Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, July 2013, 4(3)

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2 Copyright THE TURKISH ONLINE JOURNAL OF QUALITATIVE INQUIRY All rights reserved. No part of TOJQI's articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrival system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published in TURKEY Contact Address: Assoc.Prof.Dr. Abdullah KUZU TOJQI, Editor in Chief Eskişehir-Turkey

3 ISSN Editor-in-Chief Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Associate Editors Cindy G. Jardine University of Alberta, Canada Işıl Kabakçı Anadolu University, Turkey Franz Breuer Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Jean McNiff York St John University, United Kingdom Ken Zeichner University of Washington, USA Lynne Schrum George Mason University, USA Wolff-Michael Roth University of Victoria, Canada Yavuz Akbulut Anadolu University, Turkey

4 Advisory Board Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Cemalettin İpek, Rize University, Turkey Cesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey Fahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNC Fawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USA Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey Gülsün Eby, Anadolu University, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA Jacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, Nigeria Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA Lynne Schrum, George Mason University, USA Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United Kingdom Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA

5 Serap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Suzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Zehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC Review Board Abdullah Adıgüzel, Harran University, Turkey Abdullah Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Adeviye Tuba Tuncer, Gazi University, Turkey Adile Aşkım Kurt, Anadolu University, Turkey Ahmet Naci Çoklar, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ahmet Saban, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Ali Rıza Akdeniz, Rize University, Turkey Ali Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Angela K. Salmon, Florida International University, USA Antoinette McCallin, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Turkey Asker Kartarı, Hacettepe University, Turkey Aytekin İşman, Sakarya University, Turkey Aytaç Kurtuluş, Osmangazi University, Turkey Bahadır Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Bahar Gün, İzmir Ekonomi University, Turkey Belgin Aydın, Anadolu University, Turkey Benedicte Brøgger, The Norwegian School of Management BI, Norway Bronwyn Davies, University of Melbourne, Australia Buket Akkoyunlu, Hacettepe University, Turkey Cem Çuhadar, Trakya University, Turkey Cemalettin İpek, Rize University, Turkey Cesar Antonio Cisneros Puebla, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico Cindy G. Jardine, University of Alberta, Canada Claudia Figueiredo, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA Dilek Tanışlı, Anadolu University, Turkey Durmuş Ekiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Elif Kuş Saillard, Ankara University, Turkey Emine Sema Batu, Anadolu University, Turkey Eren Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey Esra Şişman, Osmangazi University, Turkey

6 Fahriye Altınay Aksal, Near East University, TRNC Fawn Winterwood, The Ohio State University, USA Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Figen Ünal, Anadolu University, Turkey Figen Uysal, Bilecik University, Turkey Franz Breuer, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität Münster, Germany Gina Higginbottom, University of Alberta, Canada Gonca Subaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey Gönül Kırcaali İftar, Professor Emerita, Turkey Gülsün Eby, Anadolu University, Turkey Hafize Keser, Ankara University, Turkey Halil İbrahim Yalın, Gazi University, Turkey Handan Deveci, Anadolu University, Turkey Hasan Şimşek, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Işıl Kabakçı, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Kelçeoğlu, Indiana University & Purdue University, USA Jacinta Agbarachi Opara, Federal College of Education, Nigeria Jale Balaban, Anadolu University, Turkey Jean McNiff, York St John University, United Kingdom José Fernando Galindo, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, Bolivia Ken Zeichner, University of Washington, USA Kerem Kılıçer, Gaziosmanpaşa University, Turkey Lynne Schrum, West Virginia University, USA Mehmet Can Şahin, Çukurova University, Turkey Meltem Huri Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Mehmet Fırat, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Ören Çevikalp, Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Güven, Anadolu University, Turkey Mine Dikdere, Anadolu University, Turkey Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey Mustafa Nuri Ural, Mevlana University, Turkey Mustafa Yunus Eryaman, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey Müyesser Ceylan, Anadolu University, Turkey Nedim Alev, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Nigel Fielding, University of Surrey, United Kingdom Nihat Gürel Kahveci, Istanbul University, Turkey Nilgün Özdamar Keskin, Anadolu University, Turkey Nilüfer Köse, Anadolu University, Turkey Osman Dülger, Bingöl University, Turkey Ömer Uysal, Anadolu University, Turkey Özcan Özgür Dursun, Anadolu University, Turkey Pelin Yalçınoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Petek Aşkar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Pranee Liamputtong, La Trobe University, Australia Richard Kretschmer, University of Cincinnati, USA Roberta Truax, Professor Emerita, USA Selma Vonderwell, Cleveland State University, USA Sema Ünlüer, Anadolu University, Turkey Semahat Işıl Açıkalın, Anadolu University, Turkey

