation and creating social network; 26 of the parents stated that they need information about supports after school. Table 2. Needs of Parents about Social Support Network Social support network a- Need of information about from whom parents would get support b- Need of information about supports after school c- Legal rights, socio-economic needs which are provided by public and private sector, needs of information about new services d- Need of information about nongovernmental organizations and voluntary agency, information about participation and creating social network e- Need of information about the future life of the child Number of Parents Opinions Number of Administrator s and Teacher s Opinion The finding acquired show consistency with other findings in literature (Hassall, Rose, & McDonald, 2005; Özsoy, Özkahraman, & Çallı, 2006; Özşenol, et. al., 2003) opinions which support these results of some parents are given below: 85

94 City code-35, participant code-d102; Line number-l: 35D102; L we have no idea about any of these. Hardly, hearsay. But just if someone has done it. (The answer given to the question, which aims to determine the need of information about legal rights). 34K104; L In fact, my child grow up, sexuality, in future, my child is a boy, even a girl or a boy sexuality, you can explain it to a healthy being but when it comes to my son s sexuality, in short, i don t know how will i treat him (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about the child s future life). 06D104; L In truth I really don t know from where I can get information (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about from whom parents would get support). 35D104; L can t know, can t know it. We are here all day long. We know nothing. In short I don t know it either, if there were, will it be bad? It will be better. If we have gone through a bad patch we would go and learn and take support but now, we don t have that opportunity (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about non-governmental organizations and voluntary agency, information about participation and creating social network). 06D101; L300 No, we don t have information about out-of-school supports (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about supports after school). After the analyses, opinions of administrators and teachers and opinions of parents are determined to be in the same direction. Administrators and teachers too emphasized Legal rights, socio-economic needs which are provided by public and private sector, needs of information about new services the most (all of the 18 administrators and teachers). Besides that, 14 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about the future life of their child; 13 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about non-governmental organizations and voluntary agency, information about participation and creating social network; 11 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about from whom they can get support; 6 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about support after school. 06Köğr.; L generally speaking, like about these legal rights our people don t know a lot, unfortunately (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents legal rights). 06Döğr.; L namely, in short we don t have a lot, they are not informed about any nongovernmental establishment or institution (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents knowledge and participation to non-governmental and/or voluntary establishments). 48Ö102; L172 They are not really informed. I think they should be informed. I mean, they really need an enormous support (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about from whom, parents can get support). 86

95 Need of parents about personal development Table 3. Need of Parents about Personal Development Personal development a- Need of information about problem solving skills b- Need of information about communication skills c- Need of information about decision-making skills d- Need of information about time management skills e- Need of information about coping with stress skills Number of Parents Opinions Number of Administrator s and Teacher s Opinion As it is seen in Table 3, after the analyses, it is determined that need of parents about personal development is formed by five main topics. Among these needs need of information about time management skills is the most emphasized one. 34 parents out of 38 pointed out their need by determining that they have problems about planning and managing. Besides that, 30 of the parents determined that they need information about coping with stress skills; 27 of the parents determined that they need information about decision-making and communication skills; 25 of the parents determined that they need information about problem-solving skills. These needs which are obtained by series of analysis, show consistency with the needs about personal development, which are presented by Özbeklik (2006), Epstein (1995) and Schalock and Alonso (2002). 06K102, L I can not catch up. Although I am a quick-fingered person in all other things, you can guess it in my manner of speaking, I can not catch up. Even the day time is not enough for me. There are loads of things that I can t cope with (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about time management skills). 34K103; L But sometimes I come to the boil, I trash and smash (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about coping with stress skills). 35D102; L one knows his own child, indeed. Knows what he would and won t do. In my personal decision, it would be better for him to not to go. But community affects your decisions. Therefore I feel I am obliged to make him go there community forces you (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about decision-making skills). 20D101; L sometimes they don t get it because they didn t live through it but the ones that pass through understand it. The others don t get, hardly understand it (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about communication skills). 48K102; L there may be some points that we come to a deadlock, in that point I really need someone to help me (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about problem-solving skills). After the analyses, it is determined that opinions of administrators and teachers are parallel with the opinions of parents but they have changed the order of importance. Administrators and teachers emphasized decision-making skills the most (17 administrators and teachers out of 18). Besides that 15 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need of information about time 87

