Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2010, 1(1)

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2 Copyright THE TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF QUALITATIVE INQUIRY All rights reserved. No part of TOJQI's articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrival system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published in TURKEY Contact Address: Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdullah KUZU TOJQI, Editor in Chief Eskişehir-Turkey

3 ISSN Editor-in-Chief Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Associate Editors Ali Ersoy Anadolu University, Turkey Cindy G. Jardine University of Alberta, Canada Işıl Kabakçı Anadolu University, Turkey Franz Breuer Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Jean McNiff York St John University, United Kingdom Ken Zeichner University of Washington, USA Wolff-Michael Roth University of Victoria, Canada Yıldız Uzuner Anadolu University, Turkey

4 Advisory Board Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Selçuk University, Turkey Ali Ersoy, Anadolu University, Turkey Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Cemalettin İpek, Rize University, Turkey Cesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA Dilruba Kürüm, Anadolu University, Turkey Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey Fawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USA Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany

5 Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Yıldız Uzuner, Anadolu University, Turkey Review Board A. Naci Çoklar, Selçuk University, Turkey Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Dilruba Kürüm, Anadolu University, Turkey H. Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey M. Can Şahin, Çukurova University, Turkey M. Huri Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Sema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey Şemsettin Gündüz, Selçuk University, Turkey Language Reviewers Hüseyin Kafes, Anadolu University, Turkey Mehmet Duranlıoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Mustafa Caner, Anadolu University, Turkey Administrative & Technical Staff Elif Buğra Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan Çankaya, Anadolu University, Turkey The Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) (ISSN ) is published quarterly (January, April, July and October) a year at the For all enquiries regarding the TOJQI, please contact Assoc.Prof. Abdullah KUZU, Editor-In-Chief, TOJQI, Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Yunus Emre Campus, 26470, Eskisehir, TURKEY, Phone #: /3519, Fax # : , [email protected]; [email protected].

6 Table of Contents Supporting Teachers Personally and Professionally in Challenging Environments Jean McNiff 1 Cross-Cultural Research and Qualitative Inquiry Pranee Liamputtong 16 Teachers and Students Opinions about the Interactive Instructional Environment Designed for Bilingual Turkish Primary School Students in Norway Suzan Duygu Erişti Şerife Dilek Belet 30 Opinions of Teachers on Using Internet Searching Strategies: An Elementary School Case in Turkey Işıl Kabakçı Mehmet Fırat Serkan İzmirli Elif Buğra Kuzu 49 Teachers Beliefs on Foreign Language Teaching Practices in Early Phases of Primary Education: A case study Mustafa Caner Gonca Subaşı Selma Kara 62

7 Supporting Teachers Personally and Professionally in Challenging Environments Jean McNiff York St John University, UK Abstract In this paper I would like to outline some of the work I do around the world, developing and contributing to professional education programmes for practitioners across a range of professions, using an action research methodology. Here I especially focus on my work with teachers; and I highlight the point that some of the most problematic yet rewarding work is conducted within contexts of economic, historical and social change and challenge. I also explain how I conduct my own action research, which is about finding ways to encourage teachers to think critically and reflectively about what they are doing, and specifically to engage with questions of the kind, How do I improve my practice? (Whitehead,1989). Through engaging with these kinds of questions, teachers can position themselves as having the authority to take control of and make discerning judgements about their practices, as they seek to exercise educational influence in their own learning and in the learning of others. Keywords: Action research; critically and reflectively thinking; personal enquiry. Introduction I shall speak primarily about the work with teachers in Ireland, while also referring to work in South Africa and Qatar. What I have to say is, I hope, relevant to teaching in the rest of the world. I shall also make the case that, by developing their capacity to engage with such critical questions, teachers can make significant contributions to new thinking and new practices globally; and they can position themselves as developing new public spheres within problematic contexts in which individual practitioners can engage in considered debate about how to create the kind of society they would like their children to live in. Let me begin by showing three photographs. The first is a picture of Mary Roche from Cork (on the right) and myself on the occasion of her graduation at the University of Limerick, in January 2008 (see Figure 1). 1

8 Figure 1. Graduation at the University of Limerick The second photograph is of a group of ten teachers from Khayelitsha and myself on the occasion of their graduation from the University of Surrey, in September 2009 (see Figure 2). Khayelitsha is a township of a million people, situated just outside Cape Town. Figure 2. Graduation at the University of Surrey The third is a picture of Amal Al-Yazori and myself in Qatar (Figure 3). I invited Amal to speak about her work during a keynote presentation I gave at the Action Research Conference at Qatar University on 19 th June 2010 (McNiff, 2010a). She and I had been working together on the Action Research for Teachers course, provided by Tribal Education, UK, in collaboration with the Supreme Education Council, Qatar. Amal s writing is now published in the Teacher Enquiry Bulletin (Tribal Education, 2010). 2

9 Figure 3. Action Research Conference at Qatar University I am presenting these pictures because they represent the partial realisation of my educational values in relation to teachers in different social and educational contexts; and each of these contexts, as noted, is one of change and challenge. In all cases, the challenge took the form of engaging with the politics of educational knowledge through contributing to the transformation of the hierarchical and power-constituted structures of a traditionalist Academy within socio-historical contexts of extensive social and cultural change. The teachers now rightly position themselves as knowledgeable and articulate professionals, some as master and doctor educators, who have had their claims to professional excellence validated and legitimated by the Academy in the form of their academic reports, some for the award of their higher degrees. In all contexts, this has been achieved against considerable odds (see McNiff, 2000 and 2010c), and the photos show how, with determination and tenacity, the teachers have won through. These kinds of events give meaning to my own personal and professional life, as I have found ways to support the teachers. This is the story I tell in this paper; and I continue the story in a range of other writings. However, before telling the story, let me outline some of the conceptual frameworks that have informed my action research. The first and perhaps most important one, since it constitutes both the content and the form of the paper, is a methodological framework about action research. For those unfamiliar with the idea, here is a brief summary of what action research is, what it involves, and how it is done (see also McNiff, 2010b; Whitehead, 2009). About action research Action research is a form of self-reflective enquiry that enables practitioners to take control of their practice by asking questions about how they can improve it. They then make their ideas public for critical evaluation. This fulfils Stenhouse s (1983) definition that research is a systematic enquiry made public, and goes beyond, to communicate the idea that action research is always conducted with social intent, for personal and social benefit. Action research for teachers is therefore about 1. taking action to find ways to improve their classroom practices and other situations; 2. doing research into how they can offer descriptions and explanations for what they have done, and how they can make judgements about the quality of their research and practices. 3

10 Both aspects are crucial, because demonstrating quality in professional practice is not only a case of demonstrating practice improvement, but also of knowledge creation. It is about practice as a form of enquiry; about making claims to improved practice that may be tested against authenticated evidence, and having those claims agreed by the critical feedback of a peer community (Whitehead and McNiff, 2006). A popular way of doing action research is to think about the following as a framework for researching one s own practice: I review my current practice; Identify an area I wish to improve; Ask focused questions about how I can improve it; Imagine a way forward; Try it out, and Take stock of what happens. I modify my plans in light of what I have found, and continue with the action; Evaluate the modified action; And reconsider the position in light of the evaluation. (Whitehead, 1989; see also McNiff and Whitehead, 2009) These points can then be turned into a set of practical questions, such as: What is my concern? What is my research question? Why am I concerned? How do I gather data to show the situation as it is, and as it evolves? What can I do about the situation? What will I do? What kind of evidence can I produce to show that what I am doing is influencing someone s learning? How do I communicate the significance of what I have done? How do I ensure that any judgements I make are reasonably fair and accurate? How do I modify my practices and ideas in light of my evaluation? How do I write a good quality report? (McNiff and Whitehead, 2010) These are the kinds of questions I encourage practitioners to ask about their practices. Furthermore, because I believe that I should not ask someone to do something that I am not prepared to do first, I undertake my own action enquiries on a systematic basis. For me, action research is both about doing projects, as well as (perhaps more so) about adopting an attitude of enquiry throughout one s life, which I try to do, and encourage others to do. So, to illustrate how to do action research in action, let me outline my own action enquiry, using the same questions as above, and show how I theorise my practice of supporting teachers in undertaking their action enquiries. It is possible for all practitioners in any profession to develop such frameworks as the basis of their own action enquiries. My Action Research Enquiry What is my concern? What is my research question? My concern is that teachers are often positioned as implementers of other people s knowledge and theories, rather than being seen, and seeing themselves, as creators of their own knowledge and 4

11 theories. I am concerned that teachers are often persuaded not to see their own knowledge as valuable, and to look outside themselves for answers to their professional dilemmas, rather than having the confidence to believe that they already have those answers within their own practices. This is not to deny that they acknowledge how they can learn from others experiences, often as communicated through the literatures, and they incorporate insights from other theorists into their own accounts. I am not alone in holding these concerns; others share them: for example, Apple (2000), Ballard et al. (2006), Chomsky (2000), and Said (1994). It is a position also shared by Ireland s President Mary McAleese, whom I met on 10 October 2009, on the occasion of the 400 th anniversary celebrations of the granting of Kilkenny s Charter. Here is a picture of the President delivering her speech. Figure 4. Ireland s President Mary McAleese The President, herself from Northern Ireland, spoke about the need for people to know their practices and their histories, to celebrate their knowledge of where they come from, and their heritage. She spoke about how, from her school days in the North, her then curriculum required her to know more about Bismarck than Belfast. Like Seamus Heaney, however, she believes that knowledge of their history enables people better to stand their ground in relation to their identity and beliefs. I share her concerns from my own Scottish-Irish heritage, and my commitments involve giving back to Ireland some of what Ireland has given me. They also involve fulfilling my own professional commitments, always to do with learning and knowledge creation, to enable practitioners to celebrate their capacity to theorise their practices and produce their living educational theories of practice (Whitehead and McNiff, 2006). The pictures above of the graduations and presentations show what can happen when practitioners do so. Furthermore, this fits well with policy recommendations, such as those of the Qatari National Professional Standards for Teachers (Supreme Education Council website) and the European Commission (2007), which I shall speak about shortly. Why am I concerned? I am concerned because I believe passionately that practitioners, in all walks of life, should accept the responsibility, first, of doing good work, and second, of explaining how their work should be understood as good, and how they make judgements about these things. This can be problematic, given rival conceptualisations of the good and how it may be theorised (MacIntyre, 1990). By engaging with the problematics, however, teachers can explain how they hold themselves accountable for what they do. This fits with my overall commitments to personal accountability and a sense of gratitude for life, for being in the world. I hasten to add that I appreciate the distinction of doing good work and doing good, a distinction highlighted by Coetzee (2003) in his novel Elizabeth Costello. 5

12 I believe, like Foucault (2001), Freire (2005) and Zinn (1997), that all people are capable of thinking and speaking for themselves, and should do so, and should not be prevented from doing so. I believe that practitioners in higher education should support the classroom enquiries of teachers, not from a perspective that theirs is a better form of knowledge, but from their position as knowing what is required to have teachers practical embodied knowledge validated and legitimated by the Academy. A key responsibility of higher education professional educators is to find ways of establishing pedagogical infrastructures for the sharing and co-creating of knowledge between schools-based and university-based educators (Nixon, 2008). I believe in developing communities of collaborative practice and critical enquiry within cultures of educational knowledge (Whitehead, 2009), where we share our knowledge from our different perspectives, and find ways of co-creating the kind of knowledge that will help us to make our present world a better place and the grounds for creating a better future. You can see in what I am saying that I am setting out my educational values. When we ask questions such as Why am I concerned? we articulate our educational values, and explain how these give meaning to our lives. We explain how we work to overcome the experience of ourselves as living contradictions (Whitehead, 1989) when our values are denied in our practices; and how we work to live more fully in the direction of those educational values. How do I gather data to show the situation as it is at the moment, and as it evolves? Having set out some of my educational values, I now need to show the current situation that grounds my concerns, in the sense that my values may or may not be realised in practice. I need to explain how I gather baseline data to show the reasons for my concerns, and how I continue to gather data to show the situation as it evolves. I will explain how I do this from (a) a personal perspective and (b) a policy perspective. Personal perspectives Recently I was working with a group of university-based lecturers, encouraging them to see their work as a form of research. It is a key institutional requirement for all academic staffs to engage in research and publish their findings; and a major criterion for judging the quality of the work is whether it makes an original contribution to knowledge of the field (Murray, 2002). As so often happens, several colleagues began looking outside themselves for a research topic, asking, What topic shall we research? Which questions should we ask? I suggested, as I usually do, that they investigate their own practices as their topics of enquiry. One colleague in particular was puzzled. What is special about my practice? she asked. How can what I find out about myself be in any way an original contribution to knowledge of my field? This kind of question is asked too often. Since 1992, when I began working as a professional educator, I have heard countless teachers and other practitioners comment, I m just a teacher (or engineer, or nurse, and so on). There is nothing special about me. This kind of attitude is contrary to my own beliefs, which I share with Hannah Arendt (1958), that we are all special, and all have something unique and valuable to share. We can all learn from one another, from sharing our stories of everyday practice. This belief inspires my own commitments to enable teachers and other practitioners to write their research stories, get them published, and influence thinking and practices in the wider world. I can show, throughout my research programme, how I have gathered data, using a range of sources such as field notes and other documentary data, interviews and video recordings, about how teachers 6

13 felt marginalised, and how they have come to learn to value themselves and their educational contributions. In relation to teachers in Ireland, you can read teachers stories in books such as McNiff and Collins (1994) and Collins and McNiff (1999), and in relation to teachers in South Africa you can see some of their accounts at and These last two accounts are especially significant, since they were written by two teachers from Khayelitsha (see above) who had been told since birth that they were second class citizens, and who showed through their work that they were equal with the best. I recall that another member of that particular group of teachers commented, on the award of his masters certificate, We are now people among other people. Through the validation of the teachers knowledge, they were granted legitimacy, both in terms of the validity of their research and the validity of themselves as persons. In theoretical terms, the situation shows how validity can transform into legitimacy, and how knowledge can transform into power (Foucault, 1980). Policy perspectives I also gather data on a regular basis in relation to how global trends are influencing the development of new policies in relation to education and teacher education. Among the most important trends, I would identify the following as most significant: The global epistemological shift in what counts as knowledge and who counts as a knower A focus on the contribution of work-based learning for economic sustainability A recognition of the need for more democratic forms of working in relation to the development of professional education and its assessment The global epistemological shift in what counts as knowledge and who counts as a knower: There is now wide recognition that individuals personal practical knowledge is as valid and legitimate as traditional academic knowledge, which remains the most widely accepted form of knowledge in the western intellectual tradition (Somekh and Lewin, 2010). The relationship between pure academic knowledge and practitioners work-based knowledge was well illustrated in 1983 and 1995 by Donald Schön, who painted a graphic caricature of the high ground of academia, where pure knowledge and theory is created; and the swampy lowlands of everyday practice, where ordinary practitioners create practical knowledge. The dilemma for Schön was that, although practitioners practical knowledge is generally perceived as of greatest benefit to the problematics of daily life, normative understandings held that it should not, under any circumstances, be understood as real theory. Furthermore, both academics and practitioners alike should accept this story: and of course they do, possibly because another powerful story of the western intellectual tradition was (and still is) that people should not question the idea that social status and official knowledge automatically go together, i.e. the more official knowledge you have, the higher up the social rankings you are. Many influential scholars such as Bourdieu (1984) and Gould (1996) have pointed out the misguided nature of this idea; but the idea is deeply entrenched in the western psyche, and therefore much emotional and intellectual work is needed to dislodge it. A good deal of deconstruction work has been going on in the educational research community for many years, so Schön s caricature no longer holds universally, though the situation still obtains in many places in the world. It is now widely accepted that practitioners everyday knowledge should be seen as a valid form of knowledge creation, equal in status to academic knowledge. The kind of data available can be found in the accounts of teachers on my own website ( and on influential websites such as A glance at accounts such as 7

14 those by Mary Hartog ( who is a higher education tutor, and by Ray O Neill (2007 see below), who is a classroom teacher, indicates that both teachers and academics knowledge of practice can hold equal epistemological status. However, while there is little argument today about the usefulness of practitioners different kinds of knowledge, new important arguments have emerged, mainly to do with demonstrating the validity of different kinds of knowledge. I will come to this point shortly. A focus on the contribution of work-based learning for economic sustainability: Now let me show how documents in the public domain can act as data. In 1994, Gibbons et al made a distinction between Mode 1 forms of knowledge, the conceptual, abstract forms I have spoken about, and that tend to be located in higher education settings; and Mode 2 knowledge, the practical everyday knowledge of people working in workplaces. They explain that this traditional hierarchical relationship between different kinds of knowledge is being levelled out so that Mode 2 knowledge should be understood as equivalent in relevance and status to Mode 1 knowledge. I agree. I also think that the underpinning hierarchical arrangement of knowledge should be done away with too, and that the very notion of hierarchy should be deconstructed. This is already happening, especially in relation to a clear message in the literatures that work-based learning could be a major route to economic recovery and stability, as communicated, for example, by the OECD (2009), and by recommendations of the European Commission: Teachers are supported to continue their professional development throughout their careers. They and their employers recognise the importance of acquiring new knowledge, and are able to innovate and use new knowledge to inform their work. (Commission of the European Communities, 2007: 12) A recognition of a need for more democratic forms of working in relation to the development of professional education and its assessment: Yet while I agree with this view, I also emphasise that the realisation of this capacity for the contribution of all carries certain conditions, the most important of which are (1) an appreciation that teachers can create not only acquire new knowledge; and (2) power must be devolved by the Academy to practitioners, with an agreement for power sharing between academics and teachers in relation to issues of knowledge creation for the improvement of practice, and the capacity to make judgements about how the quality of practice should be judged. Yet this view raises other questions, about 1. first, what is judged, who judges it, and how it should be judged; 2. second, who is seen as qualified to make judgements, and on what basis. It is, as Foucault (2001) says, not so much a question of what is known, but of who is legitimated as a knower, and who says. It is question of the relationship between knowledge and power. And this returns me to the idea of action research, and how these ideas are now embedded within policy documents, such as those of the European Commission who recommend that teachers should: continue to reflect on their practice in a systematic way undertake classroom research incorporate into their teaching the results of classroom and academic research evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching strategies and amend them accordingly (Commission of the European Communities, 2007: 14) I fully subscribe to this view, having been saying it since the 1980s (McNiff, 1984, 1988). Yet I have also been calling not only for recommendations about what should be done, but also for practical strategies and methodologies for enabling the rhetoric to be turned into reality. The question becomes not only What should be done? but also How is to be done? and, most importantly, How is its 8

15 quality and effectiveness to be judged? in other words, actively to engage with the practicalities of the questions and how teachers may be supported. And, from my own commitments to epistemological democracy, I also ask, By whom should such judgements be made, and who makes decisions about these things? What can I do about the situation? What will I do? My response to the situation is to find ways of supporting the action enquiries of practitioners (teachers, in the context of this paper), in work-based learning programmes, and also for higher degree accreditation. I have worked with teachers in a range of work-based settings. In Ireland I have worked with the Marino Institute of Education, on what was then a Schools-Based Action Research Project (McNiff and Collins, 1994); with the National Centre for Technology in Education; with the National Centre for Guidance in Education; and with various schools to enable staffs to investigate their practices. I work with school-based teachers in global settings: in the UK, Malaysia, India, Canada, the USA, Iceland, South Africa, Qatar, Israel and Ireland. I also work with practitioners in third level education in those same countries. In Ireland I have been working intensively with the University of Limerick, and have given lectures and workshops at many other third level institutions. I aim always to exercise my influence in practitioners learning, as well as my own, to develop our views about the form of knowledge most appropriate for social transformation (for example, McNiff, 2009). Those higher education practitioners themselves influence the thinking of both new and experienced teachers in schools and other education settings, and support them in producing their accounts of practice to form a robust knowledge base that has the potential to influence new policy formation. Thus I work for systemic influence; for I believe it is important to aim to influence all aspects of systems, as they constantly shift in relation to new internal and external developments. I also gather data on an ongoing basis. I use a range of data gathering techniques, from a personal journal and logs to video tape recordings that show the live action of practice. Some of these video recordings can be seen on YouTube (see to share and celebrate the achievements of practitioners in all aspects of education systems. And from my data archive I then generate my evidence base that I use to test the validity of my emergent and provisional knowledge claims. The issue of how to do so constitutes a major strand in my enquiries, as I now explain. What kind of evidence can I produce to show that what I am doing is influencing someone s learning? A key debate in the international educational research community became prominent in the 1990s about how it is possible to demonstrate quality in educational research. The debate was intensified in relation to the question of how practitioner research should be judged when submitting scholarly work for consideration in evaluation exercises associated with funding, such as the Research Assessment Exercise (now the Research Excellence Framework) in the UK. The point was made by influential scholars such as Furlong and Oancea (2005) that, if the practitioner research community wished to have its work judged in terms of its own appropriate criteria, the community itself should identify criteria and standards of judgement that would be agreed by the community. My colleague Jack Whitehead, I and others, have been working on this problem for some years; and we have put forward the idea that one s values can emerge as living criteria and standards by which we may judge the quality of our work and educational influences in learning (McNiff and Whitehead, 2006; 9