7 Serap Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan İzmirli, Çanakkale 18 Mart University, Turkey Servet Bayram, Marmara University, Turkey Servet Çelik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Sevgi Küçüker, Pamukkale University, Turkey Sezgin Vuran, Anadolu University, Turkey Shalva Weil, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Soner Yıldırım, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Suzan Duygu Erişti, Anadolu University, Turkey Şemseddin Gündüz, Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey Tuba Yüzügüllü Ada, Anadolu University, Turkey Udo Kelle, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany Ümit Girgin, Anadolu University, Turkey Wolff-Michael Roth, University of Victoria, Canada Yang Changyong, Sauthwest China Normal University, China Yavuz Akbulut, Anadolu University, Turkey Yavuz Akpınar, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Yusuf Levent Şahin, Anadolu University, Turkey Zehra Altınay Gazi, Near East University, TRNC Zülal Balpınar, Anadolu University, Turkey Language Reviewers Mehmet Duranlıoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey Mustafa Caner, Akdeniz University, Turkey Administrative & Technical Staff Elif Buğra Kuzu, Anadolu University, Turkey Serkan Çankaya, Anadolu University, Turkey The Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) (ISSN ) is published quarterly (January, April, July and October) a year at the For all enquiries regarding the TOJQI, please contact Assoc.Prof. Abdullah KUZU, Editor-In-Chief, TOJQI, Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Yunus Emre Campus, 26470, Eskisehir, TURKEY, Phone #: /3519, Fax # : , [email protected]; [email protected].

8 Table of Contents The Ethical Perceptions of Elementary School Teachers in the Triple Perspective of Classification of Ethics Sıtar Keser İbrahim Kocabaş Ramazan Yirci 1 Designing English-Medium Classroom Management Course for Non-Natives Tuba Gökmenoğlu Sevinç Gelmez Burakgazi 17 Students' Opinions Regarding Reading Strategies Instruction Based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach Oktay Cem Adıgüzel Meral Özkan Gürses 34 Investigation of the Development of 7th Grade Students Skills to Define, Construct and Classify Polygons with Cabri Geometry Ahmet Yanık Tuba Ada 48 Investigating Pre-service Mathematics Teachers Geometric Problem Solving Process in Dynamic Geometry Environment Deniz Özen Nilüfer Yavuzsoy Köse 61

9 The Ethical Perceptions of Elementary School Teachers in the Triple Perspective of Classification of Ethics Sıtar Keser Yıldız Technical University, Turkey İbrahim Kocabaş Yıldız Technical University, Turkey Ramazan Yirci Sutcu Imam University, Turkey Abstract The ethical classification that forms the basis for this research uses a triple classification slightly different from the traditional approaches: Consistency, Results 1 and Caring. With this classification it is stated that in handling the actions with an ethical approach, all three aspects are necessary. This study was conducted as a qualitative research and interview method was used to collect the research data. Study group consists of 10 volunteer elementary school teachers. The findings of the study reveal that the teachers who took part in this research took into consideration each of the factors consistency, results and caring sometimes singly, sometimes two of them together or sometimes three of them together. In addition, it is possible to indicate that different factors come to the forefront in different incidents that have similar characteristics, indicating that in this sense there is not a simple or single ethical stance in operation. From an ethical point of view, our actions are also influenced by our society s norms, from the principles that come into existence over time and from the roles that we assume in the social domain. Keywords: Ethics; consistency; results; caring; teacher perception; qualitative research Introduction Because we are social beings, we live on in an absolute network of relationships with others. Thus we present actions by knowing and more often than not without being aware of the fact that our existence is subject to a constant movement. We put our actions into practice by considering various reasons: We sleep to rest, we do exercise to lose weight and we study to get good grades. However most of our actions and the relationships between our actions are not as linear or straightforward as this. Olen and Berry (1992, p.2) explain the complexity of the reasons and the relationships between the results of the reasons. As they noted we frequently find ourselves in the position to make a selection between putting something into practice or something else into practice, and our 1 In the original text the three categories are listed as Consistency, Consequences and Caring. However translation back into English from the Turkish text makes Results easier to distinguish from the other two. 1