96 management skills; 14 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about coping with stress skills; 17 of the administrators and teacher determined that parents need information about problem-solving and communication skills. 06Köğr.; L they hesitate about making a decision, they can t maintain their decision, more precisely they decide, they say they are going to do that but they change that process negative if child rise to the top (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents decision-making skills). 48Köğr.; L134 they can t use the time. Because it is so hard, they are wrapped in school in any case, they also want to come to school and most of them attend. They stay and wait in school all day long. And after that, their only child is not just the one they have in this school. Sometimes I ask, how many kids they have, they say 2, 3 some say 4. They have a child waiting for them, their partners waiting for the food to be prepared. They have housework but because they are here all day long they can t do it I guess (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents time management skills). 48Köğr.; L160 Obviously, they really need a giant support, they need it so as they want to come and explain it the following day, in the first place. In the morning, for example, we come to school they are in need of telling what happened like they looked us like that, they said that. And we feel we need to smooth them down (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents coping with stress skills). 20Döğr.; L when they determine the problem, they first talk with their school teachers, if they can t solve it they take the child to a rehabilitation center. They try to solve it there. If they can t solve it there too, it remains as a problem (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents problem solving skills). 20Döğr.; L In communicating, because they have a child with disability, the parents absent their selves. Generally it starts with not going on a visit and continues with not visiting their relatives. Because they have a child with disability they thing there will be a different environment or they will have negative reactions and they take their selves off the community (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents communication skills). Need of parents about becoming skillful about working with their child Table 4. Need of Parents about Becoming Skillful about Working with their Child Becoming skillful at working with their child Number of Parents Opinions Number of Administrators and Teachers Opinions a- Need of information about skills education b- Need of information about supporting what their child learn at school at home c- Behavioral control/need of information about changing behavior d- Need of information about social skills education As it is seen in Table 4, after the analyses, it is determined that need of parents about becoming skillful at working with their child is formed by four main topics. Among these needs behavioral control/ need of information about changing behavior is the most emphasized one. 29 parents out of 88

97 38 pointed out their need by determining that they have problems about controlling and changing behaviors. Besides that, 28 of the parents determined that they need information about skills education; 23 of the parents determined that they need information about supporting what their child learn at school at home; 20 of the parents determined that they need information about social skills education. These needs which are about parents skills on working with their child are presented before by Kendal (1998), Kohler (1999), Özen, Çolak and Acar (2002). 06K101; L Because B. is too familiar with me at home, he ignore the things I say, we did that mistake when he was young. We showed him our love and now he is at a point where he believes we will love him no matter what he does. I consulted the psychologists at the special education center in order to change his behavior, but we did not succeed in the matter because if he wants to do something, he will do it in a week if not now (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about behavioral control/changing behavior). 20D104; L You seem to be forcing him when he doesn t lean over it, he cries because he doesn t want and the subject changes. That s why we feel suffocated like he does, we feel suffocated because we are not quiet educated in that subject. For the sake of keeping him loose we can t be successful in lessons, we are not successful in education (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about skills education). 06D102; L My child can react if I give the same education at home as they give at school. That s why I don t give the same education that they gave at school, at home. For example, learning a letter, learning a number, I don t do it (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about supporting what their child learns at school at home). 35D104; L when he goes somewhere, okay, he says, good morning good evening, even it is morning time. Both good morning and good evening (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about social skills education). After the analyses, it is determined that administrators and teachers emphasized their parallel opinions in same way with parents. 14 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need of information about behavioral control/changing behavior; 12 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about supporting what their child learn at school at home; 10 of the administrators and teacher determined that parents need information about social skills education. 20Döğr.; L We tell how to change behaviors when they come to us, we give advices, we tell what we perform at the school and we suggest them to do so but they spend 1 or 2 days at home, then they say that they could not do it to the teachers and they quit. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents behavioral control/changing behavior). 34Kidr.; L The number of parents are very limited who study the thing, the subject which are between teacher and parents (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents supporting what their child learn at school at home). 06Didr.; L The more the child goes out in public, the more he socializes and learns social skills. They learn what to do, where and how to behave. But if you do not take him to the shopping mall or somewhere else like markets when you take him you to the shopping center for the first time, if he does messy things or else he tries to touch everything, it shows he couldn t win social skills. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents social skills education). 89