16 Whitehead and McNiff, 2006). Therefore, if I hold the value of participation as a key value (as I do), my question becomes, How do I show that all have opportunities for participation in their own learning and the learning of others as we work together? The examples in the pictures above, especially that of Amal Al-Yazori, are attestation to this idea by showing the realisation of my value of participation in practice. A powerful knowledge base now exists in the literatures, in the form of books, journal articles, websites, and other sources to show the realisation of this idea. The development of this knowledge base is in keeping with the call from Catherine Snow (2001), then President of the American Educational Research Association, for a systematisation of teachers knowledge and the dissemination of their work. You can see some of the knowledge base on my own website, at where some of the masters dissertations and doctoral theses of teachers in Ireland (and elsewhere) stand as evidence that they can speak for themselves and offer their explanatory accounts of practice. Each of the accounts shows how teachers hold themselves accountable for their work as they strive for and achieve social justice for the young people in their care. Here are some of the accounts: Margaret Cahill (2006) My Living Educational Theory of Inclusional Practice. PhD thesis, University of Limerick. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from Chris Glavey (2008) Helping Eagles Fly A Living Theory Approach to Student and Young Adult Leadership Development. PhD thesis, University of Glamorgan. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from Caitríona McDonagh (2007) My living theory of learning to teach for social justice: How do I enable primary school children with specific learning disability (dyslexia) and myself as their teacher to realise our learning potentials? PhD thesis, University of Limerick. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from Máirín Glenn (2006) Working with collaborative projects: my living theory of a holistic educational practice. PhD thesis, University of Limerick. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from Ray O Neill (2008) ICT as Political Action. PhD thesis, University of Glamorgan. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from Mary Roche (2007) Towards a living theory of caring pedagogy: interrogating my practice to nurture a critical, emancipatory and just community of enquiry. PhD thesis, University of Limerick. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from Bernie Sullivan (2006) A living theory of a practice of social justice: realising the right of Traveller children to educational equality. PhD thesis, University of Limerick. Retrieved 20 June 2010 from There is no reason why this kind of work should not inform professional education programmes for all teachers in all schools, as teachers and their supporters ask, How do I/we improve what I am/we are doing? and develop communities of practice (Wenger, 1999) that engage in critical reflection on and modification of their practices. 10

17 How do I communicate the significance of my action research? Furthermore, by asking this kind of question, teacher professional education moves from its currently dominant form of a focus on skills development and the transfer of existing knowledge to a view that engages critically with the transformation of existing knowledge into new knowledge that is relevant and essential for moving the field forward. A key issue here in relation to explaining the significance of what one has done is to appreciate that the practice of placing oneself at the centre of one s own enquiry, and explaining how one is influencing learning, is not a question of arrogance or selfaggrandisement but of showing how we hold ourselves accountable for our work and exercise extreme caution in what we say and do. Action research therefore enables people to find ways of evaluating their work that demonstrate their own commitments to accountability and the development of a good social order. How do I ensure that any judgements I make are reasonably fair and accurate? I explained above how knowledge claims need to be subjected to the critical feedback of peers. A key methodological strategy of action research is to present one s findings to a group of peers, acting as critical reviewers and evaluators, and invite comment on the potential validity of the claims under scrutiny. This means engaging in appropriate validation procedures, in two ways. Personal validation The first form of validation takes the form of personal appraisal in relation to whether one is living in the direction of one s values in practice. In my case, do I satisfy myself that I am living in the direction of my educational values? Can I explain how I test the validity of my knowledge claims against my own evidence base, in relation to how my values come to act as my living criteria and standards of judgement? Peer validation The second form of validation takes the form of seeking the critical feedback of peers to my claims and its accompanying evidence base, and in relation to criteria such as those articulated by Habermas (1976) and Lather (1991). In relation to the criteria identified by Habermas, do I show that my claim is comprehensible, in that I am communicating my ideas in a way that is understandable and speaks to others experience? truthful, in that I am prepared to test the validity of my claims against a public evidence base? sincere, in that I can show how I try to live in the direction of my values over time? socially, historically, politically and culturally aware, in that I show that I pay due regard for what is going in the contexts I am working in? In relation to the criteria identified by Lather (1991), do I show that I can reflect critically on my own thinking, and modify my practice in the light of more advanced critique? How do I modify my practices and ideas in light of my evaluation? So I am now making this aspect of my research public, and seek critical responses to my ideas, ready to act on advice. Should I continue working as I am working, or should I change? Do I see areas where I could improve? I like the ideas of philosophers such as Said (1997) who says that there are 11

18 no endings, only new beginnings. All the moments of my life are new beginnings. What do I begin now? What do I do differently, in light of my new knowledge? Here are two areas where I am already extending the range of work: the first is in writing; the second is the focus and geographical location of my work. How do I support practitioners academic writing? I have recently identified one area where I feel improvement is essential, which is about supporting practitioners in writing and producing research reports; and this forms the beginnings of a new action reflection cycle. I have become acutely aware of the need for practitioners to produce reports that will enable them to do justice to their research by writing in such a way that people will want to engage with their ideas (McNiff 2010d; McNiff and Whitehead, 2009). I am now focusing my attention on how to do this. How do I work with communities who disagree with one another? I said above that I work with teachers in Qatar. This work has been conducted since October 2009, and teachers are now making their work public: for example, Al-Yazori and Mousshin 2010; Al-Hajri 2010; Al Fugara 2010: see also Tribal Education I am also active in Israel, where teachers work with students in finding ways to live together with their Arab neighbours. Here is a photo of children and teachers from the Nave Bamidbar (Oasis in the Desert) School in Ha zerim Kibbutz near Be er Sheva (Figure 5). This work will be published soon in a range of forms. Figure 5. Children and Teacher from the Nave Bamidbar School I am currently working with others at York St John University, UK, in developing an international conference where practitioners from many communities, including the ones named in this paper, may come together to share their educational research accounts. And so I begin a new enquiry, with a new focus; and I show, through this practice, how the end becomes a beginning, a new question that takes the form How do I? Conclusion So this is what I do, as I move forward through life, in which each new day presents new opportunities for educational influence. Over the past year, and in this paper, I have focused on work in Ireland, South Africa, Qatar, and now Israel (not to mention work in the UK). Everywhere I work with practitioners, encouraging them to investigate how they can improve their practice through 12

19 personal enquiry, and produce their descriptions and explanations of practice in the form of their living educational theories. These accounts show how they hold themselves accountable for their work. I work consistently to encourage people to have the courage to demonstrate their ontological, epistemological and social accountability, in the interests of contributing to a better social and world order than the one we have at present. Doing what I do is my choice. We all have choices, and it is up to each one of us to make the choices we can stand over and that give meaning to our lives. Note: An earlier version of this paper was given as a keynote presentation at Kilkenny Education Centre, 10 October 2009, on the occasion of the 400 th Anniversary of the awarding of Royal Charter to the City of Kilkenny. References Al-Fugara, S. (2010). Developing inclusional schools: How do I integrate students with special needs into mainstream schooling? Teacher Enquiry Bulletin, McNiff, J. (Ed.). London: Tribal. Al-Hajri, S. (2010). Demonstrating educational accountability through new cultures of educational enquiry. Teacher Enquiry Bulletin, McNiff, J. (Ed.). London: Tribal. Al-Yazori, A., & Mouhssin, I. (2010). Parents as partners in education, schools as partnerships for education, Teacher Enquiry Bulletin, McNiff, J. (Ed.). London: Tribal. Apple, M. (2000). Official knowledge. New York: Routledge. Arendt, H. (1958). The human condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ballard, R., Habib, A., & Valodia, I. (Eds). (2006). Voices of protest: Social movements in postapartheid South Africa. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Cambridge: MA., Harvard University Press. Chomsky, N. (2000). On miseducation. Macedo, D. (Ed.). New York: Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield. Coetzee, J. M. (2003). Elizabeth Costello. London: Penguin. Collins, Ú., & McNiff, J. (1999). Rethinking pastoral care. London: Routledge. Commission of the European Communities. (2007). European Union Commission s consultation on schools. Brussels. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, C. Gordon, C. (Ed.). Brighton: Harvester. Foucault, M. (2001). Fearless speech. San Francisco: Semiotext(e). Freire, P. (2005). Education for critical consciousness. London: Continuum. Furlong, J., & Oancea, A. (2005). Assessing quality in applied and practice-based research: A framework for discussion. Oxford: Oxford University Department of Educational Studies. 13

20 Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M. (1994). The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: Sage. Gould, S. J. (1996). The mismeasure of man. (Revised and expanded edition). London: Penguin. Habermas, J. (1976). Communication and the evolution of society. Boston: Beacon. Lather, P. (1991) Getting smart: Feminism research and pedagogy with/in the postmodern. London: Routledge. MacIntyre, A. (2000). Three rival versions of moral enquiry: Encyclopaedia, genealogy, and tradition. Notre Dame, Indiana: Notre Dame University Press. McNiff, J. (1984). Action research: A generative model for in-service education. British Journal of Education, 10(3), McNiff, J. (1988). Action research: Principles and practice (1 st edition). Basingstoke: Macmillan. McNiff, J. (2000). Action research in organisations. London: Routledge. McNiff, J. (2009). Learning for action in action : a paper presented as part of the Keynote Symposium for the Practitioner Research Special Interest Group Explicating a New Epistemology for Educational Knowledge with Educational Responsibility (convened by Jack Whitehead), August Retrieved 21 June, 2010 from McNiff, J. (2010a). The power of one to the power of a million. Keynote address at the Action Research Annual Conference, Qatar University, Qatar. McNiff, J. (2010b). Action research for professional development (revised edition). Dorset: September Books. McNiff, J. (2010c, in preparation). Action research in South Africa. Dorset: September. McNiff, J. (2010d, in preparation). Writing for publication in action research. Dorset: September. McNiff, J., & Collins, Ú. (1994). A new approach to in-career development for teachers in Ireland. Bournemouth: Hyde. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2006). All you need to know about action research. London: Sage. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2009). Doing and writing action research. London: Sage. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2010) You and your action research project (third edition). London: Routledge. Murray, R. (2002). How to write a thesis. Buckingham: Open University Press. Nixon, J. (2008). Towards the moral university. Abingdon: Routledge. 14

21 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009). Creating effective teaching and learning environments: First results from TALIS. Retrieved 31 May 2010 from Said, E. (1994). Representations of the intellectual: The 1993 reith lectures. London: Vintage. Said, E. (1997). Beginnings: Intention and method. London: Granta. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books. Schön, D. (1995, November December). Knowing-in-action: The new scholarship requires a new epistemology. Change, Snow, C. (2001). Knowing what we know: Children, teachers, researchers. Educational Researcher, 30(7), 3 9. Somekh, B., & Lewin, C. (2010). Theory and methods in social science. London, Sage. Stenhouse, L. (1983). Research is systematic enquiry made public. British Educational Research Journal, 9(1), Supreme Education Council website: (Retrieved 20 June 2010). Tribal Education UK (2010). McNiff, J. (Ed.). Teacher enquiry bulletin: Action research for teachers in Qatar. London: Tribal. Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Whitehead, J. (1989). Creating a living educational theory from questions of the kind, How do I improve my Practice? Cambridge Journal of Education, 19(1), Whitehead, J. (2009). An epistemological transformation in educational knowledge from S-STEP research: Notes for the Introduction to the S-Step Session of the American Educational Research Association annual meeting, San Diego, 13 April. Retrieved 26 June, 2010 from Whitehead, J., & McNiff, J. (2006). Action research: Living theory. London: Sage. Zinn, H. (1997). The zinn reader: Writings on disobedience and democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press. 15

22 Cross-Cultural Research and Qualitative Inquiry Pranee Liamputtong La Trobe University, Australia Abstract Cross-cultural research has become important in this postmodern world where many people have been made, and are still, marginalised and vulnerable by others in more powerful positions like colonial researchers. In this paper, I contend that qualitative research is particularly appropriate for cross-cultural research because it allows us to find answers which are more relevant to the research participants. Cross-cultural qualitative research must be situated within some theoretical frameworks. In this paper, I also provide different theoretical frameworks that cross-cultural researchers may adopt in their research. Performing qualitative cross-cultural research is exciting, but it is also full of ethical and methodological challenges. This paper will encourage readers to start thinking about methodological issues in performing cross-cultural research. Keywords: Cross-cultural research; qualitative Inquiry; healing methodology; decolonizing methodology. Introduction The presence of indigenous populations in countries such as Canada, the United States, New Zealand and Australia has a great ramification for social science researchers. These indigenous people have been colonised and have become marginalised in their own native lands. More disturbingly, their traditional knowledge and ways of living have been robbed, damaged and destroyed by the colonising process (Aspin and Hutchings 2007; Bartlett et al., 2007; Bishop, 2008; Cram, 2009; Denzin et al., 2008a, b; Iwasaki et al., 2005; Salmon, 2007; Smith, 1999, 2006, 2008; Walker et al., 2006). Inequalities in education, employment, health, living conditions and opportunities among indigenous people (in comparison to white, dominant groups) continue to exist and even the mainstream societies have become wealthier. In nations like Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United States of America indigenous people continue to disproportionately represent those who are poor, sick, and disadvantaged in health, welfare and opportunity (see Bartlett et al., 2007; Bishop, 2008; Smith, 2008; Iwasaki et al., 2005; Rock, 2003; Walker et al., 2006;). The rates of imprisonment, suicide and alcoholism are unequally high among indigenous populations around the globe (Smith, 1999). Black deaths in custody among Australian indigenous men are well-known and continue to the present time. This has led some social science researchers to suggest that indigenous groups live in the fourth world (Bartlett et al., 2007; O Neil, 1986). It has been suggested that dealing with these problems among indigenous people should be seen as a top priority not only in policy-making and service provision, but also in research (Bartlett et al., 2007: 2372). 16

23 Due to a concern about reducing inequalities between the indigenous peoples and the white populations, there have been attempts to include these vulnerable people in the research arenas. But as we have witnessed, research concerning indigenous people has been intensely biased by Eurocentric philosophies and paradigms (Bartlett et al., 2007; Bishop, 2008; Denzin et al., 2008a; Edwards et al., 2005; Robinson and Trochim 2007; Smith, 1999, 2008; Walker et al., 2006). Smith (2008: 116) points out that indigenous people around the world become people who are the most researched people in the world but the research has not improved their lives and well-being. Indigenous peoples have often voiced their concerns about the problem of research. In Aotearoa New Zealand for example, Mãoris have been heavily researched by Pakeha (non-mãori) researchers who have not only neglected to involve Mãoris in the development of their research (Walsh-Tapiata, 2003: 55), but also marginalised them as people who have problems and who cannot cope or deal with their problems (Bishop, 2008; Smith, 2008). Pakeha researchers gain great benefit from their research, but not for Mãoris. This has similarly happened to indigenous people in other parts of the world. From the indigenous perspectives, Smith (2008: 116) contends, research is so deeply embedded in colonization that it has been regarded as a tool only of colonization and not as a potential tool for self-determination and development. It has now been realised that research in a number of areas including social welfare and health needs is crucial (Bishop, 2008; Smith, 2008; Walsh-Tapiata, 2003). But this research must employ culturally sensitive and empathetic approaches which take into consideration the issues and problems which are important for the people who participate in the research (Smith, 1999). There are also those ethno-specific groups who have lived for long periods in some Western societies, such as African Americans in the United States and Caribbean-born people in the United Kingdom. These people have also been made marginalised by social, cultural and political factors. Many of them have been caught in research endeavours carried out by researchers who exploited and abused them or had little or no regard for their cultural integrity. This has tremendous implications for cross-cultural research at present time. In multicultural societies like the UK, USA, Canada, New Zealand and Australia, there has been an increasing number of people from different cultural, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds. These people may arrive as immigrants (legal and illegal) or as refugees who have fled war-torn countries. Many of them have health problems and no access to social benefits. Their health and well-being have implications for the provision of culturally sensitive health and social care in the host societies. Hence, the provision of culturally sensitive care has become a necessity (Tsai et al., 2004: 3; see also Barata et al.; 2006; Dunckley et al., 2003). Globally too, we have witnessed many poor people become vulnerable with health and social issues. These people have also been subject to abuse and exploitation in intervention and experimental research (see Macklin, 2004). Because of their poverty and powerlessness, many have been coerced into research endeavours which further render them more vulnerable. At present time, we are still witnessing this. Do we, as social science researchers, have the moral obligation to provide culturally competent care to these marginalised people? The need for culturally competent social and health care requires knowledge of the social and cultural contexts of the people and this can be obtained by research, particularly qualitative approach (Esposito, 2001; Hall and Kulig, 2004; Liamputtong, 2008, 2009, 2010a; Papadopoulos and Lees, 2002; Smith, 2008; Tillman, 2006). Many researchers have started projects with vulnerable and marginalised people in a cross-cultural context. But it is crucial that the researchers ensure that their research is conducted ethically and that they take into account cultural integrity of the participants so 17

24 that their research will not harm but benefit local people who take part in their research (Borkan et al., 2000; Liamputtong, 2008, 2010a). Despite the increased demands on cross-cultural research, as Madriz (1998: 7) contends, discussions on culturally sensitive methodologies are still largely neglected in the literature on research methods including qualitative methods. As a result, researchers who are working within socially responsible research in cross-cultural settings often confront many challenges with very little information on how to deal with these difficulties. Conducting cross-cultural research is rife with ethical and methodological challenges (Best, 2001; Bishop, 2008; Hall and Kulig, 2004; Hennink, 2008; McDonald, 2000; Mkabela, 2005; Liamputtong, 2008, 2010a; Small et al., 1999a, b). Discussions on undertaking qualitative research in cross-cultural settings are then essential. This paper fills this gap in literature. In this paper, I shall discuss the essence of qualitative research in cross-cultural research. I shall then provide some theoretical standpoints that I believe sit neatly within the framework of cross-cultural research. Qualitative Methodology and Cross-Cultural Research Qualitative research is essential when there is little knowledge of a research area which deals with the questions of subjective experience and situational meaning (Davies et al., 2009: 6). Qualitative approach provides a better opportunity for conveying sensitivity (Davies et al., 2009: 6). As such, it helps to eliminate or reduce the distrust that individuals from ethnically diverse communities may have toward research and the researchers (Davies et al., 2009; Levkoff and Sanchez, 2003; Liamputtong, 2007; 2009, 2010a; Skaff et al., 2002). I contend that cross-cultural research cannot be too rigid and too objective as in positivist (quantitative) science. As Bishop (2008: 171) suggests, much positivist research has insisted on using researcher-determined positivist and neopositivist evaluative criteria, internal and external validity, reliability, and objectivity and this has dismissed, marginalized, or maintained control over the voice of others. It is impossible to measure people or to generalise about people if the researchers wish to understand people within the context of their society and culture. We are at the juncture of social turmoil in the 21th century, when too many people struggle with health and social difficulties and inequalities in their lives. Social scientists have the moral obligation to do something to improve the lives of many marginalised people in different cultures, and it is only through using a qualitative approach that we can accomplish this task. Qualitative research relies heavily on words or stories that people tell researchers (Liamputtong, 2010b). The focus of this approach is on the social world instead of the world of nature. Fundamentally, researching social life differs from researching natural phenomena. In the social world, we deal with the subjective experiences of human beings, and our understanding of reality can change over time and in different social contexts (Dew, 2007: 434). Essentially, qualitative research aims to capture lived experiences of the social world and the meanings people give these experiences from their own perspective (Corti and Thompson, 2004: 326; Liamputtong, 2009). Qualitative research emphasises interpretation and flexibility. The interpretive and flexible approach is necessary for cross-cultural research because the focus of qualitative research is on meaning and interpretation (Denzin and Lincoln, 2008; Liamputtong, 2007, 2009, 2010a). As Hammersley (1992: 45) suggests, qualitative data are reliable because they document the world from the point of view of the people rather than presenting it from the perspective of the researcher. For most qualitative 18