10 preferences may not take us to the results we desire. Our reasons may force us to go to different directions and we can face the situation of choosing only one of these, and we prefer the right one. The other preference may mean that we preferred the wrong thing. The dilemmas between the good and the bad, the right and the wrong or the way things should be and the way things should not be take us to the concept of ethics. In this research, the researchers aimed to evaluate elementary school teachers attitudes in the light of triple ethics classification based on results, caring and consistency. With reference to the thoughts that teachers will present, the opportunity of determining the strengths and weaknesses of the teachers will come into existence. With the feedbacks that will be created in the light of the data received from the results of the research, the participants of the research will find the opportunity to reevaluate themselves in the context of ethical perspective and thus they will make a positive contribution with regards both to themselves and to the other stakeholders of the education circle. In addition it is thought that the results of this research will benefit the other researchers who will study in this field and will create new possibilities of dispute. In line with this overall purpose, the following research questions were tried to be answered: 1. Which one of them (consistency, caring, results) do the teachers put forward in ethical evaluation as compared to the others? 2. What are the grounds (rules, laws, norms) that teachers use in ethical evaluation? Ethics In Greek, ethics means a good way of existence, a wise way of action. Ethics shape the practical existence around good (Badiou, 2006, p. 17). Ethics is the fullest extent of standards and values that enables us to identify what is good, right or fair, and that guides us based on our beliefs, principles and values (Ethics Resource Center, 2011). According to Starratt (2004, p. 5) ethics is a study of the underlying beliefs, assumptions, principles, values that support a moral way of life. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005, p. 10) draw attention to the origin of ethics. The word ethics comes from Greek ethos and today it comprises approved ways of acting. Ethics seems more complex than simply making right and wrong decisions (Rebore, 2001). Ethics concerns educators as it should every person who asks himself/herself the questions what should I do? or will this be the right thing to do? Therefore this requires developing an ethical perspective for every person. Langlois (2011, p.27) states that ethics has gained more importance as organizations wanted to offer standard procedures for conflict resolutions. On the other hand ethics makes us handle and analyze human being s ethical problems in their personal and social life, make a choice between good, bad, virtue and fault in this direction, and evaluate the results of the behaviors that this choice necessitates (Aydın, 2006, p.130). Ethics handles the judgments that lie behind the ethical manners that are externalized (Nuttal, 1993; cited in Aydın, 2006, p. 14). Ethics Classification and An Alternative Triple Classification of Ethics Gammel (2008, p. 2) indicates that ethics is based on a triple classification in which there are descriptive ethics, normative ethics and meta-ethics. Another classification that forms the basis for this research is developed by Haynes. Different from the traditional approaches that are expressed, Haynes bases ethics on a triple classification in explaining the actual processes of becoming ethical: Consistency, Results and Caring. In this classification, it is indicated that the three aspects are necessary in handling the actions with an ethical approach. In the aforementioned classification, none of them is handled as the antecedent value but are presented as nested orientations. (Haynes, 2002, p. 29); 2