98 Needs of parents about acceptance process of their child with disability Table 5. Needs of Parents about Acceptance Process of their Child with Disability Acceptance process a- Need of information about nature of disability and its properties b- Need of information about skill of accepting the disability, adjustment process of the family and accepting process c- Need of information about child s situation and explaining the needs as parents to other family members and attitude in asking for help Number of Parents Opinions Number of Administrators and Teachers Opinions As it is seen in Table 5, after the analyses, it is determined that need of parents about their skills in working with their child formed by three main topics. Among these needs need of information about nature of disability and its properties is the most emphasized one. 37 parents out of 38 pointed out their need by determining that they are insufficient in information about nature of disability and its properties. Besides that, 31 of the parents determined that they need information about child s situation and explaining the needs as parents to other family members and attitude in asking for help; 30 of the parents determined that they need information about skill of accepting the disability, adjustment process of the family and accepting process. 48K101; L38- no, I don t have much information, to the limit that I heard, that I can comprehend, to the limit that I can have education (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about nature of disability and its properties). 35K101; L hmm, my daughter, my difficulty right now is my daughter for example. She always tells that. I wish I had not given birth to E. for example. Look... we won t live a normal life. When I say it this way my hearth sinks, off course. I am insufficient. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about explaining child s situation to other members and attitude in asking for help). 34K101; L there were difficulties, yes and you don t want to believe it, you see. I mean, you don t want to accept. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about skill of accepting the disability). After the analyses, it is determined that administrators and teachers emphasized their parallel opinions in same way with parents but they have differences in order of importance. 18 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need of information about skill of accepting the disability, adjustment process of the family and accepting process; 17 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about nature of disability and its properties; 15 of the administrators and teacher determined that parents need information about child s situation and explaining needs as parents to other members of the family and attitude in asking for help. 06Didr.; L parents still couldn t accept it, we have more problems with parents rather that children, I mean parents who couldn t accept, we have difficulties with them more than children. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about parents skill of accepting the disability). 90

99 06Döğr.; L they can continue without learning a thing about their own child s disability or they have shallow information or they learn it from the net so, they are not really knowledgeable. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about nature of disability and its properties for parents). 35Döğr.; L in the beginning, when children take a bus, everyone was moving away like it was epidemic. Ten years ago, one of the parents explained me this: they don t want me, she explained, neither my sisters nor other people. Take your small fry with you don t come to see us again. Ostracization is seen a lot. (The answer given to the question, which aims to determine the need of information about parents explaining child s situation to other members and attitude in asking for help). Needs of parents about special education programs and schooling practices Table 6. Need of Parents about Special Education Programs and Schooling Practices Information about special education and schooling practices (ÖB) a- Need of information about the subjects of curriculum b- Need of information about comparing the existing curriculum and special education programs c- Need of information about individualized education plans Number of Parents Opinions Number of Administrators and Teachers Opinions As it is seen in Table 6, after the analyses, it is determined that need of parents about special education programs and schooling practices formed by three main topics. Among these needs need of information about individualized education plans is the most emphasized one. 33 parents out of 38 pointed out their need by determining that they are not enough knowledgeable in information about individualized education plans. Besides that, 31 of the parents determined that they need information about comparing the existing curriculum and special education programs; 29 of the parents determined that they need information about the subjects of curriculum. 06K104; L538- I don t have IEP information, young lady (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about individualized education plans). 20D103; L196- I don t know the similarities (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about comparing the existing curriculum and special education programs). 35D101; L how should I know it, they have music, they have maths, so to say they have PE. I don t know, don t know a lot. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about the subjects of curriculum). After the analyses, it is determined that even though it is a few, administrators and teachers stated parallel opinions but they have differences in order of importance. 9 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need of information about the subjects of curriculum; 3 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about comparing the existing curriculum and special education programs; 2 of the administrators and teacher determined that parents need information about individualized education plans. 91

100 34idr.; L it doesn t exist, they don t know it, their child goes to school but what kind of education they have there, no one asks that (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information of parents about the subjects of curriculum). 35Döğr.; L there are differences but they don t accept it. They don t accept it. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine parents need of information about comparing the existing curriculum and special education programs). 34Köğr.; L while preparing individualization education program you know we call the family we explain, but before we finish they ask us where to sign and close the case. They don t have any expectation like we have in this subject (The answer given to the question which aims to determine parents need of information about individualized education plans). Need of parents about children s health Table 7. Need of Parents about Children s Health Children s health a- Need of information about child s existing health status like mouth and dental health, alimentation, intestinal problems, excessive weight, sleep, visual, hearing, mental health b- Need of information about problems that child will go through c- Need of information which will help to cope with the health problems that child has d- Need of information about the tools that will help the child Number of Parents Opinions Number of Administrators and Teachers Opinions As it is seen in Table 7, after the analyses, it is determined that need of parents about children s health formed by four main topics. Among these needs need of information about problems that child will go through is the most emphasized one. 25 parents out of 38 pointed out their need by determining that they are not enough knowledgeable in information about the problems that child will go through. Besides that, 24 of the parents determined that they need information which will help to cope with the health problems that child has; 22 of the parents determined that they need information about child s existing health status like mouth and dental health, alimentation, intestinal problems, excessive weight, sleep, visual, hearing, mental health; 18 of the parents determined that they need information about the tools that will help to child. 34D101; L I don t know what to say actually, he can be better or worse, that s why we will be ready for everything, I don t know. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information about problems that child will go through). 34D101; L for example, when he is sick, when he run a fever or when he has an attack, what should I do (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information which will help to cope with the health problems that child has). 35D102; L for example, for these two years, S. has an abdominal distension. For example, I always take him to the doctor. Neither can they help him, nor me. (The answer given to the question, which aims to determine the need of information about child s existing health status). 92