25 researchers, it is accepted that in order to understand people s behaviour, we must attempt to understand the meanings and interpretations that people give to their behaviour. Because of its flexibility and fluidity, qualitative research is suited to understanding the meanings, interpretations, and subjective experiences of individuals (Denzin and Lincoln, 2008; Dickson-Swift et al., 2008; Liamputtong, 2007, 2009). Qualitative inquiry allows the researchers to be able to hear the voices of those who are silenced, othered, and marginalized by the dominant social order, as qualitative methods ask not only what is it? but, more importantly, explain it to me how, why, what s the process, what s the significance? (Denzin and Lincoln, 2008a; Hesse-Biber and Leavy, 2005: 28; Liamputtong 2009). The in-depth nature of qualitative methods allows the researcher to express their feelings and experiences in their own words (Bryman, 2008; Liamputtong, 2007, 2009; Padgett, 2008). This approach is particularly appropriate and essential for researching those communities who have historically been described as oppressed but who are wanting to take control of their situation and move towards social change (Walsh-Tapiata, 2003: 60). Here, I refer to many indigenous communities in the world. In their research regarding drug use and risky sexual behaviour with young, low-income Latina women, Lindenberg and colleagues (2001) used a qualitative approach. Lindenberg and colleagues (2001: 134) tell us that through the use of qualitative research methods and talking directly with clients and providers, we gained understanding of the beliefs, knowledge, practices, and social context in which young, Latina, low-income, immigrant women make their drug use and sexual behavioural choices. In this study, they adopted focus groups methodology and individual ethnographic life stories. They say that these methods were indispensable to understanding the contextual and cultural realities in which Latinas make their alcohol, drug use, and sexual decisions. Jackson (2000: 347) tells us about a research project in which he had been involved in Zimbabwe in The project adopted a methodology referred to as an enabling state assessment methodology (ESAM). It was developed because of a general dissatisfaction with conventional (positivist) methodologies in the African context. Often, surveys were used to obtain information from local people. Jackson (2000: 348) contends that positivist methodologies do not fully capture the views or agendas of local people. On the contrary, participative research methodology relies upon local people to formulate ideas and then to test them against their own experience. The opinions of Zimbabwean entrepreneurs about the traditional methodologies of questionnaires and the more participatory-based approach were markedly different. The participatory approach allowed many participants to express and explore their ideas, which they felt it would have been missed by positivist methodologies. One participant who has been subjected to numerous research projects said that none of the projects in which he had been asked to participate had allowed him to actually get his views across. He had filled in numerous questionnaires, but had received very little feedback or interaction with the research team. On the contrary, the hands on approach of the participative research had allowed him not only to express and develop his opinions, but also to meet and discuss these issues with other stakeholders (Jackson, 2000: 356). Qualitative research, Morris (2007: 410) contends, has functioned as the sociological vanguard for exploring cross-cultural issues. Because of an ability of qualitative approaches to closely follow social processes as they emerge and change, the inquiry is particularly useful for examining race, culture and ethnicity as the product of social interaction. In her research regarding women s experiences of education with South Asian girls and women, Mirza (1998: 82) adopted a qualitative approach. She articulates on her choice of methodology: 19

26 I chose to pursue a qualitative research methodology in order to explore the girls and women s lives from their own perspectives. I felt that the interview technique would best allow social process to be examined and questions of how and why to be answered. Thus the methodology would provide an informal environment which would encourage the women to discuss their experiences, beliefs and values, and the social meaning they attach to a given phenomenon (Brah and Shaw 1992: 53). This was especially important as I sought to explore sensitive issues such as sexism, racism and culture, as well as the area of non-traditional subjects, which can be difficult. Interviewing enables respondents to move beyond answering the questions asked, to raising other issues and concerns which the researcher may not have considered or seen as relevant, thus providing considerable opportunity for respondents to control the interview and hence to dictate the content and form of the data. Madriz (2003), in her work with Latina and African American women of lower socioeconomic background, makes use of the focus group method in powerful ways. This is clearly seen in her book Nothing Bad Happens to Good Girls (1997). In this book, Madriz writes about how the fear of crime creates a latent form of social control on the lives of women. Fear of crime dictates certain rules about what women should and should not do in public so that they themselves can be protected. These ideas inevitably lead to debilitating perceptions about good girls and bad girls. Not only that, they severely constrain what will be available to lower socioeconomic Latina and African American women in their everyday practices. Regarding the research methods, in this book Madriz argues that most research relating to fear of crime among women has used a quantitative approach. They tended to be large survey studies and conducted with both men and women. This approach, Madriz argues, vigorously restricts the points of view and experiences that the participants are prepared to share. As such, research data only reveals partial and inaccurate accounts of the issue. She suggests that it is difficult to get women, particularly women of non-western groups, to speak about sensitive issues like their fears of sexual assault or rape, in the context of oral or written questionnaires, either when they had to do it alone or with a single researcher. Madriz argues that quantitative methods such as survey tend to alienate the research participants. Individual interviews can also make the participants feel fear, suspicion and intimidation. Hence, she employed the focus group method in her research as she attempted to obtain richer information with greater accuracy from the women. She also notes that focus groups offered a safe environment for the women to support each other when speaking about their experiences of crime and their discomforts and fears about crime. One of Madriz s participants, Carmen, remarked that: When I am alone with an interviewer, I feel intimidated, scared. And if they call me over the telephone, I never answer their questions. How do I know what they really want or who they are? (Madriz, 1998: 6-7). The following excerpt is what Madriz (1998: 3) tells us about her choice of method in this research. Madriz (1998) believes that it was essential for her to listen to women s stories to understand the limitations that fear of crime imposes on their everyday lives. She writes: Rather than addressing how many of these women are afraid because of crime or how much fear they feel, my particular study was aimed at exploring the images and representations that shape women s anxieties and fears at understanding the way in which their lives are limited by these fears. I simply asked them about their worries, anxieties, and concerns related to crime and about the strategies they use to feel safe. In summary, qualitative research is an essential approach for performing cross-cultural research (Liamputtong, 2010a). We, as cross-cultural researchers, need to cast the net of approach wider 20

27 because we are now living in an era when the diversity of human experience in social groups and communities, with languages and epistemologies, is undergoing profound cultural and political shifts (Smith, 2008: 137). In the following sections, I propose several methodological standpoints on which cross-cultural qualitative research can be based. Embracing Healing Methodology In the time of global uncertainty and crisis that we are now facing, a methodology of the heart, a prophetic, feminist postpragmatism that embraces an ethics of truth grounded in love, care, hope and forgiveness, is needed (Denzin et al., 2008a: 3). Hence, I am introducing the healing methodology in this section. Healing methodology is theorised by Cynthia Dillard (2008: 286) who argues that the approach is an essential ethics and methodology for working with indigenous and African women. Healing methodology, accordingly, is a form of struggle against domination. The methodology is consistent with the profound indigenous pedagogical tradition of excellence in the history of African people (see also King, 2005: 15). Healing methodology involves action; the researchers must engage and change situations with which they encounter in their research endeavours. Dillard (2008: 286) asserts: We must fundamentally transform what research is and whose knowledge and methodologies we privilege and engage In this spirit, there must be a letting go of knowledge, beliefs, and practices that dishonour the indigenous spiritual understandings that are present in African ascendant scholars, given our preparation and training in predominately Western, male, patriarchal, capitalist knowledge spaces and the manner in which our spiritual understandings are negated, marginalized, and degraded. The essence of healing methodology is spirituality and transformation (Dillard, 2008: 287). This methodology can work to counteract the negative attitudes of many African American toward research which was due to abusive hegemonic structures that have characterized the methodologies and practice of research in the Western academy. Healing methodology encompasses the principles of: unconditional love, compassion, reciprocity, ritual and gratitude. Dillard (2008: 287) also refers to these principles as methodologies of the spirit. These components are proposed as a way to honour indigenous African cultural and knowledge production and as activist practice designed to acknowledge and embrace spirituality in the process of all of us becoming more fully human in and through the process of research. The first three principles are essentially relevant to performing cross-cultural research involving indigenous and marginalised ethnic communities. Hence, I shall focus my discussion on these three issues in the following paragraphs. Love is the first principle of healing methodology. Too often, as Hooks (2000: 287) says, researchers do not consider love as the wisdom which can produce reciprocal (and thus more just) sites of inquiry. Love as a knowledge will allow the practice of looking and listening deeply. Thus, the researchers will know what to do and what not to do in order to serve others in the process of research. Love also includes carefully seeking understanding of the needs, aspiration, and suffering of the ones you love (Hanh, 1998: 4). Deeply understanding the humanity of individuals with whom we engage in the research process is a necessary prerequisite for qualitative work in the spirit (Dillard, 2008: 287). 21

28 The second principle of healing methodology is to embrace compassion. According to Dillard (2008: 288), compassion is about the intention and capacity to relieve and transform suffering through our research work. It is a form of struggle against dehumanizing contexts and conditions. Compassion as a methodology requires the researchers to relieve communities of their suffering through the process of activist research. It means that the researchers must have serious and ongoing concerns for the research participants and want to bring benefits to them through their research. As researchers, Dillard (2008: 288) contends, we must be culturally and historically knowledgeable about and aware of suffering, but retain our clarity, calmness, our voices and our strength so that we can, through our practice, help to transform the situation and ourselves. Seeking reciprocity is the third principle of healing methodology. Within this principle, the researchers must have their intention and capacity to see human beings as equal, shedding all discrimination and prejudice and removing the boundaries between ourselves and others (Dillard, 2008: 288). If the researchers continue to perceive themselves as researchers and the others as the others (the researched ), or if they continue to see their own research agenda as more crucial than the needs and concerns of the research participants, they cannot be in loving, compassionate, or reciprocal relationships with others (Dillard, 2008: 288). Healing methodology (love, compassion, and reciprocity) allows us to see those with whom we do our research as human beings, and this will have a profound impact on our ways of performing crosscultural research. Decolonizing Methodology Research has been referred to as a colonizing construct (Mutua and Swadener, 2004: 1), with a legacy that Linda Tuhiwai Smith (1999: 80) writes: They came, they saw, they named, they claimed. Colonising refers to the process where a foreign settler creates a new colony in a new land, and over time, takes away the livelihood and suppresses the identities of many native peoples. And he has resulted in significant loss of culture and ways of life impacting on the health and well-being of local people (Bartlett et al., 2007). Smith (2008: 126) says that in of the process of colonization, something gets lost. The something lost for indigenous peoples include indigenous knowledge and culture. Chow (1993) terms this something lost as endangered authenticities. Smith (2008: 126) puts it: In biological terms, the something lost is our diversity; in sociolinguistics, it is the diversity of minority languages; culturally, it is our uniqueness of stories and experiences and how they are expressed. Smith (1999, 2008) and Swadener and Mutua (2008) argue that through the refusal to recognize non- Western perspectives as legitimate knowledge, the colonial research traditions have made cultural knowledge silent. This is referred to as the methodology of imperialism by Said (1995: 21). To counteract this hegemony, the perspectives of indigenous people must be adopted and valorized in the research process (Bartlett et al., 2007: 2372). Indigenous researchers such as Smith (1999, 2008) and Duran and Duran (2000) call for decolonizing methodology to recognize and undo the damage caused by the colonial authority. Decolonizing methodology, Smith (2008: 117) suggests, requires the unmasking and deconstruction of imperialism, and its aspect of colonialism, in its old and new formation alongside a search for sovereignty; for reclamation of knowledge, language, and culture; and for the social transformation of the colonial relations between the native and the settler. Decolonizing methodology questions colonial models of understanding the indigenous reality and challenges dominant modern methods of knowing and reinforces Indigenous identity and discourse 22

29 (Habashi, 2005: 771). This methodology accepts indigenous standpoints, processes, and ways of learning and knowing (Bartlett et al., 2007; Brooks et al., 2008; Smith, 1999; Vannini and Gladue, 2008). It aims to create research which allows for indigenous self determination. As Kaomea (2004: 43) says: Indigenous research should be about healing and empowerment. It should involve the return of dignity and the restoration of sovereignty, and it should ultimately bring formerly colonized communities one step further along the path to self-determination. Decolonizing methodology is guided by the values, knowledge, and research of indigenous people (Bartlett et al. 2007; Smith, 1999; Prior, 2007). Therefore, the methodology can begin to address the suspicion and harm that previous research has created in indigenous communities. Decolonizing discourse assists in developing trust in the researcher and researched relationship through respect, reciprocation, collaboration and cooperation throughout the research (Brooks et al., 2008; Prior, 2007; Vannini and Gladue 2008). Thus, decolonizing methodology attempts to change research practices which have damaged indigenous communities in the past. Rather than accepting the research application of traditional scientific methodology, from design to dissemination, decolonizing methodology deconstructs research to reveal hidden biases (Brooks et al., 2008). This methodology strives to empower indigenous communities and respect their culture and traditions (Brooks et al., 2008). To adopt a decolonizing methodology to the research, the voices of indigenous researchers, those who live and work in indigenous communities, are privileged (Bartlett et al., 2007). Methodologically speaking, traditional positivist research has often denied the agency of indigenous (the colonized) populations. This has led to methodological resistance among decolonizing researchers. Denzin and colleagues (2008a: 11) say this clearly: Indigenists resist the positivist and postpositivist methodologies of Western science because these formations are too frequently used to validate colonizing knowledge about indigenous peoples. Instead, decolonizing researches advocate interpretive strategies and skills fitted to the needs, languages, and traditions of their respective indigenous community. These strategies emphasize personal performance narratives and testimonies. Thus, the use of qualitative research inquiry and more innovative methods are promoted in decolonizing methodology (see Bartlett et al., 2007; Bishop, 2008; Brooks et al., 2008; Smith, 2008; Vannini and Gladue, 2008). More importantly, Bartlett and colleagues (2007: 2376) contend a community-based participatory action research (PAR) is an important method within the framework of the decolonizing methodology. The principle of PAR increases the likelihood that the research process and its outcomes will be more related to and beneficial for indigenous individuals and communities. The research process and sequences also provide empowerment among those individuals involved (Park, 2006; Reason and Bradbury, 2006a; Brooks et al., 2008; Conrad and Campbell, 2008; Kemmis and McTaggart, 2008; Pyet et al., 2010). Decolonizing methodology also allows collaboration among the native researchers themselves and with outsider researchers. Within decolonizing research, Swadener and Mutua (2008: 31) contend, the possibilities of forging cross-cultural partnerships with, between, and among indigenous researchers and allied others and working collaboratively on common goals that reflect anticolonial sensibilities in action are important facets of decolonization. Collaboration with others requires that decolonizing researchers acknowledge and interrogate theories that inform our research agendas and the ethical and moral issues embedded in them as part of making this a reality (Jankie, 2004: ). More importantly, it requires that research to be carried out in ways which are sensitive and culturally appropriate for both the research participants and the decolonising researcher. 23

30 Indigenous and postcolonial (decolonising) researchers are part of a cacophony of subaltern voices (Gandhi, 1998). Such subaltern voices, Swadener and Mutua (2008: 39) remind us, speak many languages and communicate through oral storytelling, song, poetry, dance and rituals. These voices make use of performative styles which reflect a wide range of indigenous epistemologies that go far beyond prevailing Western academic styles and venues for dissemination. Such subaltern voices reject external definitions of what is of worth, and often mirror relational versus individualistic constructions of human beings and other creatures. As such, decolonizing methodology supports the use of alternative and performative styles such as storytelling, narratives, music, drama, and arts as vehicles of growing resistance to Western, neoconservative, and positivist paradigms (Swadener and Mutua, 2008: 41). Decolonising methodology, according to Swadener and Mutua (2008: 35), does not only apply to researching exclusively in contexts where the geopolitical experience of colonization happened, but indeed among groups where colonizing research approaches are deployed. To them, decolonising methodology applies to non-western, marginalized people such as those living in poverty and ethnic minority groups. Decolonising methodology offers indigenous cultural ways of undertaking research for other researchers (Bartlett et al., 2007). For Kaomea (2004: 43): We should think on these factors as they apply to our own research, and if and when we decide to proceed, we should do so humbly, in an effort to serve. This is the stance that I also advocate. Conclusion Cross-cultural research has become hugely important in this postmodern world where many people have been made, and are still, marginalized and vulnerable by others in more powerful positions like colonial researchers. In this paper, I have suggested that qualitative research is particularly appropriate for cross-cultural projects because it allows us to find answers which are more relevant to the research participants. I have also provided a different theoretical framework that cross-cultural researchers may adopt in their research. They are methodologies that will allow us to see the world through the eyes of the research participants. They are methodologies that will ensure that our research products provide benefit to the participants instead of harming them. Performing qualitative cross-cultural research is exciting, but it is also full of ethical and methodological challenges. This paper will encourage readers to start thinking about methodological issues in performing cross-cultural research. I hope that it will be useful for many of you in the field. Note: This paper is based on a Keynote Address given at the 10th Advances in Qualitative Methods Conference, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 8-10 October, References Aspin, C., & Hutchings, J. (2007). Reclaiming the past to inform the future: Contemporary views of Maori sexuality. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 9(4), Barata, P. C., Gucciardi, E., Ahmad, F., & Stewart, D. E. (2006). Cross-cultural perspectives on research participation and informed consent. Social Science & Medicine, 62(2), Bartlett, J. G., Iwasaki, Y., Gottlieb, B., Hall, D., & Mannell, R. (2007). Framework for Aboriginalguided docolonizing research involving Métis and First Nations persons with diabetes. Social Science and Medicine, 65(11), Best, D. L. (2001). Gender concepts: Convergence in cross-cultural research and methodologies. Cross 24

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35 Walsh-Tapiata, W. (2003). A model for Maori research: Te whakaeke i te ao rangahau o te Maori. In R. Munford & J. Sanders (Eds.), Making a difference in families: Research that creates change (pp ). Sydney: Allen & Unwin. 29

36 Teachers and Students Opinions about the Interactive Instructional Environment Designed for Bilingual Turkish Primary School Students in Norway Suzan Duygu Erişti Anadolu University, Turkey Şerife Dilek Belet Anadolu University, Turkey Abstract Within the context of multicultural education process, bilingual students face the risk of failure due to the problems they experience while using their mother language. One of the groups that have similar problems is Turkish students in Norway; these students also have many problems in learning and using their mother language, Turkish. Some of these problems can be listed as being incompetent in comprehension and selfexpression, having limited vocabulary size, inadequate source for language learning and having few class hours for Turkish learning (Belet, 2009). As one of the alternative solution for all these, designing an interactive learning media can be suggested. In this context, the present study contains two phases as designing process of interactive media for the bilingual students use of mother language and then revealing teachers and students opinions about the design process and designed interactive media. Before the design process of interactive learning media, a need assessment study on the basis of the teachers opinions about the problems that the students experience in Turkish learning, their expectations and characteristics was conducted. The data of the research, which was projected, based on the qualitative research method, were collected in the form of survey with open ended questions on need assessment study and design evaluation process, the findings obtained were analyzed and interpreted based on the descriptive analyses method. The results of need assessment indicated that Turkish primary education students in Norway were active in technology use but incompetent in comprehension and self-expression in Turkish, besides they did not have enough vocabulary knowledge. Furthermore, it was obtained that they did not have enough sources for language learning and use, thus they expected to use various learning CDs as alternative solution for these problems. According to the results of needs assessment study, some criteria for the design process were determined and then the interactive Turkish learning media was designed. At the second phase of the study, the teachers and students opinions about the deigned interactive media were examined. Consequently, it was observed that both the teachers and students generally had positive opinions about interactive learning environment. Keywords: Interactive learning environment design; bilingual students; language learning and teaching. 30