11 1. Consistency Mind-: Consistency is a concept that makes a person internalize an application and see it as an aimed act, and that is expressed as the subjective aspect. In this context consistency means that ethical action is thought, chosen and shaped based on personal consistency, and as a result of these it is justifiable. If ethics is handled as moral behavior and moral judgment, consistency emerges in case of these two forming wholeness. The concept of internalized action is used in explaining consistency and a person putting forward the same moral behavior in all cases without discrimination is thought as an indicator consistent behavior (İpbüker, Göksel and Deniz, 2005). 2. Results (Consequences) Body-: It is the objective aspect of ethics that handles ethics as externalized individual or social behavior with respect to its applications, reasons and consequences. This approach is called utilitarianism. Utilitarianism draws all the possible beneficial consequences, evaluates them against possible harmful consequences and puts the action into practice that provides the greatest happiness or welfare for the greatest number of people (Haynes, 2002, p. 33). In this respect the result-consistency harmony can be seen as following: Table 1. The Harmony between Consequences and Consistency The Subject and Internal Consistency The Objective The Results 1. Punishment and Obedience personal Often physical, short range results that are intimate pleasure taking aimed at self ego 2. Instrumental relativity To think about the short range results of an action in a limited environment 3. Harmony with the conventions of good The results in a small social group that behaviour imposes sanctions to behaviors that are not social 4. Preserving the community The social worth/utility of breaking the laws or obeying them; regarding the social worth of every action responsibility in a social system 5. Social contract Maximizing the social good 6. Universal ethical principle The greatest happiness for the greatest possible number of people Source: F. Haynes, Ethics in Education Caring Heart-: It is the devoting of oneself to the ones he/she cares about in a wide network of relationships without making a distinction. In order to help others the person establishes holistic relationships that grounded in sensitivity and empathy. Millet (2002, p. 5) emphasized that focusing only on results in ethical approach will be deficient and indicated that consistent behaviors towards others based on general principles will also present a limited perspective, and emphasized that devotion alone apart from these two will be inadequate from an ethical point of view. Haynes (2002, p. 47) expressed that the caring ethic does not precede consistency or the results approach; all three are the necessary factors of a moral growth process that is based on dialogue and relationship. In Lacan s metaphor, the circles that represent the approaches consistency, results and caring are so much interlocked that when one of the circles is cut off then the whole system is disintegrated or scattered: 3

12 results ETHİ CS consistency caring Figure 1. The Borrom Node Source: F. Haynes, Ethics in Education 2002 The Borrom node is based on the fact that none of the circles that constitute the node has any privilege over the other circles. Neither results nor consistency nor caring provide on its own the ethical base that is necessary for ethical action. All three of them constitute the essence of an ethical decision process. What has to be used as base in an ethical maturing process is the development of an altruist approach with its subjective and objective dimensions. Ethics in Education Education is an ethical effort (Goodlad; Soder & Sirotni, 1993; cited in Clarken, 2009, p. 3). When the targets of education, values of education and the education process are considered, ethics in education confronts us as a preferential subject (Aydın, 2006, p. 45). Education can be acknowledged as an activity that aims to bring the individual in certain moral values mature that individual and make that individual approach perfection (Yayla, 2005, p. 2). Hansen indicated that education affects ethical development in both collective and individual sense (Clarken, 2009, p. 3). It is targeted that students develop ethically advanced traits like tolerance, sharing, honesty and fair approach in classrooms with education. In other words ethics, which aims to imagine how a good person should be like, plays a basic role in the determining process of both education and the way education is given (Pieper, 1999, p. 125). Stefkovich and Berkley (2007, p. 212) in their comparison with other professions express that ethics is an integral part of education. Ethics is different from other professions because it is an integral part of education. It is one of the vital bases; at the center of it lays the mission of shaping the vital expectations of students. With this aspect of it ethics constitutes the spine of education. Whereas in other professions ethics is brought up as an issue in the way a job is performed. Thus ethics has a special meaning in the sense of education. Especially at the present time the responsibility to shape the next generations are fulfilled mostly by teachers and school heads considering a lot of moral dimensions. At this point, like everybody else who asks the questions what should I do? or will this be the right thing? to himself/herself, the reality emerges that ethics also have to be the center of interest of educators (Haynes, 2002, p. 17). The term ethics is a fashionable term and it is possible to see it in almost every profession. Ethics in education is related to the actions which take place in the school. An ethical school environment will help to create a successful and effective school (Kocabas and Karakose, 2009). This fact reveals the necessity that in general terms the educator, specifically the teacher has to develop an ethical perspective. In this 4