101 After the analyses, administrators and teachers unlike parents didn t determine the domain of the need about the tools that will help the child. Apart from that, they stated parallel opinions with parents in other domains of need. 10 of the administrators and teachers determined parents need of information about problems of health that child will go through; 8 of the administrators and teachers determined that parents need information about coping with health problems that child has; 7 of the administrators and teacher determined that parents need information about child s existing health status like mouth and dental health, alimentation, intestinal problems, excessive weight, sleep, visual, hearing, mental health. 06Köğr.; L in small cities these opportunities are not that vast and if you go to villages this awareness completely decreases. (The answer given to the question, which aims to determine the need of information about parents coping skills with child s health problems). 20Döğr.; L largely, health problems are pushed into background. If there is an unseenable health problem parents mostly make no account of that, in general our children have another health problem. For example, if he is not able to walk, parents in any case make an effort for that. But if he has dental problems, it is pushed into background because the first one is counted to be a disability and when it starts to effect the child negatively the researches begin. (The answer given to the question which aims to determine the need of information of parents about child s existing health status). Discussion Studies done with the families of children with special needs should be approached in a broad perspective that starts with studies regarding the characteristics and psychological status of the family towards practical studies. Especially the studies held to determine the needs of families incorporates different subjects from the family s basic living requirements to planning the future of the child with special need. Studies on the requirements of families with children with special needs accelerated after 1980 s (Winton; 1986; Bailey & Simeonsson, 1988). Studies in those years show that informing the families should be prioritized. Accordingly, results also proved that the need to develop their social networks ranked on top for the most of the families. This is thought to be linked with the increased support provided for the families with children in need after 1980 s in Turkey and visible as the history of special education is explored. The first law about the education of individuals with special needs was passed in 1987 (Cavkaytar & Diken, 2005) and special education was identified. Also, the family s participation was accepted as a principle of special education (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (MEB), 1987). Therefore, the first step was taken to fulfill the requirements of the children in special need and their families. In their studies, Bernstein and Barta (1988) searched for the mostly needed knowledge that the parents needed and found out that despite the importance of technical knowledge, families needed information on their children. Initiating language development, strengthening the sense of self, reasons of children s incompatibility were among the subjects that families wanted to know the most whereas the physical structure of the child or the anatomy were listed as less important. Additionally the family s need for knowledge on education and discipline was also detected. Similarly, Sucuoğlu (1995) in her studies on the validity and reliability of Family Requirements Detection Tool (FRDT) that was developed by Bailey and Simeonsson (1988) has confirmed that the need of knowledge as one of the basic requirements that parents have while looking into the tools efficiency to determine the requirements of the parents of children with special needs. It was noticed that the mothers rank the need to read written material about parents with similar children on top while fathers prioritize the need of knowledge to teach some skills to their children. Another research held by Evcimen (1996) showed that parents with mentally incompatible children 93