37 Introduction Parallel with the developments in the European Union and multicultural education process which gains importance in international scale, bilingualism and bilingual education concepts have commenced to play important roles in determining the national education policies, at the same time; community language and teaching children with different mother languages have revealed as a fundamental process (Khan, 1983). Additionally, bilingualism is one of the basic problems in education systems of multicultural societies since bilingualism is considered as a negative factor while gaining community language skills and children have different language experience at school and family (Luchtenberg, 2002, 49-50; Martin, 1999, 67). Furthermore, when examined the minority group students with low academic achievement, some studies put forth that such students have limited language use, thus they are not successful at education process (Khan, 1983). As citied by İleri (2000) from Skutnabb-Kangas and Toukomaa s study (1976); not having exact command of both languages influences thinking skill and development of intelligence in a negative way while having competence of one of the languages does not influence thinking and intelligence development. On the other hand, at the top level where both languages are known ingeniously, thinking skills and intelligence are influenced positively. Likewise, one of the current controversies is about how the use of mother language as a medium instruction enables early and rapid transition to a second language beyond decreasing the students potential skills. Moreover, teaching mother language can be used as a mean to remove the gap between school and home, which disturbs for educational and psychological aspects (Khan, 1983). Turkish students are one of ethnic groups that have problems related to bilingualism at national and regional level in Norway as one of the European countries. In 2000, out of students at compulsory education in Norway, 6.6% (38.600) were enrolled to the courses on minority languages. For most of these students, medium of instruction at their schools are not their mother languages. Preliminary minority languages in Norway are English, Spanish, Turkish, Urdu, Arabic, Croatian, Bosnian, Albanian, Somalian, Tamil (SSB, 2000). Although education in mother language is accepted as a right for students in Norway, within national and regional educational policies, Norwegian teachers have various problems due to bilingualism. In this context, referring to the findings of her study on Turkish students mother language learning in Norway, Belet (2009) suggested the inclusion of Turkish course to teaching program and supporting Turkish teaching with various sources in order to solve the students problems in learning Turkish, particularly comprehension and self-expressions owing to limited use of mother language within family. Meanwhile, the researchers in literature stated that teaching mother language is an important way to prevent Turkish students in Norway losing their own cultures. For instance Baker (2000) and Skutnabb- Kangas a (2000) explained that the mother language loss is little at the early years of education and thus they put forward that in order to hinder students alienation from their families and to develop their thinking skills as well as community language, technology supported learning media (software for Turkish learning etc) could be developed in addition to elective mother language courses so that teaching mother language and its use out of class could be encouraged. In technology supported learning environments, students are at the center of learning and their needs, expectations and desires related to teaching process can be taken into consideration. Technology support which aims to annihilate students negative views, attitudes and reluctance about learning can make learning more effective and thus qualifies in line with individual differences. Since technology supported learning environments provide multidimensional transfer of learning content to students. Thus, it can be claimed that technology-supported learning environments contribute to 31

38 development of students high level thinking skills and facilitate them to learn by comprehension (Renshaw and Taylor, 2000) Along with technology developments at learning processes and environments, many facilities such as computer, Internet (virtual environments), interactive instructional media have emerged. These systems contain multimedia opportunities such as graphic, sound, text; Picture and the use of these opportunities become widespread day by day (Reeves, 2003). The similarities between learning environment and real life are one of the important factors to embody and make information to be learned meaningful, to enable interaction, and to increase students achievement (Ringstaff & Kelley, 2002). Appropriate to such an approach, it is essential to apply systematic and realistic understanding while designing learning environments and activities (Seels and Richey, 1994: 4-22) Learning environments can suit to present requirements of technology with appropriate instructional designs. These requirements can be accomplished with well-rounded team work including pedagogue, education specialist, psychologist and designers. In comparison with traditional applications, technology supported learning develop children s creativity and learning while doing (Resnick, 1998). Thus, developing learning environment and processes within the context of technological requirements guide students to search, observe, review and satisfy curiosity while enable to reach the goal of learning processes by drawing their attention and synthesizing their learning in a certain system. In technology supported learning environments, the students with different talents and skills can learn different from each other and individually with different learning approaches. The technology, which provides learning environments according to student characteristics, increases learning quality and provides permanence (Winn, 2002). Nowadays most of the students at learning processes have viewpoints based on immediate satisfaction, ever-changing and images. Thus, the learning environments are expected to have interesting content and dynamic structure, open to development and satisfy their expectations (Riley and Prentice, 1999). Interactive learning facility is one of the commonly used technology facilities in learning processes. Interactive learning media can be classified in terms of functions as computer based and computer supported learning environments, Internet based and Internet supported learning environments, interactive environments, simulation and virtual reality environments. General properties of these environments are to contain multimedia based learning applications and activities. On the other hand, the contents of interactive learning media differ in terms of the intended use. These environments can be listed as for learning purpose, repetition purpose, animation-simulation purpose, game purpose. Interactive learning media can influence learning processes positively as long as they are associated with learning process and content effectively. Interactive CD s as interactive learning media can appeal to different senses, enable to transfer abstract information to real situations, provide opportunities to students to study on their own pace, increase students motivation for learning activities, make learning fun and interesting, enable active participation to learning process, support information transfer with multimedia facilities such as graphic, picture, video/sound/animation (Wilson, 1993). In parallel with all these properties, when learning environments designed in interactive learning environments are associated with the characteristics and cultural properties of the target population, it is considered that in line with basic properties such as individualizing learning, increasing learning quality, enabling learning permanence, making learning environments attractive; such environments can be an alternative way for the solution of problems that bilingual Turkish primary education students abroad experience while learning their mother language, Turkish. 32

39 Aim of the Study The aim of the study was to determine teachers and students opinions about properties and design of the interactive instructional media designed for bilingual Turkish primary education students. On this purpose, the following research questions were addressed: 1. What are the teachers opinions about the properties of interactive learning media to be designed to teach mother language to bilingual Turkish primary education students? 2. What are the teachers and students opinions about Interactive learning media with Turkish learning content which was designed to teach mother language to bilingual Turkish primary education students? Method The research model of the study, which was conducted through qualitative research design and demographics of the participants, data gathering instruments and data analysis procedures were explained in the following: Research Model This study, which aimed to determine the properties of Interactive CD with content of Turkish learning designed to teach mother language to bilingual Turkish primary education students and the teachers and students opinions about these CDs, was designed with survey method. In order to reflect students and teachers opinions effectively, descriptive analysis was realized and direct quotations are made by the researchers (Miles and Humerman, 1994; Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005). Participants In this study, out of purposeful sampling methods, critical incident sampling was used to select the participants. As Şimşek and Yıldırm (2005) citied from Patton, the most important indicator addressing to a critical incident or incidents is whether there is a judgment or not as if it happens here, it will absolutely happen at similar situations or another indicator if this group faces a certain problem, other all groups will have this problem. Furthermore, critical incident samplings will be more useful if the researcher does not have enough sources to study on certain number of cases. In this context, critical incident sampling is preferred considering that the students who live abroad and have difficulty in learning their mother language but have different characteristics can use the CD effectively in case the CD satisfy their requirements and contribute to mother language learning as Belet (2009) suggested in her study on interactive instructional CD for bilingual Turkish primary students mother language learning referring her finding that Turkish students who lived in Norway after immigration in a multicultural environment had comprehension and self-expression problems in Turkish. In this sense, the participants of the study were 11 teachers and 40 students attending to 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th grade (8 second grade students, 11 third grade students, 15 fourth grade students and 6 fifth grade students) at Fjell Multicultural Primary School in Drammen, Norway. 33

40 Data Collection Procedure In line with the aim of the study, the data collection procedure was carried out at two phases. At the first phase, the teachers opinions about the properties of Interactive instructional CD, which were suggested by teachers and students in Belet s (2009) study as a solution for the students problems in comprehension and self-expression in Turkish due to limited vocabulary and ineffective use of mother language, were examined through open-ended questions at Survey on Opinions about Properties of Interactive Instructional CD. During the need assessment, it was a critical to ask teachers open-ended questions to understand key points about students comprehension and self-expression problems better. In this regard, researchers agreed that open-ended questions would work better than structured simple yes-no questions. Then, Interactive Instructional CD was prepared in line with these opinions and related studies. At the second phase of the study, the students and teachers opinions about this designed CD were investigated through open and close-ended questions at Survey on Teachers Opinion about Interactive Instructional CD, Survey on Students Opinion about Interactive Instructional CD. The properties of data gathering instruments and CD design procedure were explained in detail in the following: Survey on Opinions about the Design Properties of Interactive Instructional CD: This survey contains 5 open-ended questions. Respectively, the first question is regarding the problems teacher mainly experience in the class while teaching Turkish, the second question is about teachers and students expectations from interactive instructional CD, besides, the third question is about the design components, the fourth question is related to the use of technology. On the other hand, the last question is asked to describe students in-class performance, properties of mother language use within their age range, their developmental properties, interests, competence and social approaches. The survey questions are as follows: What do you say about the problems mainly experienced in the class while teaching Turkish? What do you say about your expectations from interactive instructional CD? What do you say about the design components you wish to be included on interactive CD (images, colours, typography, text contents, sounds and etc.)? What do you say about the students use of technology and technology competency? What do you say about the students in-class performance, properties of mother language use within their age range, their developmental properties, interests, competence and social approaches? The scope and intelligibility of the items in the instrument were checked by two experts in field of Turkish teaching and two experts in the field of learning environment design. (Two assistant professors experienced in the domain of education, particularly in instructional design; two assistant professor experienced in researches and practices on language education and literacy in children). Then, according to field experts opinions, some parts were changed and sent to the teachers via e- mail. The surveys were recollected within 15 days. Design Process of Interactive Instructional CD: In this process, task analysis related to design components to be used in CD were determined as a result of need assessment, in line with the researchers studying fields. In that sense, text samples for listening and reading practices, text comprehension activities, and vocabulary game for developing vocabulary knowledge, speaking and writing activities for development of self- expressions were then prepared to involve in CD which were developed in line with students needs. At this point, considering the function of language for culture 34

41 transfer, it was paid attention to involve students own ethnical cultural values, traditions, life styles and ancestral heroes since it has been accepted that in language teaching at primary education, qualities of culture, value system, viewpoints, expectations and communication styles that students experience play important role. Furthermore, if language teaching gets associated with cultural functionality, it becomes inevitable to create an interactive learning process enjoying students. Cultural qualities within language and social life and the association of thinking systems influence language teaching and interaction positively, hence the components of this interaction process constitute cultural qualities, conceptual competence, readiness level and knowledge, process strategy (Goodman, 1971; Coady, 1979). In this context, for the designed CD, the texts that emphasized the properties of Turkish culture such as Karagöz and Hacivat, Bayramlarimiz were included, additionally, and some samples from world literature (e.g. La fonteine fables) that could draw students attention were also involved in the content of CD. After deciding on how content and activities would be presented in CD, two experts, one of whom worked with bilingual Turkish primary education abroad, students while the other worked with Turkish primary education students in Turkey, were asked to revise CD and according to their opinions, some related changes were made. Then, the researchers decided on how the selected texts and activities would reflect to design process. Thereupon, the design process of visual and functional qualities of CD were carried out. In this design process, it was decided which visuals, animations and vocalizations would be used for the selected texts, for these Adobe Photoshop CS 2, Adobe Flash CS 2, Gold Wave and All Sound Recorder programs were used. After checking over the final version in terms of content and design component for the last time, the designed interactive instructional CD were applied to the participants in Fjell Multicultural Primary School in Drammen, Norway on 17 May In data collection procedure, CD content which were prepared for all participants were installed on laptops. After that, the students were asked to examine CD (1st session-1 hour) and then they were asked to use it (2nd session 2 hours) with supervision and cooperation of the researchers. Figure 1 depicts a screenshot of the interactive instructional CD. 35

42 Figure 1. Interactive Instructional CD screenshot Survey of Students Opinions about Interactive Instructional CD: The survey contains totally 10 items; 9 closed-ended and 1 one open-ended items. First seven items are related to design components and interactive environment design, while 8th item is for texts with culture theme in CD, and 9th closeended item is about the effectiveness of interactive game activity in CD. On the other hand, in 10th open-ended items, participants are asked to evaluate the interactive environment design and write about their extra expectations. After scope and intelligibility of these items were checked by four experts, the final version of the survey was conducted on 17th May Survey of Teachers Opinions about Interactive Instructional CD: Teachers survey consists of 7 items; while 1st item is about learning content, th items are about the effectiveness of design components, 6th items is regarding the association of scenarios used in CD with culture, lastly 7th item is for evaluation of vocalization in terms of cultural and instructional aspects. The final version revised again by four experts was given to the participants on the same date, 17th May Data Analysis and Interpretation Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the quantitative data of the study. After enumerated and scored students and teachers surveys, the obtained data was analyzed through SPSS package program; the obtained findings were presented as frequency and percentages. On the other hand, the collected qualitative data was analyzed through descriptive analysis technique. In this context, the qualitative data which was collected at two phases were also analyzed at two steps: 36

43 Firstly, a framework on the basis of conceptual and theoretical background of the study was constructed in order to define and arrange themes. Then, data was revised, selected and arranged under these themes. By describing data and supporting them with quotations, the findings were presented. At this stage, in order to explain, relate and make sense of the findings, the cause effect relation between findings were put forth and the obtained findings were compared with the findings of other studies so that it was aimed to have more qualified interpretations (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005). In this sense, two survey forms for teachers and students opinions were developed and descriptive index and research comment section were included in these forms. For the reliability of the study, one field expert revised the forms and determined the items which had consensus and dissensus. Then, using Miles & Humerman s (1994:64) Formula, the reliability of the study was ensured as The validity study was based on the content validation of 2 field experts (one assistant professors experienced in educational sciences and one assistant professor experienced on language education and literacy) conducted over data s gathered from survey forms. Findings and Interpretations The findings of the study were gathered and presented under two themes respectively as Teachers Opinions about Design Properties of Interactive Instructional environment and their Reflections to Design Process according to the findings collected before design process, and Teacher and Students Opinions about Interactive Instructional Learning Environment Design on the basis of the findings collected after design process. Teachers Opinions about Design Properties of Interactive Learning Environment and the Reflections of Teachers Opinions to Design Process Primarily, the teachers were asked to explain the problems the students experience regarding Turkish teaching and learning. As a result, most of the teachers emphasized the theme of not having enough Turkish sources. For instance, one of the teachers, S1 stated that there is not enough source when we want to teach the same subject that we have taught in Norwegian, in Turkish class In this regard, S2 added that it is big shortcoming not to have reading and working books, CDs that students could use. Nine of the teachers complained that we could not benefit from technology since we do not have technological sources. On the other hand, some of the teachers emphasized the theme of not having enough class hours. In this regard, one of the teachers, S11 reported that our most important problem is that we do not have enough class hours. Furthermore, having inadequate vocabulary knowledge was revealed as another problem based on the teachers opinions in the need assessment in the study. Regarding this, the teacher S4 explained that pronunciation makes vocabulary teaching difficult, besides another teacher S6 expressed that the most important problem is to have little vocabulary knowledge. Additionally, the teacher S7 stated that for students, it is difficult to learn and make sentence with the newly heard word. Thus, the main themes revealed within the context of the teachers opinions about the problems they experienced, namely; their needs for technology supported sources, limited class hours and problems related to students vocabulary knowledge were taken into consideration while designing interactive instructional CD. In this sense, the suggestions for the solution of the problems were offered upon a sample learning activity and modules. Moreover, it was paid attention to design CD as repeatable and appropriate to students pace. Besides, for the problem of students inadequate vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary games were designed in CD. 37

44 On the other hand, regarding the teachers opinions about the students qualities, within the context of Students competence of technology use and Reasons of students problem in language use themes; it could be claimed that the students could use computer well, they were inclined to use technology, all of the students had laptops and they were interested in computer games and activities. In this respect, related to Students competence of technology use, the teacher S1 explained that Most of the students are very successful at computer use; they are some students who are better than teachers (although they just attend to 3rd year). Moreover, the teacher S6 stated that the students are good at using computer and they are enthusiastic about participating to various computer supported activities Furthermore, the teacher S4 emphasized that I realized that the students concentrate at the activities with CD very well. On the other hand for the theme of Reasons of students problem in language use, most of the teachers put forth the reasons as being bilingual and having inadequate competence in both languages. For instance, the teacher S3 underlined that Due to bilingualism, they do not know them adequately, they get confused between them, the teacher S7 described the student profile as students who have inadequate Turkish language knowledge and need to improve it. Regarding this, the teacher S8 added They do not have enough Turkish, they have limited vocabulary knowledge and no reading habit, their knowledge and skills are below the average. The teacher S11 emphasized that It should be take into account that children grow up in an environment which is very different from Turkey and they do not have very rich vocabulary knowledge Concerning previously identified themes such as, technology use competency of students and sources of problems that students faced in language use which were used to define the target population, it was found that technology use competencies of the students were very high and they had serious problems in language use. The environment was designed concerning the findings that were merged from the themes. For instance, the learning Turkish oriented interactive environment was developed as simple as possible with reference to the observed bilingualism problems. Moreover, concerning high-level technology use competencies of the students, the environment enriched with visuals in order to make it more attractive and motivating. With reference to the expectations of the teachers about the interactive environment design, various expectations were gathered within the frame of following themes, which are, the content should cover expressions that were proper to the target population, the content should be amenable to the level of the students and the content should be applicable for different technology supported environments. Concerning the content should cover expressions that were proper to the target population theme, one of the teachers (S6) expressed that the content of interactive Turkish learning environment might cover reading comprehension activities, vocabulary enriching activities, vocabulary pronunciation activities, fill in the blank activities, and activities related to idiom definitions. Another teacher (S2) stated, There should be a plenty of examples in the CD and they should be prepared in the form of games. Similarly, S10 expressed that game oriented and motivating CDs or CDs teaching the concepts might be prepared. The teachers also expressed their ideas related to theme which was the content should be amenable to the level of the students. For instance, S11 stated, the content should be proper to their experiences, the concepts should be unsophisticated, and there should be short sentences. In terms of the levels and profiles of the students, one of the teachers (S2) stated... the content should be suitable for all ages and the topics of the year. We should assume the fourth graders in Turkey as second graders here. Similarly, one of the teachers (S8) stated, it should cover applied Turkish teaching methods, and should have rich and multileveled activities that serve for all age groups. In relation to the theme, which was the content should be applicable for different technology supported environments, one of the teachers (S2) expressed that Since we use smart boards, the content should be suitable for such technologies. For 38