13 context Langlois (2004) states that recently, more and more researchers have become interested in understanding the moral and ethical dimensions of educational practice. Bilington (2011, p ) states that education has two general interpretations: the first interpretation sets forth the fact that the subjects taught within the framework of the curriculum of a school or a public occupational organization are determined according to the needs of the society or the economic or social needs of the state, and in this regard what is found beneficial becomes prominent and this gains acceptance mentally by teachers and students. For example whereas mathematics and physics are perceived as courses that are worth learning, courses like fine arts, sociology appear at the bottom of the list of priorities. In the second interpretation education is regarded as a process of maturation. It is described as a process of idea monitoring and skill developing that allows students discover both themselves and the world. The individual adopts this process not for a pragmatic reason but because as a person he/she internalizes it. In this sense both teachers and students have to believe sincerely that the activities that they run in an ethical education process and of which they are a part are valuable. It is possible to indicate that even though the student has planned the field of education he/she chose according to his/her prospective occupation, he/she has to become the subject of the process in which he/she can sincerely reveal the power of self creation. As a result Bilington (2011, p. 394) expresses that education is not a meta but it is a process and it can be ethical by transforming to a structure that makes the individual a subject. In the process of shaping the future, the teacher faces the obligation of being an ethical role model not only by professional competence but also by his/her life style. In other words the teacher is the person who becomes integrated with his/her activities in the process of education and who reveals it in his/her life style (Pieper, 1999, p. 118). Lukovski regards developing an ethical behavior while asking the question how can I be a good teacher? the base of being a good teacher. According to him the indispensable factor of being a good teacher is ethics. The ethical character of the teacher has importance in influencing the students who will constitute the social fabric of the future. When thought from the point of view of ethics, it is possible to conclude that a teacher has to be honest, compassionate, intelligent, courageous and fair (Luckovski,1997 cited in Özbek, 2003, p. 41). When teachers fulfill their professional responsibilities, they play an ethical role both for themselves and for others whom they based on responsibility establish relationships with. This necessitates creating certain ethical principles and developing behaviors in accordance with these principles. Aydın (2006, p. 58) emphasizes the necessity of a teacher developing ethical behaviors of highest level in order for the teacher to earn the respect and trust of his/her students, students parents, his/her colleagues and all the other individuals. Haynes (2002, p. 51) emphasizes that while developing a perspective based on ethical standards or principles educators should not give away rationality. Haynes (2002, p. 51) indicates that an educator, who digested an objective standpoint in a subjective dimension which is within the framework of ethical principles and is based on responsibility, should consider the three following aspects indiscriminately in cases that he/she experiences: What are the long range results for me and others, and do the benefits of any possible act outweigh the detrimental effects of it? Do all the people who are effective in the situation act consistently with their own past actions and beliefs? In other words do they act according to an ethical principle/ethical principles that in another similar case they would like to apply? Do they do the very thing to others that they would like to be done to themselves? 5