102 require knowledge on how to solve children s problems, to read written material on other families with similar lives, to share the problem with a specialist and asking for more time from the teachers to discuss the child s status. Within the scope of this research the need that is highly prioritized among the parents with mentally incompatible children was the need for social support. This need field was followed by individual development, skills to work with children, the adjustment process, schooling practices and children s health. Directors and teachers on the other hand have prioritized the need for individual development to be followed by social support, process of acceptance, and skills to work with children, children s health and schooling practices. The needs of parents therefore align with the needs of directors and teachers. Parents prioritizing the need for social support could be taken as a sign showing that the families are aware of the services provided and they have more knowledge about what to do. Among the needs for social support networks, legal rights of the family, future of the child, to whom they should consult to, how to collaborate are the needs that still stand out. This situation proves that despite the implementations, families are not sufficiently aware of the legal regulations. What families mention during the interviews also prove that they provide all their time and energy to their children and unless there is an external support they remain uninformed. A study by Meral (2011) verifies that mothers of children with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities and children with autism perceive their quality of life above the average and this is explained by the social support they perceive. Therefore, as shown by the results of this research social support takes its place among the important variables to understand the families. When the studies done in Turkey related to families are analyzed, it can be seen that the most of the research was focused on determining the stress levels and lowering the stress levels following specific interventions (Ardıç, 2010). The need for time management skills before stress management is encountered as a subject that was never studied before. Again, on the subjects of decision making, communication and problem solving skills there are just a few studies conducted in the literature (Costigan, Floyd, Harter, & McClintock, 1997; Goldberg-Arnold, 1998). Consequently the results of this research, putting out the needs of parents individual development fields determined by themselves is considered to be important for bringing out a new point of view on family studies. In researches which aim to determine parents needs both parents of the child with intellectual disabilities (Evcimen, 1996; Sucuoğlu, 1995) and parents of the child with hearing impairment (Akçamete & Kargın, 1996) show that they have profound need of knowledge and need of information about how participants can teach some of the skills at home. In this research, it is seen that one of the most emphasized subject is to be knowledgeable with behavioral control of the child and skills education at home. Akkök, (1984), who did the first study about families having information about changing behaviors of the child and teaching skills to the child, show that parents can be educatory for their child. Afterwards, Cavkaytar (1999; 2007), Cavkaytar and Pollard (2009), Özcan and Cavkaytar (2009) have done researches with families about teaching skills to their child at home and showed that families can teach self-care and life skills. These research findings show again that parents require information about nature of disability, adjustment process, coping with the disability. These findings prove clearly the need of increasing and efficient continuation of studies about informing the families. That s why; plenty of techniques, which are proved to be efficient, will help families to teach daily life skills to their children and by this way to fulfill the need of information. While administrators and teachers are not mentioning a lot about parents needs of information about curriculum, parents mentioning about education and curriculum for children is a significant finding. In the light of this finding, it can be a clear indicator that the subjects, which are not a need from administrators and teachers point of view can be substantial for parents. 94

103 When the opinions about children s health are analyzed, parents mentioning their need but administrators and teachers not expressing a lot about parents need of that is a significant finding. This finding shows that family needs differ from the ones, which are presented by Sucuoğlu (1995) and Evcimen (1996). As a conclusion, the studies that aim to determine the needs of the families of a child with intellectual disability prove that the most the family needs is information about child s diagnosis, its properties, progress and education and support from consultants and social surroundings. Planning the programs, which aim to fulfill family needs can effect positively the communication between parents and their children and by decreasing the level of anxiety and stress it can ease the adjustment process. That s why these research findings are thought to be the source of planning new programs and developing the existing programs, which are based upon needs of families of children with intellectual disability. References Akçamete, G., & Kargın, T. (1996). İşitme engelli çocuğa sahip annelerin gereksinimlerinin belirlenmesi. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 2(2), Akıncı, G. (2007). Engelli çocuğa sahip olan ve olmayan babaların aile işlevlerini algılamaları ile sosyal uyum düzeylerinin incelenmesi (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Akkök, F. (1984). Davranışsal yaklaşıma dayalı anne- baba rehberliğinin öğretilebilir çocukların özbakım becerilerinin gelişimine etkisi (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Akkök, F., Aşkar, P., & Karancı, N. (1992). Özürlü bir çocuğa sahip anne babalardaki stresin yordanması. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 1, Akköse, M. C. (2008). Gelişimsel yetersizlik gösteren çocuklara mutfak araç isimlerinin öğretiminde eşzamanlı ipucuyla öğretimin etkililiği: Çoklu örnekler yaklaşımı uygulaması (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Aksaz, N. K. (1992). Bilgi verici danışmanlığın otistik çocuğu olan anne babaların kaygı düzeylerine etkisi (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü., Altunel, M. (2007). Otistik özellik gösteren öğrencilere soru cevaplama becerilerinin öğretiminde küçük grup düzenlemesi ile sunulan eşzamanlı ipucuyla öğretimin etkililiği (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Ardıç, A. (2008). Uyarlanmış yoğun tuvalet eğitimi yönteminin otistik özellikler gösteren çocuklara tuvalet becerilerinin öğretiminde etkililiği (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Ardıç, A. (2012). Özel gereksinimli çocuk ve aile. A. Cavkaytar (Ed.) Özel eğitimde aile eğitimi ve rehberliği. Ankara: Vize Yayıncılık. Arslantürk, T. C. (2009). Engelli çocuğa sahip annelerin kendi ebeveynlerinden algıladıkları destek ile ailenin fonksiyonelliği arasındaki ilişki (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Marmara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Bailey, D. B., & Simeonsson R. J. (1988). Assessing needs of families handicapped infants. The Journal of Special Education, 22, Bakkaloğlu, H. (2004). Etkinliğe dayalı müdahale programının 3 6 yaş gelişimsel geriliği olan çocukların geçiş becerilerine etkisi (Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. 95

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