45 instance, students could fill in the blanks through drag and drop activities when they come to the board. The content and types of the activities that could take place in the interactive environment were also emerged while focusing on the identification of the expectations of the teachers related to the environment. The activities that were expected to take place in the content of the interactive learning environment were primarily related to reading and reading comprehension, however, reading, reading comprehension, enriching the vocabulary knowledge, fill in the blanks in the sentences, texts and tales, games, abridged subjects for younger learners, and using the media in the different technology supported environments were also outstand among other expected activities in the content of the interactive environment. Regarding the expectations of the teachers, the activities were organized and designed so as to cover expectations of different age groups. In this respect, the content of the environment were design so as to cover fill in the blanks, vocabulary games, question-answer type activities. Moreover, the interactive learning environment was designed as suitable for different technology based environments and as suitable for its out-of-school use by the students. Concerning the frame of the module that was shaped through activities, various texts were also inserted onto the learning environment. In the selection of the texts, the culture and background knowledge of the students (Karagöz and Hacivat, Feast Excitement) and simplified examples of classic literature (The Lion and The Mouse) were used as reading texts. While designing the learning environment, the vocabulary games were organized as attractive, motivating and as vocabulary repertoire enriching activities. During the process of identification of the quality of the learning environment, the teachers expressed various opinions within the context of previously identified main themes. For instance, with respect to the theme, which was the visual characteristics should be suitable for the target population, while the teacher (S2) expressed it should be neither too simple nor too complicated, teacher (S7) stated, it should be colourful and attractive, and there should be effective and nice pictures. Most of the teachers also highlighted that; there should be plenty of pictures, tales and examples. Concerning the theme that the audio characteristics of the content should be suitable for the target population, S2 stated, The speed of the audio of the stories should be slower, same as for the tales and teacher S3 stated, There should be oral narrating. While teacher S6 stated, sentences should be heard, stress should be heard, a special attention should be given on pronunciation of the words teacher S10 expressed that the sounds should be uttered with different intonation. In terms of suitability of written texts, while teacher S8 expressed that stories, jokes, and sample texts from newspaper might be used the teacher S10 declared that the language should be legible and fluent. With respect to the theme, which was the visual characteristics should be suitable for the target population; teacher S2 stated, the transitions should be slow while teacher S6 highlighted that there might be some animations. Teacher S8 stated, Educational cartoons might be used, whereas teacher S10 stated, they should attract the children s interests. Concerning the characteristics of the interactive environment, which was based on the opinions of the participating teachers, the outstanding characteristics of the content should include plenty of visuals, audio narrations, animations in relation with tales, stories and jokes, and fluent and plain sound recordings. With the purpose of fulfilling the above-mentioned expectations of the teachers, two of the texts were selected as animated texts and the other texts were illustrated with pictures while designing the learning environment. Moreover, the visuals and motion videos were supported with high quality sound recordings in order to provide the fluency. 39

46 The Opinions of Teachers and Students Related to the Design of the Interactive Learning Environment. The opinions of teachers and students related to the design of the interactive Turkish learning environment were grouped under two sub-themes, which were teachers opinions related to design and students opinions related to design Teachers Opinions Related to Design With reference to the use of interactive learning environment in the learning processes, the teachers of Turkish students who enrolled in Fjell Multicultural Primary School were asked to evaluate and express their opinions related to the use of the interactive media. Eleven teachers were asked to evaluate the design of the interactive media along with the characteristics that were identified by the researchers as suitability of the content to the target population, suitability of the design properties of the media, suitability of the visuals, sounds and animations, and suitability of the design scenario. Concerning the obtained data on the subject of suitability of the content to the target population theme, it was observed that a significant number of the teachers expressed that the design of the interactive media is suitable for the target population. For instance, teacher S11 stated, this media is suitable to the status of the students here and I believe that we can use it effectively. Similarly, teacher S6 expressed that I think, the CD that you ve prepared is suitable to the target population Another theme that emerged from the opinions of the teachers related to the suitability of the media to the target population was the design of the interactive media is highly effective and attractive. For instance, teacher S3 expressed that the design is effective, attractive and joyful for the students. Being audio is also beneficial. Including activities is informative and I think CD is multidimensional. It is motivating for the students. It is also thought provoking. It breaks the gloominess of the courses and a multi dimensional and constructive resource. Another theme that emerged from the opinions of the teachers was the suitability of the interactive media to the language use of the students. For instance, teacher S4 opined, it is suitable to the language use of the students. With reference to the content characteristics of the interactive media, teachers stated various opinions such as, it could be enriched by including various activities, it could be used at home as well, and more vocabulary games should be included to its content. The most noticeable characteristics of the interactive media, which was developed for the use of primary school level students is that, the interactive media meets the expectations of the students. In this respect, the needs assessment study that was held with teachers is used effectively with regard to the expectations of the students as well as teachers who are closely acquainted with the students. Since the teachers, who evaluated the design of the interactive media, mentioned some of the characteristics of the design as, effective, multidimensional, motivating, thought provoking, suitable for language use, and meets the expectations indicated that the developed media can fulfill its purpose of design process. The teachers, who were asked to express their opinions related to the use of design properties of the interactive media, commonly believed that colours, typographic elements, and composition of the media are suitable. With respect to theme that was suitability of the design properties of the design, teacher S3 expressed that the use of colours is spectacular and this promotes ongoing motivation. The use of colour is well balanced, therefore, it is neither complicated nor eye straining. It is exiting for the students, the writings are not irksome, comprehensible and easily useable by students; compositions are legible and thought provoking Likewise, teacher S11 said, the colours of the visuals in the media which was prepared for the first to fourth grades are very important. There should be a harmony between the text and object, the legibility of the text and the length of the text is just suitable for the students here. The teachers who participated to the analysis study mostly 40

47 highlighted that Turkish speaking and writing skills of the student in Fjell Multicultural Primary School were not similar to the students in Turkey, hence, the design characteristics of the interactive media were designed as motivating the perceptions of students, easily perceptible, plain and effective while designing the interactive media. Concerning the opinions of the teachers, it can be claimed that the design characteristics of the media might motivate the perception of students. The teachers expressed positive opinions related to the suitability of the visuals, sounds and animations in the design of the media. For instance, teacher S3 declared, it overlaps with texts, entertaining for the students, easy for students use and they integrated very well. Teacher S7 stated, Motion properties are attractive enough for the children, similarly, teacher S10 stated, perfect, display is very important, visual elements are well integrated with the texts. Teachers also expressed that the interactive media should be enriched with music. Teachers also expressed highly positive opinions related to the suitability of the design scenario of the media. One of teachers S1 stated, Scenario is in tune with the level of the children and also having a lingual scenario is important in teaching Turkish, another teacher S3 stated, it is important in terms of cultural aspect and it is appropriate. Similarly, another teacher S7 expressed, the scenarios used in the media are compatible with the culture of the children. The teachers appreciating the scenarios as compatible with the multicultural background of the students is highly important. Since the target users are bilingual and bicultural students, supporting the content with both languages and cultures through familiar visual symbols, verbal expressions, and written texts, that is, associating the content with both languages and cultures might be very effective. Thus, providing such content might offer a learning process, which enables students to associate the content of the media with their own culture as well as with the culture in which they live. Students Opinions Related to the Design The data, which were obtained through closed ended questions, that related to the opinions of the participants about the design were illustrated in Table 1 as frequencies and percentages, whereas, the data which were obtained through open ended questions related to the opinions of the participants about the design were presented with direct quotations. 41

48 Table 1. Students Opinions Related to the Interactive Learning Environment Opinions related to the environments/media f % The use of multimedia attracted my attention The motion videos, audios, visuals and typographic elements in the content made the learning more enjoyable. The motion videos, audios, visuals and typographic elements in the content attracted my attention. The motion videos, audios, visuals and typographic elements in the content assisted me to learn the subjects better The design of interactive media accommodated me an enjoyable learning Being in accordance with the pace and possibility of reviewing the subjects contributed to my learning I am not distracted throughout the learning process Seeing samples of my own culture in the learning content attracted my attention Presentation of the learning content with games attracted my attention A great deal of the students expressed that using multimedia facilities (e.g. motion videos, visuals, audios, game interactivities, etc) attracted attention and eased their understanding of the subjects. Similarly, a great deal of students expressed that they found the design of the interactive media as enjoyable when it was considered as a whole and they stated that instructions as well as the quality of pace contributed to their learning. Students highlighted that seeing examples of their own culture in the learning content and use of games in the presentation of the learning content attracted their attention. With reference to the opinions of the students, it was found that only a certain part of the students expressed that they are not distracted; possible reason of the expression of such an opinion might be based on the problems in the physical conditions in the practice setting. However, it can be claimed that, most of the students generally found the media as effective. Concerning the findings of the data obtained from the open-ended question, it can be claimed that a great deal of students (17 students) expressed positive opinions related to the interactive CD. The most explicit theme emerged from the study is that the media is enjoyable and effective. A plenty of students highlighted that the presence of games and animations in the content of interactive instructional CD is effective and they affirmed that they liked most the animated characters associated with Karagöz, Hacivat and Bayram heyacanı which were the texts that were presented in the content. For instance, one of the students E37 opined, Hacivat was very funny, the lion was slightly pretty, the souvenir story was very nice. Similarly most of the students declared their opinions related to the design of the interactive media under a main theme that the effectiveness of the games in the design of interactive media. The students (11 students) who acknowledged that they liked games also expressed that they need more games. For instance, while student 19 stated, it would be much better if there are more games student E4 said, There should be a little bit more time for the games. Similarly, expressing 42

49 everything was good, however, it would be much better if there are more questions in the games, the student E27 highlighted the importance of the game content. Some of the students opined that the design of the interactive media should give place for different multimedia facilities such as films, songs and videos along with the games. Regarding the opinions related to the theme that the need of using different multimedia facilities, student E29 stated it would be better if there were videos whereas student E8 stated, I expected to see the videos of each tale. It was observed that students enjoyed the interactive media in general and one of the most remarkable aspects is that students mostly liked the animated characters, which were associated with their own culture. It could be regarded that using attention-getting animated characters that associate the culture of the students with the culture that they live in served the purpose of using culturally familiar characters in the interactive media. Similarly, regarding the properties of their ages and based on the opinions of the students it was found that students need interesting vocabulary games while learning Turkish through interactive media. The game based learning environments in primary education level are very effective in terms of motivating students and in terms of directing students into the learning environment. One of the students E33, highlighting the need of an interactive media expressed that it was very good; I want a CD which is suitable with our subjects. Among the students (3 students) who declared their opinions related to the design of interactive media within the theme of the contribution of interactive media to the learning process the student E19 stated, the CD was good and helped me to learn many things. Another important finding is that the interactive media was found as a supplementary reference for learning. The students expressing their opinions on this context is also a sign of the effectiveness of the interactive media. Results and Discussion In the world of global and multicultural education, bilingualism and bilingual education as well as mother language education of the children who live in another language environment become a very important and problematic concept. Since, parents who live in another language environment mostly give importance to the education of their children s second languages as they assume that the education of the mother language could be achieved naturally in their family or in their migrant environments (Khan, 1983). What is more, children in such migrant environments have difficulty in using their mother language. Along with these facts, the findings of the studies also revealed that bilingual students might encounter the risk of failures. One of such groups who experience such problems is the Turkish students who live in Norway (Taguma at.al., 2009). However, the related literature highlights that the mother language education contribute to participation to the learning environments, creating a relative equity in the education of multicultural students, gaining higher learning outputs, reducing repetitions in the grade levels, reducing dropout rates of the students, producing socio-culturally beneficial products both for individuals and the multicultural societies, a sustainable impact on reducing the educational costs and developing the critical thinking processes of the children (World Bank Institute, 2005) The bilingual Turkish students who live in Norway come across with various problems in using and learning their mother language, Turkish. Some of their problems are comprehension problems, lack of self-expression skills, lack of a rich vocabulary knowledge, lack of sources for learning their mother tongue and lack of Turkish courses in their learning curriculums (Belet, 2009). It is considered that one of the alternative solutions for their problems is designing an interactive learning environment. Since, the interactive learning environments provide an important contribution to the education of the individuals through enabling the students find creative solutions for the problems they faced instead of getting the information as passive learners (Anglin, 1995). 43

50 The joint points of the conceptual definitions of the education are self-reformation and selfdevelopment of individuals, learning through technology and authentic materials and developing a learning motivation. The fundamental relation between teacher and students is changing. The technology endows the students with the control of self- learning. The new technologies enable students to reach new information easily and this process can be controlled by the teachers at the same time (Rakes, Flowers and Cakes, 1999). The technology supported learning environments provide various ways and opportunities for students to learn and reach the information; hence, it presents a great distinction from the traditional practices (McCorduck, 1994, p. 255). The role of visual and audial media in the educational practices is beyond the question (Bolter, 1996, p. 261). One of the effectual practices of the technology supported learning environments is their interactive design, which contributes the learning process of the students positively. The findings of the needs analysis study, which was held to identify the needs and current properties of the participants prior to the design of the interactive learning media revealed that the Turkish primary school students in Norway are keen on using technology and enthusiastic to use various interactive CDs as an alternative learning tool, however, they have insufficiency in comprehension of Turkish and self-expression skills, they have inadequate vocabulary repertoire and they don t have sufficient sources for learning and using their mother tongue. Additionally, the preliminary findings revealed that participants expected to see culturally familiar elements and visuals in the content of the designed material. Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg (2003) declared that the most important aspects of the technology and language learning relation are providing an interactive relation, providing activities, which enable students to express themselves and attain the real qualities of the target population. In fact, Butler- Pascoe (1997) highlighted that the language reflects the culture of individual who speaks that language and provides the learners own culture to the learners of the language. That is, it can be claimed that the more the interactive media designs provide a content with culturally familiar identities and instruments related to the perceptions of learners, the more interactive relation between students and the interactive media design is occur. Along with these viewpoints, the quality of the inherited culture, ethos, viewpoints, expectations and communication styles of the students is also very important in language learning in the primary school level. The learning of language is related to the quality of the inherited culture, it can be enriched by cultural motives and if it is presented with cultural functionality, it creates a more effective learning process that includes the participation of the students. The association of the quality of the inherited culture and the thought system in relation to communal manner of life affect the language learning process positively, and the elements of such interactive relation process include quality of the culture, conceptual competence, and readiness level and knowledge of process strategy (Coady, 1979; Meichenbaum and Goodman, 1971). When the opinions of the teachers and students about the interactive media taken into consideration, it is observed that participants in both groups have positive attitudes in general. The findings also revealed that both teachers and students appraised positively the audios in the visual facilities, possibility of repetition of the activities and presenting culturally related content of the media design. In this respect, it can be claimed that if the design process of instructional environment planned through the expectations, needs and the social status of the students, the interactive visual media supports an effective learning competency, (Nunan, 1999). 44

51 The content of the interactive media which was designed within the framework of the current study includes four different main activities, such as; learning through texts that were selected with reference to the expectations and characteristics of the students; learning through performing educational animations and entertaining interactions; and learning through pictures, graphs and other visuals. The purpose of including various learning facilities (activities) is to strength the interpretation and perception skills of the students as well as introducing the students a multi dimensional language learning in connection with what they have learned. What is more, regarding the fact that the students might have varying learning strategies, various learning practices and narration techniques were also included into the content. The content was also enriched by attractive vocabulary games related to learning of Turkish. The students positive attitudes towards the presence of different learning activities (motion videos, visuals and audios, etc.) and the design of the games can be regarded as positive outcomes and solutions of the problems identified during the needs analysis study. The participants positive attitudes towards the interactive learning environment seem to support the similar findings in the literature (Clement, 1981; Reeves and Reeves, 1997; Renkl and Atkinson, 2002; Rowland, 1995; Sanders and Morrison-Shetlar, 2001; UNESCO, 2002). The positive reflections of technology use in language learning can be summarized as; learning through experience, providing a learning space, providing motivation, increasing the learner achievement, providing authentic learning environments for the learners, providing intensive and effective interaction, providing individualized learning, providing multi dimensional information sources and making students gain a global viewpoint. The findings of the present study also supports Lee (2000) who stated that technology supported environments provide an individualized learning environment that responds the expectations of the inherited culture of the students who lives in a multidimensional culture that cause a dilemma. As a conclusion, it can be claimed that all of the participants expressed positive attitudes towards the interactive learning environment, which was designed to solve the Turkish learning problems of multicultural and bilingual Turkish students who live in Norway, and which was designed with reference to the characteristics of the design that was mentioned in the related literature. Particularly, it can be claimed that the design of the interactive media can be more attractive if its content associates with the culturally familiar facilities that exist in both culture. The technological expectations of the learners such as using motion videos, audios, visuals and games in the content engage student attention to the learning process besides cultural expectations of the students. Concerning the findings of the present study, following suggestions can be offered; in order to assess the effectiveness of the interactive learning environment that was designed to teach Turkish for bilingual students, the accomplishments of the learners in using and learning their mother tongue can be examined before and after the use of interactive CD. Some further developments can be made for the interactive CD so as to use as a long-term learning instrument. What is more, the present study can be replicated with different sample groups and with different data gathering instruments. References Anglin, G. J. (1995). (Ed.). Instructional technology: Past, present and future (2nd ed.). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Baker, C. (2000). A parents' and teachers' guide to bilingualism. (3 nd Ed.) Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. 45

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53 Reeves, T. C. & Reeves, P. M. (1997). Effective dimensions of interactive learning on the World Wide Web. In B. H. Kahn (Ed.), Web-based instruction, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2002). Learning from examples: Fostering selfexplanations in computerbased learning environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 10, Renshaw, C.E., & Taylor, H. A. (2000). The educational effectiveness of computer-based instruction, Computers and Geosciences, 26, Resnick, M. J. (1998). Technologies for lifelong kindergarten, Educational Technology Research and Development, 46(10), Ringstaff, C., & Kelley, L. (2002). The learning return on our educational technology investment. San Francisco: WestEd. Available: Rowland, G. (1995). Instructional design and creativity: a response to the criticized. Educational Technology, 35(5), Sanders, D. W., & Morrison-Shetlar, A. I. (2001). Student attitudes toward Web-enhanced instruction in an introductory biology course. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(3), Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education-or worldwide diversity and human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. SSB, Immigrant participation in the Norwegian, June 2009, Labour Force Survey Documents available at: Skutnabb-Kangas, T. and Toukomaa, P. (1976) Teaching migrant children's mother tongue and learning the language of the host country in the context of the sociocultural situation of the migrant family. Helsinki: The Finnish National Commission for UNESCO. Taguma, M., Shewbridge, C., Huttova, Jana & Hoffman, N. (2009) OECD reviews of migrant education-norway, June, available at: UNESCO (2002). Information and communication technologies in teacher education: A planning guide. Retrieved 16 January, 2009 from Wilson, B. (Ed.) (1996). Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. Wilson, K. (1992). Discussion on two multimedia R & D projects: The Plaenque Project and the Interactive Video Project of the Museum Education Consortium. In M. Giardina (Ed.), Interactive Multimedia Learning Environments, (pp ). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Winn, W.D. (2002). Current trends in educational technology research: The study of learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 14(3), World Bank (2005), In their Own Language: Education for all: Education Notes series, December 2009, New York: World Bank, available at: 47

54 nstruct.pdf Yıldırım, A. ve H. Şimşek. (2005). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (5. Basım). Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. 48

55 Opinions of Teachers on Using Internet Searching Strategies: An Elementary School Case in Turkey Işıl Kabakçı Anadolu University, Turkey Mehmet Fırat Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan izmirli Anadolu University, Turkey Elif Buğra Kuzu Anadolu University, Turkey Abstract The purpose of the current study is to determine opinions of teachers on using internet searching strategies in an elementary school. The study conductad through qualitative method was designed on survey research model. Participants were consisted of 21 teachers at an elementary school in Eskişehir in Turkey. Questionnaires consisting of open-ended questions were used to collect data in the spring semester of 2008, which were analyzed through inductive coding technique. Findings reveal that elementary school teachers primarily use Google for searching on the internet. It is revealed that internet search strategies applied by teachers differ between the inception and the development processes of the search. In addition, teachers have several problems like irrelevant information, accessing insufficient information, accessing websites with virus threats while searching. A need for in-service training regarding the ways of accessing and retrieving information from İnternet was stated along with creative suggestions in accordance with the content and structure of the instructional process assumed. Keywords: Internet literacy; Internet using; Internet searching strategies; elementary school teachers. Introduction Internet has been an indispensable tool of the teaching-learning process for both teachers and students as it provides users with great opportunities to access information and communicate. Teachers use İnternet for a large variety of purposes including materials development, planning lessons, accessing instructional resources and communicating with colleagues (Akkoyunlu, 2002b; Andersson, 2006; Brehm, 1999). In addition, teachers guide students to benefit from İnternet resources in order to do their assignments and projects. As internet has become an important resource for the teaching-learning process, the importance of internet using skills for both teachers and learners increases along with the emphasis on information technology literacy skills such as accessing, retrieving, evaluating and applying information. Previous studies reveal that teachers and learners have problems in terms of accessing and using information 49

56 available on the internet, and lack sufficient skills for information processing (Kuiper, Volman & Terwel, 2008; Madden, Ford, Miller & Levy 2006; Scott & O Sullivan, 2005; Walton & Archer, 2004; Bilal, 2001; Sorapure, Inglesby, & Yatchisin 1998). This prevents teachers and learners from benefiting from the internet effectively and integrating internet facilities into instructional endeavors. The amount of guidance offered by teachers and parents regarding the use of information and communication technologies carries particular importance as Madden et al. (2006) maintains that the amount of guidance both from teachers and from parents seems to be one of the important factors determining the child s ability to apply successful information search strategies. Internet literacy or web literacy is among the contemporary and important information literacy constructs. Internet literacy involves a set of several skills regarding the meaningful use of the Web such as the evaluation, use, and production of web information. Similar definitions for the term can be found in the literature. It can simply be defined as the access and evaluation of web-based materials, as well as the production and distribution of web pages (Kuiper et al. 2008; Mackey & Ho 2005). Internet literacy involves a variety of skill categories including searching, reading and evaluating. Internet searching skills, for instance, include the ability to define appropriate key words and locate relevant information (Kuiper et al. 2008). In other words, İnternet searching skills involve information, skills and strategies necessary to conduct effective information search along with methods and tools to access, retrieve, evaluate and use information. In order for teachers to guide students in terms of accessing a variety of information resources, and selecting and using the most reliable of these resources, they need a working knowledge of internet searching, reading and evaluating skills in addition to proficiency in terms of the methods and tools to access, evaluate, and use information. Search Process on the Internet and Strategies for Searching Gordon and Pathak (1999) maintain that there are four methods for locating information on the Web. First, a user may go directly to a Web page by knowing its exact location. Second, the hypertext links located at a Web page involve built-in associations to other pages that the author of the document considers to provide additional or related information. Third, the narrowcast services can give the users specific pages to meet their particular user profile. Finally, search engines can be used to state the kind of information users hope to find and then provide a large variety of information resources, which are likely to be related to that information. As clearly summarized in the official website of Louisiana State University Libraries, search engines, for instance, have a large variety of uses and types including general search engines retrieving web pages on all different topics regardless of the quality of the content; academic search engines retrieving high quality information relevant to scholars; meta search engines searching several other search engines along with top results from each; subject-specific search engines retrieving web pages in a certain field; special search tools to search for images, videos, people and news; and deep Web search engines retrieving web pages that aren't searchable by general search engines. In order to use the information resources of the Web, above search engines and information location methods can be used with a combination of effective searching strategies to access, evaluate and use quality information. Internet searching strategies can be defined as the organization of search keywords and symbols in order to conduct effective search on the Web, and extend and narrow search results accordingly (Brehm, 1999). Among frequently used searching strategies some of which are cited in Akkoyunlu (2002a, pp ) and Brehm (1999) are Boolean search commands (and, or, near, none, not), search engine math commands (+, -, " ", etc.), power searching commands (intitle:, site:, url:, link:, *,?, etc.), and search assistance features (related search, clustering, stemming, etc.). 50

57 Most users do apply keyword search which is easy to conduct. However, it has been observed that only keyword search is not effective in some instances as users could end up surfing from one site to another or abandon the search in frustration (Scott & O Sullivan 2005). In this respect, as also suggested by Scott and O Sullivan (2005) students and teachers need to master further information literacy skills including understanding the nature of information, being aware of the structure of the İnternet, and navigating the hypertext environment of the İnternet effectively. Kuiper et al. (2008) realized a multiple case study design with four 5 th grade teachers who carried out a program, which consisted of eight weekly sessions to teach students Web searching, reading and evaluating skills. The purpose was to investigate the contextual factors that influence the realization of the program and the learning gains in the participants in terms of content knowledge and Web skills. Videotaped and written lesson observations, interviews with students and teachers, teacher diaries, student questionnaires and student assignments were the data sources. Findings revealed that contextual factors that influenced the program were related to conditions as teachers investment of time and effort, and school s way of organizing computer work. In addition, students knowledge and skills improved in terms of both content knowledge and Web skills. Nevertheless, most students did not act upon their knowledge of Web searching, reading and evaluating skills, and showed unexpected or inconsistent behaviors. In order to evaluate and describe the internet search strategies of adolescent learners, Guinee, Eagleton and Hall (2003) conducted a study with 161 middle and high school students. Data were collected through students descriptions of the search process, observations of student searching behaviors, and audit trail lists of search strings used by students. Approaches adopted by students to locate information were listed as dot-com formula, shopping mall, and search engine all of which were used by students regardless of the computer experience. Methods for constructing search strings were listed as seven items which were single term (64.5 %), topic + focus (66.7 %), multiple terms (19.4 %), phrase (51.6 %), question (29 %), combination (6.5 %), and repeated concept (29 %). Finally, four techniques for recovering from unsuccessful search attempts were demonstrated, which were switching topics, visiting additional web sites, trying new keywords, and changing search engines. It is maintained that in the absence of sufficient and continuous instruction and support, students fall back on their previous stage of Web searching habits such as asking for help, resorting to print resources, or persevering with search results from ineffective search queries. Thus, it is suggested that students should be trained in a way that they become more metacognitive about their searching to differentiate between successful and unsuccessful search. Williams and Coles (2007) examined the use of research information by the UK school teachers addressing their information literacy levels with an emphasis on strategies and confidence in their abilities to find, evaluate and use research information (i.e. the published output of a planned research). Participants included 312 teachers and 78 head teachers from nursery, primary and secondary schools in Scotland, England and Wales. Even though participants were positively motivated towards the use of research evidence, their actual use of information from research was relatively limited. Lack of time and lack of ready access to resources were considered as barriers to the use of research information. Insufficiency of research information use was observed as a limiting factor in terms of the professional development of teachers. Findings of the more research motivated sample revealed that teachers were less confident in finding and using research information than general information. Confidence in finding research information was slightly higher than confidence in using research information. It was also revealed that participants had a range of concerns regarding the lack of skills and knowledge necessary to search and evaluate information effectively. 51

58 Most studies on information literacy skills focus on students from different levels ranging from elementary schools to higher education, adults, web experts and professionals in other fields. Similar studies should be conducted to see teachers internet searching strategies and methods along with variables affecting their internet literacy. In Turkey, an experimental study conducted by Akkoyunlu and Kurbanoglu (2002) provided teachers with training within the framework of information literacy involving the use of information resources, evaluation and information search on the internet. The effectiveness of the training was evaluated, which revealed that the training increased teachers levels of using search engines, using Boolean search commands, and evaluating web sites. Purpose and Research Questions The current study tries to determine teachers situation of internet search strategies who work at an elementary school in a Turkish city. Their perceptions about issues they encounter while using these strategies are also investigated. In order to address these purposes, the following research questions are asked: 1. What types of web sites are used by elementary school teachers while searching on the internet? 2. Which strategies are adopted by elementary school teachers while searching on the internet? 3. What are the problems encountered by elementary school teachers while searching on the internet? 4. What are the perceptions of elementary school teachers about their educational needs regarding internet searching strategies? Methodology The current study was designed on survey research model as a qualitative method. survey researches includes cross-sectionaland longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population (Creswell, 2003). Participants of the study consisted of 21 teachers at an elementary school in a Turkish city. The sample consisted of eight classroom teachers, two science teachers, two religion teachers, two English teachers, two mathematics teachers, a computer science teacher, an instructional design and technology teacher, a music teacher, a Turkish teacher and a pre-school teacher. The mean of their seniority was 11. Only three of them had an experience less than a year while three teachers had a seniority of 26 years. Questionnaires consisting of open-ended questions were used to collect data in the spring semester of Open-ended questions help researchers to obtain information to support theories and notions arising from the literature (Creswell 2005). Open-ended questions were deliberately used as the current study aimed to obtain information regarding teachers use of Internet searching strategies mentioned in the literature, and to evaluate further comments that are not expected. In order to control for the content validity of the questions included in the questionnaire, expertise of five field experts and three qualitative research experts was resorted to. Based on their comments, questions were further revised and piloted with 16 elementary school teachers at another school to check the intelligibility of the items. Based on the comments of the pilot group, the final form of the questionnaire was decided on, which involved seven questions. After the written permission of the administration of the sample school, and oral permission of volunteer teachers were ready, the questionnaires were administered to 21 teachers. In order to collect richer data in terms of validity, participants filled in the forms before the researchers and asked whenever they did not understand a specific item. After the data collection was over, a researcher transferred the data to computer 52

59 environment. Another researcher controlled the data in the computer environment to sustain that the data was entered correctly. The data were analyzed through inductive coding technique suggested by Strauss and Corbin (1990). Initial data were transferred to the computer, each question was reviewed sentence by sentence to get the general sense of the data, and statement patterns that occurred in the data were listed. Then, these patterns were coded in accordance with the research questions. Next, patterns were organized within main themes and themes, which were generated in accordance with the structure of the data and related literature (Cresswell 2005). The list of main themes and themes that grew after this analysis was reviewed by an independent field expert and a qualitative research expert, and a consensus on the template between the researchers was built. More specifically, to examine reliability, the formula suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994) was applied (i.e. reliability = number of agreements / total number of agreements + disagreements). The findings revealed better than 88 % inter-coder reliability suggesting that coding procedure was reliable. Finally, the data were described and interpreted which were given in order of importance and supported with direct quotations where necessary. Findings and Interpretation Findings revealed after the data analysis are provided as main themes and themes along with sample statements for the opinions with high frequencies. Findings are combined under four main headings involving; Web tools used by teachers during internet searching, Internet searching strategies adopted by teachers, problems encountered by teachers during internet searching, and teachers educational needs regarding internet searching strategies. Web tools used by teachers during Internet searching Websites and web tools mentioned by teachers, which were used during internet searching, were examined one by one, and the tools were classified under eight themes, namely search engines, file sharing directories, teaching websites, official websites of state institutions, websites of private institutions, subject-specific search engines, forums and other sites. Specified frequency of Websites and web tools mentioned by teachers are given below in Table 1. Table 1. Websites and Web Tools Mentioned by Teachers Websites and web tools Frequency (f) search engines 27 file sharing directories 13 teaching websites 12 official websites of state institutions 12 websites of private institutions 10 subject-specific search engines 4 forums 2 other sites 4 Among the search engines, the most preferred one was Google (18). Teachers used file sharing directories ( etc.) to share and download lesson plans, sample activities, and instructional materials. They applied to several unprofessional teaching websites in order to access resources about their fields (e.g. 53

60 They also used official websites of the state institutions among which the official website of the National Ministry of Education was the most popular (i.e. Websites of private institutions were also preferred by teachers to conduct research. These websites included news and comments regarding teachers and similar civil servants in Turkey ( In order to access subject-specific information, is the most preferred. In addition, teachers made use of forum websites to interact with their colleagues, and resorted to specific websites to search about their personal interests ( etc.). Internet searching strategies adopted by teachers Internet searching strategies adopted by teachers were grouped into two themes. The first theme involved strategies used at the beginning of the searching process and the second theme included those used according to the results of the first search. Strategies used at the beginning of the searching process were keyword search, searching through a subject-specific website, and using search operators and commands to facilitate search. So that, elementary school teachers internet search strategies at the begining of searching process can be illustrated as shown below in Figure 1. Operators and Commands ("", +) Keyword search Subjectspecific website Search Strategies at the beginning of the searching process Figure 1. Elementary School Teachers Popular Search Strategies Two of the teachers maintaining that they conducted keyword search stated that they selected the keywords in accordance with the main idea of the subject. In addition, they maintained that they tried not to choose a very broad or very specific term to search for. Sample statements demonstrating such searching behaviors are provided below: I list the keywords to search for according to the main idea of the subject. I write the first main subject to the search field. I determine the keyword. The keyword must not be either too broad or too specific. Five of the teachers maintained that they conduct the search through a subject-specific website, that is, they directly visit the website of that specific field if available, as exemplified below: When I enter the mathematics websites, I find the information I want to see and enter. 54

61 I just write the address of the website and there comes the page I want. Three of the teachers stated that they used specific search commands to facilitate their searching such as quotation marks ( ) and plus sign (+). For instance, a teacher states I write the relevant word in quotation marks. I use it if necessary. Another teacher used the following expressions: I write the keyword to the search field, use operators like + and can conduct search through several keywords. Findings on internet searching strategies, which were used according to the results of the first search, revealed that teachers increased the number of keywords (9), used a different search engine (4), and resorted to advanced search options (3). They used these strategies whenever they come up with very few pages or too many pages deviating from the purpose of their specific search. Increasing the number of keywords was the most favorite strategy adopted according to the results of the first search. They selected additional keywords appropriate to the subject, subject-specific terminology and synonyms of the first keyword. Direct quotations illustrating such strategies are provided below: I conduct the search through using different words relevant to the subject. Or I conduct advanced search. For instance, rather than artists I say Pablo Picasso. I use affection rather than love. Whenever I cannot reach the information relevant to my subject, I search for important notions or keywords I determine according to the title and relevant subtitles of the subject Teachers resorted to other search engines whenever they could not find what they wanted at the first search. A teacher stated I use more search engines. In addition, teachers used the advanced search options of a specific search website, and applied to specifications such as determining the file type before searching. A teacher stated I make use of the advanced search options of the search engine. These findings suggest that elementary school teachers resorted to different strategies at the inception of the search and after the results of the first search. At the inception, teachers conducted keyword search, subject-specific website search and searching through commands. Interestingly, teachers only resorted to quotation marks and the plus sign while they did not mention any instances of using other search operators such as Boolean search commands (and, or, near, none, not), search engine math commands (+, -, " ", etc.), and powerfull searching commands (intitle:, site:, url:, link:, *,?, etc.). In order to extend or narrow down the results of the first search, teachers resorted to additional keywords, new search engines and advanced search features. In brief, it can be suggested that the most popular search strategy applied by teachers was the keyword search. Problems encountered by teachers during Internet searching Based on the coding of the data regarding the problems encountered by teachers during internet searching, six themes were observed which were accessing irrelevant information, accessing insufficient information, accessing websites with virus threats, lack of Turkish resources on the Web, difficulty of accessing scientific resources, and accessing websites requiring membership. Specified frequencies of problems encountered by teachers are given below in Table 2. 55

62 Table 2. Problems Encountered by Teachers Websites and Web tools Frequency (f) irrelevant information 9 accessing insufficient information 4 accessing websites with virus threats 3 lack of Turkish resources on the Web 2 difficulty of accessing scientific resources 2 accessing websites requiring membership 2 Example quotations are provided below: When I enter the keyword, many pages come up regardless of whether they are relevant or irrelevant. This extends the search time and becomes boring. Sometimes, I give up searching. When we cannot specify the subject clearly, too much information comes up. Thousands of pages It is hard to decide which of this information is necessary and which of it is not, because there is no time. We suffice with checking the first one or two sites. I see many unnecessary and impracticable resources. I find limited or wrong information on some subjects. I cannot access scientific research resources. One of the teachers stated I absolutely find the page relevant to subject suggesting that he had no problems in terms of internet searching while another one stated If I cannot reach, I just give up suggesting that he gets frustrated whenever he cannot find the desired information. A teacher having problems in terms of internet searching solved her problems by resorting to a computer expert: There is everything on the page, necessary and unnecessary, so I cannot find what I want all the time. My husband is a mentor computer teacher. He helps me when I m stuck. Accessing insufficient and unnecessary information was the most prominent problem experienced by elementary school teachers while searching on the Web. It can be suggested that this primarily stems from being unaware of relevant internet searching strategies. In addition, teachers had problems in accessing correct information about some subjects suggesting that the amount of vague, insufficient, and wrong information on the Web is too much, while considerable amount of scientific and correct information requires membership or authorization to access. Teachers educational needs regarding Internet searching strategies Of participating elementary school teachers, 19 (91 %) stated that they needed training on Internet searching skills and strategies. Two themes emerged through the comments of the participants, one addressing the content of the training and the other addressing the nature of the training. The contents of the training demanded by teachers were using search engines (5), conducting advanced search (2) and basic internet using skills (2). A teacher focusing on the importance of learning about search engines says: I d love to learn how to use the search engines, because I use them ineffectively. What is the difference between Google and Firefox. Which one leads to better search results? I d love to learn these. The themes regarding the structure of the training demanded by teachers were applications (3), interaction (2), longitudinal training (2), visuals supports (1) and relevance to teachers current computer use levels (1). Example expressions illustrating participants expectations from the nature of 56

63 the training are It should be in a way that I could use in real life, with applications, with continuous interaction, longitudinal, effective and not given just for the sake of giving training, I expect it to be appropriate to our groups computer use levels. Almost all participants mentioned a need for specific training in order to improve their internet searching skills and strategies. In addition, as the levels of participants regarding the use of internet searching strategies were quite different, the contents of the training demanded by teachers varied considerably. Finally, teachers asked for a longitudinal training appropriate to teachers levels, which should be supported through applications, continuous interaction, and visual materials. Conclusion and Suggestion Internet searching strategies used by elementary school teachers varied considerably. However, it can be suggested that the most preferred search strategy was to resort to search engines. Google seemed to be the most popular search engine used by teachers, which is in line with the previous literature, particularly the Madden et al. study (2006) which revealed that all participants were familiar with Google whether or not they knew what a search engine was. Teachers also resorted to subjectspecific websites to search for certain information such as file sharing directories, teaching websites, official websites of state institutions, websites of private institutions, subject-specific search engines, forums and other sites. Internet searching strategies adopted by teachers at the beginning of the searching process and strategies adopted according to the results of the first search varied as well. Strategies used at the beginning of the searching process were keyword search, searching through a subject-specific website, and using search commands to facilitate search. On the other hand, at the end of the search project they resorted to narrowing down or extending the search such as using additional keywords, trying different search engines and resorting to advanced search features. This finding is partially in line with the findings of Guinee et al. (2003) study which revealed that students demonstrated keyword search for locating information on the internet; visited additional web sites, tried new keywords and changed search engines for recovering from unsuccessful search attempts. That is, strategies adopted by elementary school teachers and students are quite similar. Finally, teachers only applied to quotation marks and the plus sign whereas they did not use other search options and commands such as Boolean search, search engine math commands and power searching commands. In this context it is possible to summarize teachers internet search strategy process as shown below in Figure 2. 57

64 Ad or specify keywords Keyword search in search engines Searching through a subject-specific website Using search commands Additional keywords and search engines Accesing relevant information No Yes Enough information No Yes END Figure 2. Flow Diagram of Elementary School Teachers Internet Search Strategy Process As seen in Figure 2 elementary school teachers start internet search process by add or specify keywords and search these keywords in search engines. From the results of search engine find subject-specific websites and seach through them. In this step teachers use search comments (especially and + comments) to extend the results until accesing relevant information. If not, they try additional keywords and search engines. If retrieved information meets needed information teachers end searching process. But, if this information is not enough, they tearn to the first step of searching process and add or specify new keywords. 58

65 Among the most prominent problems encountered during internet searching process were accessing irrelevant and insufficient information, accessing websites with virus threats, lack of Turkish resources on the Web, difficulty of accessing scientific resources, and accessing websites requiring membership. This finding is partially in line with the Williams and Coles (2007) study, which suggested that school teachers consider the most prominent barriers to the use of research information as the lack of time and ready access to resources. It might be suggested that some of these problems stem from the deficiency of effective internet searching strategies. The lack of such strategies lengthens the time of accessing information or totally prevents teachers from accessing necessary information on the Web. Almost all participant teachers thought that they needed training on internet searching skills and strategies. In addition, participants suggested some criteria to prepare the contents and strategies during such training. Since the computer using levels of teachers varied, their comments on the content and the structure of the training varied as well. For instance, using search engines, conducting advanced search and basic internet using skills were the contents suggested by participants. Thus, it can be suggested that teachers could be given training on how to cope with internet and make use of this resource effectively. Teachers also commented on the structure of the training they demanded, and asked for longitudinal training appropriate for their current levels -a training, which is improved with applications, interactive activities, and visual supports. Such training might eliminate above mentioned prominent barriers to internet searching skills and help teachers to conduct more effective searches on the Web. The current study poses some limitations as well. Even though the study was conducted in a qualitative approach in order to collect data describing the situation in depth, additional data collection tools need to be administered to enrich the data sources and to increase the reliability. In this respect, it is colorable to claim that the study could be enriched through observations, interviews and document analysis. Considering the scope of the research findings it has optained that primary school teachers have educational requirements about internet search strategies and techniques obtained. This requirement is specifically stated by 91% of teachers participated in the research. But course or courses including educational internet search content in 2010 In-Service Training Plan of In-service Training Department of the Ministry of National Education (Turkey) are not considered enough. Therefore, It is thought that in-service education activities carried out by Ministry of National Education should contain Educational Search in Internet content that may take 4-6 lessons. Apart from in-service training it is thought that in pre-service teacher candidates skills and competencies about Educational use of Internet should be supported by related courses and / or contents. Not only in departments related to Information Technology but also in all departments train teachers such activities and applications should be carry out. To do these, first of all the requirements and opportunities should be identified and appropriate solutions must be produced for these issue. In further researches with wider participants, Internet search skills and problems of elementary school teachers may be investigated by the aid of quantitative designs. In addition, an action research to find the ways the develop elementary school teachers internet searching strategies is a good option to diagnose potential problems, identify actions and alternative actions to eliminate these problems, and improve teachers internet searching effectiveness. Note: This paper is extended version of the study whose abstract has been published in the proceedings of the 8th International Educational Technology Conference. 59

66 References Akkoyunlu, B. (2002a). Öğretmen ve öğretmen adayları için eğitimde İnternet kullanımı [İnternet use for teachers and pre-service teachers]. İstanbul: Ceren & BITAV Yayınları. Akkoyunlu, B. (2002b). Öğretmenlerin İnternet kullanımları ve bu konudaki görüşleri [Use of İnternet by teachers and their opinions on the issue]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi [Hacettepe University Journal of Education] 22, 1-8. Akkoyunlu, B., & Kurbanoglu, S. (2002). Öğretmenlere bilgi okuryazarlığı becerilerinin kazandırılması üzerine bir çalışma (A study on equipping teachers with information literacy skills). Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 16(2), Andersson, S. B. (2006). Newly qualified teachers' learning related to their use of ınformation and communication technology: A Swedish perspective. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(5), Bilal, D. (2001). Children s use of the Yahooligans! Web search engine: II Cognitive and physical behaviors on research tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 52(2), Brehm, B. (1999). Effective İnternet searching. Suffering social studies: The İnternet book. (Ed.: J. A. Braun & C.F. Risinger). National Council for Social Studies, Washington Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J. Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall. Gordon, M., & Pathak, P. (1999). Finding information on the World Wide Web: The retrieval effectiveness of search engines. Information Processing and Management, 35, Guinee, K., Eagleton, M. B., & Hall, T. E. (2003). Adolescents' İnternet search strategies: Drawing upon familiar cognitive paradigms when accessing electronic information sources. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 29(3), Hizmetiçi Eğitim Dairesi Başkanlığı [In-service Training Department], (2010) yılı Hizmetiçi Eğitim Planı [2010 In-Service Training Plan]. Retrieved 28 June, 2010 from Kuiper, E., Volman, M. & Terwel, J. (2008). Integrating critical Web skills and content knowledge: Development and evaluation of a 5th grade educational program. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, Louisiana State University (LSU) Libraries (n.d.). Search engines. Retrieved April 13, 2008, from Mackey, T. P., & Ho, J. (2005). Implementing a convergent model for information literacy: combining research and web literacy. Journal of Information Science, 31(6), Madden, A. D., Ford. N.J., Miller, D. & Levy, P. (2006). Children's use of the İnternet for informationseeking. What strategies do they use, and what factors affect their performance?. Journal of Documentation, 62, Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (2nd Ed.). California: Sage Publications. 60

67 Scott, T. J., & O'Sullivan, M. K. (2005). Analyzing student search strategies: making a case for integrating information literacy skills into the curriculum. Teacher Librarian, 33(1). Sorapure, M., Inglesby, P., & Yatchisin, G. (2006). Web literacy: Challenges and opportunities for research in a new medium. Computers and Composition, 15, Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Walton, M., & Archer, A. (2004). The Web and information literacy: Scaffolding the use of web sources in a project-based curriculum. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(2), Williams, D., & Coles, L. (2007). Teachers approaches to finding and using research evidence: an information literacy perspective. Educational Research, 49 (2),

68 Teachers Beliefs on Foreign Language Teaching Practices in Early Phases of Primary Education: A case study Mustafa Caner Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Gonca Subaşı Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Selma Kara Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Abstract The purpose of the study was to examine whether teacher beliefs would play a role in their actual practices while teaching target language in early phases of primary education, principally, in kindergarten and first grades in a state school. As it is a very broad research area, the researchers exclusively analyzed teaching practices and teaching activities of two teachers and their beliefs about teaching English to young children within the frame of early childhood education principles. One of the data gathering instruments in this case study was a questionnaire that inquires the participants beliefs related to the classroom practices and how these beliefs influence their classroom practices in early childhood education. In addition to the questionnaire, semi structured interviews with participants were held to examine their beliefs in detail. Finally, in order to see whether participants beliefs matched with their actual practices in their classrooms or not, the sample courses of the participants were observed and video-recorded for triangulation for the data. The classroom observations of the courses as well as video recordings of those courses were also examined by the researchers, and the findings were verified by another co-rater in order to increase the trustworthiness of the data. The analysis of responses of participants to the questionnaire, video-recorded classroom observations and interviews were presented qualitatively in the findings section. The results showed that both of the teachers took into account how their students could learn best with regards to their age, level and interest through using different activities and materials suitable for teaching English to young learners. It was also observed that teachers placed room for repetition, role-play, singing songs, picture drawings and coloring in their classes with young learners. Keywords: Teaching English to young learners; early foreign language education; teacher s beliefs, illustrative case study; young learners. 62

69 Introduction Throughout the last several decades, a general concern has risen among early childhood educators concerning the policies and content of kindergarten and early primary education programs. This new concern is highly related to the capabilities of young learners in primary school education areas. Previously, educators were more interested in what children cannot do and less interested in what they are able to do in learning. Nowadays, this concern has been revolutionized through the innovations in primary education. That is, the emphasis in the early phases of primary school education has changed a lot throughout the years because the question Can we work in the elementary school? has been altered to How can we work more effectively with elementary school age children? (Hoose, Pietrofesa & Carlson, 1973). Consequently, it would be a waste not to use a child s natural ability to learn during his/her most vital years, when learning a foreign language is as easy as learning mother tongue. It is confirmed by the various theorists and researchers that almost 50 percent of the ability to learn is developed in the first years of life and another 30 percent by age eight. Therefore, it is suggested that early childhood development programs should have the opportunity to encourage early learning and development (Vos, 2004). Considering the research on child s language development and foreign language education, Muro and Kottman (1995) point out that, primary school children have the high ability to learn a foreign language. It is a global fact that learning and knowing a foreign language fulfill a person s occupational needs, bring new insights into his/her world view, and make the person open-minded and tolerant. Considering the fact about the benefits of learning a foreign language, the implementation of foreign language classes into early phases of primary education began to take place in most of the European countries and in the USA in the early 1960s (Stone & Bradley, 1994). The shift towards the early foreign language education in European countries and USA has affected the education policy of young children in Turkey as well. Moreover, community and individual needs, which derive from relations with economically, politically, and socially developed countries resulted in the need for restructuring in the national education system in the country. As the consequence of the reformation attempts in education system in Turkey, the most important innovation was the expansion of the duration of compulsory primary education to eight-year continuous education. Within the framework of eight-year compulsory primary education, in 1997/1998 school year, foreign language courses have started in the fourth and fifth grades, which previously started in the sixth grade in the secondary schools (Tebligler Dergisi, 1997:2481). Later, in the year 2000, the Ministry of National Education of Turkey published an official document, which declared that foreign language education in primary school might start in the earlier grades in formal education such as kindergartens, the first, the second and the third grades of the primary schools (Tebligler Dergisi, 2000; 2511). However, the decision of offering foreign language courses in these levels was left to administrators of the primary schools. When the official records on the foreign language courses in the early phases of primary schools were examined, it was found out that most of the state primary schools do not offer such courses prior to the fourth grades. However, there were some limited cases in private primary schools in Turkish context. For instance, in Eskisehir there was only one state primary school that offers foreign language courses in those early years of primary education. As it is case for new implementations in any field, the outcomes of functionalizing foreign language courses in the early phases of primary education should be examined for further implications. In this respect, this examination can be held through analysis of the foreign language education environments as well as scrutinizing the opinions and beliefs of the teachers who teach young learners in these classes. When the related literature was reviewed, it was observed that there has been scarce number of research studies dealing with the beliefs of the foreign language teachers who spend great efforts to teach foreign language in the early phases of primary education. However, this factual detail 63

70 was also valid for the other contexts which was stressed by several researchers such as Maxwell, McWilliam, Hemmeter, Ault, and Schuster (2001); Chiang (2003) and Lara-Cinisomo, Fuligni, Ritchie, Howes and Karoly (2008). In the same way, when the available literature was reviewed, it was observed that there was not sufficient number of empirical studies on this subject in Turkey as well. Therefore, the researchers of the present study intended to examine the only case in their close environment in terms of its weak and strong points in foreign language teaching in early phases of primary education in the case of a sample state school in Eskişehir. What is more, the researchers were especially interested in illustrating whether teacher beliefs would play a role in their actual practices while teaching the target language to the young learners in their classrooms. The main reason behind the researchers specific focus on teacher beliefs was the fact that previous research has demonstrated a relationship between teacher beliefs and their practices in the early elementary grades (Hsieh, 2006). Within this framework, the present study aims at examining the foreign language teaching practices in early phases of primary education, specifically, in kindergarten and first grade in a state school in Eskişehir. As it is a very broad research area, the researchers analyzed teaching practices and teaching activities of two teachers and their beliefs about teaching English to young children within the frame of early childhood education principles. Thus, the practices of two teachers in a state school in Eskişehir; the congruence between self-reported beliefs and self-reported practices were illustrated in detail in an illustrative case study design. Literature review The literature supporting the present study falls into three categories: underlying philosophies of early primary education specifically in the kindergarten and first grade, the developmental features of young children according to their ages and former research studies conducted on the teachers' beliefs and practices in teaching English to young learners. Underlying Theories of Early Primary School Education The name, kindergarten (children's garden) suggested a place where children would be carefully nurtured much like growing plants. This name was given by Friedreich Froebel, who established the first kindergarten in Germany in The Froebelian philosophy formed the nucleus of the philosophy of kindergartens and preschool education in the world for over a century, at least through the 1950s (Hamilton, 1995). Throughout Froebel s period, the early childhood education faced with various philosophies of education, however, four philosophies of the 20 th century, namely, psychoanalysis, maturationism, behaviorism, and interactionism have played a major role in early childhood education (Stone & Bradley, 1994). Nevertheless, as Cameron (2001) stressed early childhood programs were shaped primarily by two views as; behaviorism and cognitive constructivism. Practical applications of behaviorism involve a wide range from child rising and education to therapy. In terms of teaching language skills to young learners through behaviorist view, Skinner suggested that knowledge could be broken into small and simple pieces and presented to the learner gradually and logically. That is, the language learner is introduced to information in logically ordered small steps and is expected to respond at each step. Learners then receive immediate feedback about how accurate their answers and thereby their learning is started at that point. Constant success and reward at each small step typically strengthen the learning bond (Chastain, 1988). This sequential behaviorist perspective about learning formed the curriculum and the teaching methods used in early childhood education (Hamilton, 1995). According to Piaget and other psychologists and educators who support constructivist-learning theory, knowledge is not an external package that is constructed by an intrinsically motivated cognitive being 64

71 through interaction with the environment (Stone & Bradley, 1994; Holmgren, 1996). While Piaget focused on the interaction between the child and the environment, Vygotsky emphasized another element in constructivism, which is the interaction of the child with the social environment (Cameron, 2001). Despite the differences between them, Piaget and Vygotsky agreed that a strictly behaviorist theory of learning is inadequate to explain how young learners learn. Rather than merely reinforcement of learning connections, experience provides many opportunities for learners of all ages to assimilate and accommodate being the important components of learning (Cuthill, Reid & Hill, 1996). What is more, the educational implications derived from Piaget s and Vygotsky s theories clearly have features in common, such as the opportunities for active participation, inquiry oriented experiences, and the acceptance of individual differences (Cameron, 2001; Tzuo 2007). However, these philosophies also have varied applications in different classroom settings. For instance, since Piaget's theory provokes discovery learning, sensitivity to a child's readiness to learn and acceptance of individual differences, self-initiated discovery is fostered in a Piagetian classroom. Young learners are provided a variety of activities, which are designed to promote exploration, and they are free to choose any of them. Thus, the child becomes busy and self-motivated explorer, who forms hypotheses and tests them against the world on his/her own. If children are not ready for learning or do not show any interest, teachers should not force the child to learn new skills. Knowledge should be acquired by an innate drive supported by a rich, stimulating environment (Brewster, Ellis & Girard, 2001; Tzuo 2007). On the other hand, the Vygotskian classroom promotes assisted discovery. Teachers guide the learning process of children with explanations, demonstrations, and verbal prompts, by carefully tailoring their efforts to each child's zone of proximal development. That is to say, assisted discovery is promoted by peer collaboration. In Vygotskian classrooms, learners who differ from each other in terms of their ability and age might work in groups and groups should be structured in such a way that cooperative learning occurs. The young learner educators, who have tried to design social interactionist approaches, emphasized the value of various activities such as games, concrete experiences, and problem solving activities. In this approach teacher assists the child through modeling and natural language, rather than didactic lessons. The social interactionist classroom is more child-centered with adult support and stimulation when it is compared to previously mentioned approaches. The natural impulse for learning is nurtured by the choice of young learners through activities that might be organized around themes or other ways of connecting ideas. The language teacher plans activities with reference to age and individual appropriateness of the learners. In the social interactionist view, game is viewed as a learning procedure, which involves not only materials and equipment, but also words and ideas that promote literacy and develop thinking skills (Ellis, 1985). Characteristics of Young Learners Characteristics of young children at various ages are based on general categories of behavior derived from extensive observation. Notably, these characteristics are model for children in any given grade level and they represent a broad range of attributes. These broad behavioral trends are condensed to provide key issues in foreign language teaching in early years of primary education. Although maturity may vary from ages three to seven, the kindergarteners are typically six years old children in the Turkish education system. The major activity for six-year-olds is games, but they also like art, including color, cut, draw and paste activities (Holmgren, 1996). Children at this age generally try only those tasks that they can complete successfully. For instance, show-and-tell is one of the important activities because it enables them to be at the center stage and helps them gain the teacher s approval (Muro & Kottman, 1994). The foreign language teaching activities in the kindergartens might be brief sessions with limited verbal interaction, which are more effective since children's verbal skills at this age are limited and their attention span is short. 65

72 The first-graders begin their primary school education when they are seven-year-old in Turkey. Frequently, when given a task, the first graders should be warned, reminded, and then checked on to see whether they have completed the assignment or not (Holmgren, 1996). Children at this age want to become a member of a group and do not like to be pulled out for criticism or praise in front of others (Worzbyt, O Rourke & Dandeneau, 2003). Therefore, the teaching foreign language in early phases of primary education should consider the developmental phases of seven years old in general. In this respect, while teaching English the teachers should frequently employ group works and include game-like activities, which make them learn new issues more enthusiastically. The studies on foreign language teaching in the early phases of primary education in Turkish context When the literature on the foreign language education in the early phases of primary education in the Turkish context was reviewed, it was found that there were two outstanding studies, which were conducted as doctoral dissertations. In one of those studies, Koydemir (2001) analyzed foreign language teaching of young learners in terms of quality, covering teachers behaviors, classroom management and methodology. Koydemir (2001) studied fourth and fifth grade students and she concluded that it is beneficial to start foreign language education at early ages when proper teaching conditions are achieved. The next study in this field was another doctoral study conducted by Peçenek (2002) in Turkey. Peçenek (2002) studied foreign language teaching and learning process of four-six age groups. Her purpose was to form a descriptive investigation model for language learning and teaching. In order to achieve this purpose, Peçenek (2002) described the perceptions related to foreign language teaching and learning, environment and experiments with teaching and learning. She specifically analyzed family and educational environment, teachers education, and cultural features of the students. She also investigated the perceptions about foreign language teaching and learning of administrators, teachers and families of the children. Describing the present situation for four-six age group and getting perceptions, Peçenek (2002) also concludes that it is beneficial to start teaching foreign languages early ages, yet it is as well important to provide the necessary conditions for successful language learning to this age group like materials and proper teaching methods. Regarding the fact that there have been limited amount of research studies in teaching foreign languages to young learners in Turkish context, this study attempted to contribute to the field through examining the beliefs and practices of two teachers who teach in the field of early childhood education. Methodology In the present study, the teaching beliefs and practices of the two Turkish state primary school EFL teachers in Eskişehir were examined in detail in order to shed light on teaching English to young children in early primary school education. In order to clarify the deeper causes behind a given problem and its consequences, the present study was designed as an illustrative case study (Quirk & Davies, 2008). The illustrative case study is an intensive study of a single group and empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context, which is believed that it might reveal more information in the situation studied. In illustrative case studies, researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; 66

73 instead, the emphasis is placed on exploration and description. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question (Quirk & Davies, 2008). Sample Description The population of this illustrative case study consists of two EFL teachers currently working in a state primary school in Eskişehir. One of the teachers, (Teacher A), is 29 year old female who graduated from English language teacher training department of a four-year state university in Turkey. She has been teaching English for 6 years in a state primary school and has been specifically teaching the kindergarten, 1, 2, and 3 grades for the last two years. During her university education in English language teacher training program, she also took an elective course on teaching young learners, namely, Teaching English to Young Children. The other teacher, (Teacher B), is 33-year-old female who graduated from English language teacher training department of another state university in Turkey. She has been teaching English for 12 years and has been specifically teaching the kindergarten and 1, 2, and 3 grades for the last two years in the same state primary school. She stated that she did not take any specific training or course related to teaching English to young learners during her undergraduate university education. With the approval of the director of the school, these two teachers accepted to participate in the present study voluntarily. Additionally, the written consent forms of the teachers were taken prior to the study. The state primary school, which was chosen as the setting of the study, was the one and the only state school, which offers English courses to the kindergarten, 1, 2, and 3 grades in Eskişehir. The school is situated in the city center of Eskisehir where social and economical backgrounds of the students were almost homogeneous. The foreign language classes in the school were not very crowded, for instance, there were 15 students in kindergarten and 24 students in the first grade. The foreign language teachers use the students regular classes to teach English but the classes were equipped with authentic and visual materials such as colorful charts and flashcards on the walls. Data Collection As this is an illustrative case study, various data collection procedures were utilized by the researchers in order to achieve triangulation, which is highly recommended while carrying out this type of research (Nunan, 1994). One of the data gathering instruments in the present study was a questionnaire that inquired the participants beliefs related to the classroom practices and how these beliefs influenced their classroom practices in early childhood education. The original form of the Teachers Questionnaire was developed by Charlesworth et al. (1993) and utilized by several researchers such as Burts et al. (1993, 1995), Syrrakou (1997), Kim (2005), Wang, et al. (2008) and Hegde & Cassidy (2009). This questionnaire was adapted by the researchers so as to cover foreign language instruction and utilized in the present study after getting the opinions of the experts in the field of instrument development. This questionnaire consists of 3 sections and begins with a few demographic questions. The major portion of the questionnaire consists of two scales: The Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) and The Instructional Activities Scale (IAS). The TBS consists of 37 items regarding teachers beliefs on several areas of primary school foreign language instruction. Each item is a statement (e.g. It is.. for children to work silently and alone on seat work) which is rated by the teachers on a five-point Likert scale from Not important at all (1) to Extremely Important (5). The second part of the questionnaire, namely, IAS consists of 34 67

74 items; each describes a classroom activity. The respondents rate the frequency of availability of each activity in their classroom on a five-point Likert scale from Almost Never (1) to Very Often (5). In addition to the questionnaire, randomly selected lessons of the participants in the target classes were observed and video recorded in order to examine whether the stated behaviors were actually displayed in the practices of the teachers. Finally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the teachers in order to elicit their opinions with regard to teaching English to young learners and their practices in classes. The interviews were also video-recorded and the transcriptions of the interviews were examined thematically by the researchers independently. The researchers were senior PhD students in English Language Teaching and the data gathering process of the present study was supervised by their professors at the university. What is more, in order to overcome the subjectivity of the researchers, another co-rater, who was an experienced researcher in EFL context, was asked to examine the gathered data for the confirmation of the findings of the researchers. Data Analysis The responses of the teachers given to the questionnaire were analyzed and presented qualitatively in the findings section. The video recordings of the courses of participants were examined by the researchers individually in order to check whether the given responses of the teachers to the two scales matched or not. While examining the video-recorded lessons, researchers took some notes and wrote their specific comments on the teaching styles of the participant teachers by referring to their responses of the questionnaire, of the interview and the activities used in the classroom. The specific notes and the transcripts of the interviews served for the clearer descriptions of the teaching practices of the participants in detail. Finally, in the light of these descriptions, the researchers tried to figure out the current case thoroughly. The collected data were analyzed to reflect the beliefs of the participants on their foreign language teaching practices in early childhood education settings. The participants views on this issue were examined and discussed separately in order to depict the analysis in detail in the following section. Findings and Interpretations Teacher A s teaching practices in the focused classes It is observed that children in all of the focused classes were indeed very happy to see their teacher who obviously encouraged her students to establish positive and constructive relationships toward learning English. She developed children s self-confidence and positive feelings toward English. For instance, she expressed that I am sure that children are very happy in my classes because, as far as I see, they eager to learn English. This was also observed in children s attitudes towards teacher that was observed by the researchers during the field observations. She took into account the interest, ability and level of the students. As she stated, My children like to see real objects in the class, therefore I usually bring real objects such as toys and dolls. For instance, she brought baby doll (Barbie) to the kindergarten and a picture, which illustrate the scene of sea to the first grade. She taught various songs to them and let them sing both in English and in Turkish. Therefore, she provided opportunities to accomplish interesting activities in which children could be successful at learning English. In addition, she believed in the use of various activities like listening to records, CDs, and tapes, playing games and puzzles, singing and listening to music, participating in creative movement, counting by rote and she used them very often as she reflected in her responses of item 4, 6, 8, 9 and 16 respectively in IAS. In the interview, she also acknowledged that, the activities such as games, songs, and coloring pictures directly draw the attention of children. As she stated, she 68

75 does not prohibit the use of Turkish in teaching English, which was also observed in field observations. In her classes, she explained the content of the lesson and gave the instructions in Turkish since this enhanced the success of the students due to low anxiety. She maintained a safe, healthy, and positive learning environment and careful supervision in English language so that students focused on the activity. She planned a variety of English learning experiences with materials; she brought various sheets to be painted to the classes because she used coloring or cutting predrawn forms very often (item 12 in the IAS). She encouraged children s development of English and communication skills by talking to them and having them talk to each other. To illustrate, she made her students present dialogs in pairs and ask questions to the students individually since she found children s learning through interaction with other children very important (item 13 in the TBS). In this respect, she avowed, I try to create opportunities for children to speak the target language while they are working cooperatively. By this way they started to learn to negotiate in the target language. She was really patient since the classroom environment was a bit noisy. She uttered praise words to encourage her students. This behavior does not corroborate with the answer given to the item 17 in the TBS, which suggests using rewards such as stickers or stars to encourage students. Most of the time, she used verbal encouragement in her class. She was knowledgeable about children s continuum of development in learning English because she showed her individual interest to the students; for instance, she walked around the class to see each student s work in order to give feedback. In the interview, she claimed that she had to spend great effort to correct errors related to pronunciation because it would be more difficult to correct them in the later stages. She implemented English curriculum to help children achieve important learning goals. She taught the names of the colors in the kindergarten and in the first grade which were in the content of the national curriculum. She did not cover writing skill in these classes because it was not expected from the kindergarten and first grade students. As she stated, In these early phases I only try to make my students be familiar with English, therefore I only teach them very basic issues in the target language such as colors, names of colors or some rhymes and child songs. Although I paid special attention to the pronunciation of the new vocabulary items, I did not focus on to improve writing skills of the students. Since, we will deal with the writing skills in later classes. Teacher B s teaching practices in the focused classes Like Teacher A, Teacher B helped children establish constructive and encouraging relationships towards learning English. As she indicated in the interview, they screamed cheerfully at the beginning of every foreign language lesson. She stated in the interviews that As you see, when I go to their class, there usually be their regular classroom teacher, however, they always shout happily and applause when I entered into their class. Such a welcome makes me happy as well, because I see their eager to learn English from the very first moment. She developed children s self-confidence and positive feelings toward learning English by providing opportunities to accomplish interesting activities in which children could succeed in learning English. To illustrate, she taught counting numbers through flashcards and used various activities for practice in the kindergarten; and she practiced the names of the colors by making them color the related parts in the picture. She taught different songs to the students and believed that such activities are extremely important (items 4 and 8 in IAS) According to her, the features of activities such as playing with Lego blocks, and puzzles; coloring, and/or cutting pre-drawn forms; working in assigned ability-level groups; circling, underlining, and/or marking items on worksheets; and using flashcards with alphabet or numbers were very important for the implementation of teaching English (items 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 in IAS). As she stated, I try to teach the issues in English through games and activity cards. At first, they thought that they were playing a game. For instance, while I am teaching the names of colors in English, I usually bring some pre-drawn forms in the classroom and ask them to color those forms as they wish, and then I ask them to name the colors in English. This is my way to teach them the colors in English. Generally, the 69

76 activities in her classes were designed on the basis of children s individual abilities, levels and interest in English. In the interview, she specifically emphasized that she considered the interests, likes, dislikes, and preferences of her students while planning her lessons. As she said, Although I am an experienced teacher, I usually ask their classroom teachers about their interests, and prepare my materials according to their preferences. For instances, the kindergarteners like singing songs, so, I teach some issues through songs. Because they like it in this way. According to her responses in the instructional activities scale (items 2, 8, 12 and 16), she claimed that she uses participating in dramatic play, singing or listening to music, coloring pre-drawn forms, and counting by rote type of activities very often. Moreover, in the interview, she stated that the most common activities, which she uses in teaching English in kindergarten level, were songs, dramatization, and coloring the pictures. As she acknowledged in the interview, Kindergarteners and the first graders are in their very early phases of schooling, what is more, their attention spans is very short. Therefore I try to teach them through acting out or using realia. For instance, I open my hands to both sides and walk in the classroom while teaching the word fly. She did not avoid using children s mother tongue, Turkish, in her lessons to make them feel comfortable and less inhibited in using the target language. She valued working and playing collaboratively and let children work in small groups when teaching English owing to the fact that she enabled the students present dialogs in pairs and counting up numbers in small groups. In addition, they shared their colorful pencils with each other. Thus, she provided opportunities for children to speak English in working collaboratively and developing social skills such as cooperating, helping, negotiating, and talking with other students to encode message. The rationale behind the scene of this thought was seen in the answer given to items 28, and 31 in IAS; as she found cooperative working extremely important. As she confirmed, Cooperative work is very important, as they learn while interacting each other. She also drew on children s curiosity and desire to make sense of their world to motivate them to become involved in interesting English learning activities since she used the children s toys, realia, flashcards and pictures to be painted. In the interview, she pointed out that she did not force the students to participate in the lesson; rather she tried to appeal their attention by using toys, real objects, and pictures. She said that at the end the students raised their fingers to give an answer. I usually bring a toy or puppet to the kindergarteners class and we start to play with it in English. I did not force my students to participate in the play but after a while especially when they started to enjoy playing with toys they participate in the game and they started to learn new things in English. Teacher B used verbal encouragement in English class rather than rewards. However, this behavior mismatches the answer given in the item 17 of the TBS, where she stated that it is very important for teachers to use their authority through treats, stickers, and stars to encourage appropriate behavior. It is observed in her classes that, she tended to use verbal encouragement instead of rewards in the classroom environment. She addressed the curriculum goals of English language with regard to the given curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. She taught numbers up to ten in the kindergarten and the names of the colors in the first grade, which were within the content of the national curriculum. In the interview, she indicated that the syllabus of the kindergarten and first grade was kept the same and they could easily follow the topics given in the national curriculum. She did not force the students to write the words in their notebooks and did not teach grammatical rules as suggested by the curriculum. She acknowledged in the interview, We have a suggested curriculum for early language learners and I try to follow it in my classes. I do not want to bother my students with grammar or writing in these stages and I just want them to be familiar with some basic vocabulary. Our aim is just to make them ready for the next classes. All in all, Teacher B was a very enthusiastic teacher, who believed in the significance of teaching English to young children. In the interview, she stressed for the fact that young children were very eager to learn English; they could pick up the target language easily and quickly. She especially emphasized the danger of fossilization; the students might mispronounce the words because of 70

77 misperception. She expressed that In terms of English, the children in these classes are like empty cassettes, they learn whatever we record them. Therefore, I pay special attention to the pronunciation of the words, since if they record a word in a wrong pronunciation it might be fossilized and s/he always pronounces it as s/he learnt it at first. However, it was observed that her classes were slightly crowded, thus, children sometimes could not produce the right pronunciation and the teacher might not always devote specific time to an individual error correction. She also complained about not being able to find out appropriate classroom activities and materials for young learners. Therefore, she had to produce her own materials or asked her colleagues. I used to teach upper grades therefore, I had some minor problems in finding ready-made materials that are appropriate for these classes, I usually prepare my own materials or sometimes I use Teacher A s materials. She also mentioned that teaching to young children was very tiring and she had some adaptation problems while teaching to upper classes. Therefore, she suggested that either a new classroom schedule should be arranged or an English teacher should solely teach the young learners through the support of suitable materials. As she said, I believe that teaching young learners is a professional work which requires more time and endeavors. I have different classes in this school and each class has different goals. Therefore, it would be much better if there were a task sharing among the teachers. It would be easier if one of us teach only the young learners which make us professionalized in this area of teaching. Conclusion To summarize, it is observed that both of the participants are ideal teachers, who try to do their best for their students in the focused classes. As they indicated in the interviews, both of them took into account how their students could learn best with regards to their age, level and interest. Therefore, they wanted to use different activities and materials to teach English to young learners. It is observed that both of the teachers place room for repetition, role-playing, singing songs, picture drawing and coloring in their classes. The participating teachers complained about the crowdedness of the classes, inadequate and inappropriate materials that were available for young learners in their school. For instance, although she was not against the idea of teaching English to young learners, Teacher A pointed out that finding appropriate ready-made language teaching materials for young learners would take time since most of the teaching materials were prepared concerning the upper graders. As she pointed out, teaching English to young learners was really enjoyable, but tiring at the same time. Both of the teachers stated that a specific training program is necessary for teaching English to young learners because they faced some difficulties while teaching foreign language in the early grades of primary education. Thus, although they were experienced in teaching English in primary schools, they lived through some adaptation problems in teaching English to the earlier grades. They highlighted that this is a self-sacrificing job and administrators should take some precautions such as making manageable lesson programs or appointing only one teacher responsible for the early grades in the primary school education. This current study has been designed in order to provide insights into teaching English to young learners within the frame of two teachers working in a state primary school, in Eskisehir. The outcomes of the study yielded that teaching English in early classes in primary schools is very fruitful due to observed classroom practices and enthusiasm of the learners. These positive findings corroborated with the previous empirical studies (Syrrakou, 1997; Koydemir, 2001; Pecenek, 2002; Breslin, Morton & Rudisill, 2008). 71

78 Brewster et al. (2001, 3) pointed out that there is a need for creating the optimal conditions for teaching languages. They referred to six important conditions such as; having appropriately trained teachers, proper timetabling with sufficient timing, appropriate methodology, continuity and liaison with secondary schools, provision of suitable resources and integrated monitoring and evaluation. Similarly, Coltrane (2003) indicated the significance of creating suitable learning conditions, which support young English language learners. Mainly, he highlighted the realization of the following aspects; ensuring teacher quality, providing several opportunities for planning, designing developmentally appropriate instruction and using funds of language. All of the stated aspects of teaching English to young children were also mentioned by the two participant teachers of the present study. If these aspects are to be provided adequately, the teaching English to young children will be refined in early childhood education settings. Since young English language learners enroll in preschool and primary school programs in great amounts, teachers, administrators, parents and the related department of the National Education Ministry should continually endeavor to provide effective, nurturing environments and developmentally and linguistically appropriate instructions for all children. This instruction should take into account the characteristics of young English language learners and their cognitive and language development, the learning conditions that are most effective for these learners and the types of instruction that best meet their needs. Suggestions for further Studies The purpose of the present study was to illustrate the case of foreign language teaching in the early years of primary education in detail. Therefore, instead of posing research questions or hypothesis, the present study attempted to illustrate the case thoroughly. Further studies might base the present case study and focus on a specific issue on foreign language teaching in early years of primary education. Additionally, since there were limited number of cases where the practices of foreign language teaching in early years of primary education is seen, further studies might be conducted with preservice teachers who get teaching English to young learners courses in their undergraduate education. References Burts, D. C., Hart, C. H., Charlesworth, R., DeWoif, D. M., Ray, J., Manuel, K., & Fleege, P. O. (1993). Developmental appropriateness of kindergarten programs and academic outcomes in first grade. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 3(1), Burts, D. C., Buchanan, T., Charlesworth, R., Fleege, P., & Madison, S. (1995). Teacher beliefs and practices survey. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University. Breslin, C. M., Morton, J. R., & Rudisill, M. E. (2008). Implementing a physical activity curriculum into the school day: Helping early childhood teachers meet the challenge, Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(5), Brewster, J., Ellis, G., & Girard, D. (2001). The primary English teachers guide. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge: CUP. Chiang, H.L. (2003). EFL teachers beliefs and practices at an exemplary Taiwanese elementary school. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Retrieved from Proquest database ID number: AAT

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80 Quirk, R., & Davies, C. (2008). The guide to researching audiences: Illustrative case Study. Retrieved 24 January, 2010, from Stone, L.A., & Bradley, F.O. (1994). Foundations of elementary and middle school counseling. New York: Longman. Syrrakou, I. (1997). The relationship of developmentally appropriate beliefs and practices of Greek kindergarten teachers. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Tebliğler Dergisi. (1997). İlköğretim birinci kademe 4. ve 5. Sınıflar İngilizce Dersi Programı. Ekim 1997, Ankara: MEB Yayımlar Dairesi Başkanlığı. Tebliğler Dergisi. (2000). Okul öncesi eğitim kurumları 5 ve 6 yaş grupları, ilköğretim okullarının 1 inci, 2 nci ve 3 üncü sınıfları yabancı dil öğretim etkinlikleri programı. Nisan 2000, Ankara: MEB Yayımlar Dairesi Başkanlığı. Tzuo, P.W. (2007). The tension between teacher control and children s freedom in a child centered classroom: resolving the practical dilemma through a closer look at the related theories. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(1) Vos, J. (2004). Can preschool children be taught a second language. Earlychildhood News. Retrieved 24 October, 2009, from Vygotsky, L. S. (2008). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Retrieved 12 October, 2009, from (Originally published in 1933). Wang, J., Elicker, J., McMullen, M., & Mao, S. (2008). Chinese and American preschool teachers beliefs about early childhood curriculum. Early Child Development and Care, 178(3), Worzbyt, J. C., O Rourke, K., & Dandeneau, C. J. (2003). Elementary school counseling: A commitment to caring and community building (2 nd Edition). New York: Taylor & Francis Books, Inc. 74

81 Appendix 1. The Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) 2. As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program, standardized group tests are. 3. As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program, teacher observation is. 4. As an evaluation technique in the kindergarten program, performance on worksheets and workbooks is. 5. It is for kindergarten activities to be responsive to individual differences in interest. 6. It is for kindergarten activities to be responsive to individual differences in development 7. It is that each curriculum area be taught as separate subjects at separate times 8. It is for teacher-pupil interactions in kindergarten to help develop children s self-esteem and positive feelings toward learning. 9. It is for children to be allowed to select many of their own activities from a variety of learning areas that the teacher has prepared. 10. It is for children to be allowed to cut their own shapes, perform their own steps in an experiment, and plan their own creative drama, art, and writing or activities. 11. It is for kindergartners to learn to work silently and alone on seatwork. 12. It is for kindergartners to learn through active exploration 13. It is...for kindergarteners to learn through interaction with other children 14. Workbooks and/or ditto sheets are to the kindergarten program 15. In terms of effectiveness, it is for the teacher to talk to the whole group and make sure everyone participates in the same activity 16. In terms of effectiveness, it is for the teacher to move among groups and individuals, offering suggestions, asking questions, and facilitating children s involvement with materials and activities. 17. It is for teachers to use their authority through treats, stickers, and/or stars to encourage appropriate behavior 18. It is for teachers to use their authority through punishments and/or reprimands to encourage appropriate behavior 19. It is for children to be involved in establishing rules for the classroom 20. It is for children to be instructed in recognizing the single letters of the alphabet, isolated from words 21. It is for children to color within predefined lines 22. It is for children in kindergarten to form letters correctly on a printed line 23. It is for children to have stories read to them individually and/or on a group basis 24. It is for children to dictate stories to the teacher 25. It is for children to see and use functional print (telephone book, magazines, etc.) and environmental print (cereal boxes, potato chip bags, etc.) in the preschool/kindergarten classroom. 26. It is for children to participate in dramatic play. 27. It is for children to talk informally with adults 28. It is for children to experiment with writing by inventing their own spelling 29. It is to provide many opportunities to develop social skills with peers in the classroom 30. It is for preschoolers/kindergarteners to learn to read 31. In the preschool/kindergarten program, it is that math be integrated with all other curriculum areas 32. In teaching health and safety, it is to include a variety of activities throughout the school year. 33. In the classroom setting, it is for the child to be exposed to multicultural and nonsexist activities. 34. It is that outdoor time have planned activities 35. Input from parents is. 75

82 Appendix 2. The Instructional Activities Scale (IAS) 1. Building with blocks 2. Select from a variety of learning areas and projects (i.e., dramatic play, construction, art, music, science experiences, etc.) 3. Have their work displayed in the classroom 4. Listening to records and/or tapes/cds 5. Doing creative writing 6. Playing with games, puzzles, and construction materials 7. Exploring animals, plants and/or wheels and gears 8. Singing and/or listening to music 9. Creative movement 10. Cutting their own shapes from paper 11. Playing with manipulatives (e.g., pegboards, Legos, and Puzzles 12. Coloring, and/or cuting pre-drawn forms 13. Work in assigned ability-level groups, 14. Circling, underlining, and/or marking items on worksheets, 15. Using flashcards with abcs, sight words, and/or numbers 16. Participating in rote counting 17. Practicing handwriting on lines 18. Reciting the alphabet 19. Copying from the chalkboard 20. Sitting and listening for long periods of time 21. Waiting for longer than 5 minutes between the activities 22. Participating in whole-class, teacher-directed instruction 23. Children coordinating their own activities in centers 24. Tangible rewards for appropriate behavior and/or performance 25. Losing special privileges (trips, recess, free time, parties, etc.) For misbehavior 26. Receiving rewards as incentives to participate in classroom activities in which they are reluctant participants 27. Using isolation (standing in the corner or out side of the room) to obtain child compliance 28. Engaging in child-chosen, teacher-supported play activities 29. Specifically planned outdoor activities 30. Multicultural and nonsexist activities 31. Competitive activities to learn 32. Involve physical movement activities 33. Drawing, painting, working with playdough, and other art media 34. English incorporated with other subject are 76