14 As humans, do they fulfill the needs of other people? Do they care about other people in the same circumstances; do they care about people who have feelings like themselves? Methodology The Research Model In the research, phenomenology, which is one of the qualitative research methods, is used. Phenomenology focuses on the phenomena about which we are aware but do not have a thorough and detailed understanding. Phenomena can confront us in different forms like events, experiences, perceptions, tendencies, concepts and situations in the world we live. In our daily lives we can encounter these phenomena in different forms. However this acquaintance does not mean that we gain a clear understanding about the phenomena. Phenomenology forms an appropriate basis for the studies that aim to research phenomena which we have experienced and which we cannot reason or speak easily (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008; 72). The Study Group The study group of the research was constituted using maximum variation sampling which is one of the purposeful sampling methods. The aim in the maximum variation sampling is to constitute a relatively small sample and reflect maximally the variety of the individuals who can become a party to the problem worked on in this sample. In the sampling based on maximum variation, there are no generalizations (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008, p. 109). The study group of the research is comprised of teachers who are selected from the elementary schools in the city of Istanbul, in the county of Avcılar. Four of the teachers who participated to the research are female and 6 of them are male. The study group consists of volunteer elementary teachers who were chosen randomly among five different schools. The most important criteria in participant selection process was the willingness of teachers. Seniority of teachers varies between 2-21 years. Moreover, the participants were informed that their names were not going to be mentioned in the research so they could answer the questions sincerely. The names were encoded as teacher 1, teacher 2,3,4 and the real names of the participants were known only to the researchers. Table 2. Demographics of the Participants Participants Age Gender Branch Seniority Teacher 1 27 F Classroom teacher 3 Teacher 2 32 M Classroom teacher 8 Teacher 3 35 F Classroom teacher 11 Teacher 4 26 F Maths teacher. 2 Teacher 5 38 F Turkish teacher 13 Teacher 6 33 M Classroom teacher 9 Teacher 7 29 M Classroom teacher 7 Teacher 8 34 M Science teacher 13 Teacher 9 37 M Technology design teacher 14 Teacher M English teacher 21 6

15 Data Collection Tool The interview method was used in data collection process. Interview is the most frequently used data collection method in qualitative researches (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008, p. 119). In the interview, cases which are suitable for the purpose of this research are used as a base and these cases were taken from the book The Ethical School by Felicity Haynes. These cases were adapted to Turkey and structured accordingly, and then an interview form was generated. The researchers scheduled visits to the workplace of teachers. Each participant was visited in their schools and they were informed about the research. The interview forms were given, and then collected. While conducting qualitative research, the researchers may have some problems in insuring validity and reliability. There are some useful strategies that help researchers to eliminate these problems. Creswell (2007, p ) suggests some strategies to ensure the authentication, and trustworthiness of qualitative studies, These are (a) building trust with participants; (b) triangulation; (c) peer review or debriefing; (d) negative case analysis; (e) clarifying researcher bias; (f) member checking; (g) rich, thick description allowing for transferability; (h) external audits. Creswell recommends the researchers use at least two of these strategies in a qualitative study. In this research the researchers built trust with participants, used peer review and clarified researcher bias. During the data collecting process, the research steps were performed in the same way in every school for all of the participants. To be able to obtain reliable data, the participants were assured of the confidentially with respect to their identity and views. The real names of participants remained confidential and the participants were informed that they will be able to review the findings. In order to increase the reliability of the research all the researchers endeavored to gain a detailed insight regarding ethics and composed a detailed theoretical framework before the beginning of the study. Then the researchers first examined the textual data on the interview forms individually and later, they studied on the forms together and they compared their results. Lawrence Neuman (2003: 288) states that the reliability of a qualitative research can be improved by comparing the analysis of the same data by several researchers. During the analysis process the researchers sought the highest consensus to evaluate the ethical factors regarding caring, consistency and results. All the researchers spent the same amount of time for each form. Findings and the Result In the evaluation phase description was used which means the interpretation of the collected data according to the preset themes, and also content analysis was used which enables reaching the clues that may explain the collected data (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2008; ). While evaluating the participant answers regarding the cases, results are produced that are based on reasoning. While evaluating the possible reactions of the participants against ethical situations, instead of coming at definite and unchangeable judgments for the sake of reaching certain results, the effort of presenting a certain framework in the triple ethical classification perspective has been pursued. Each presented case aims to determine which one or which ones of the three factors (consistency, caring, results) come(s) to the forefront during the evaluation of the answers about the three factors. From the point of view of the person who gives the answers, the following two questions are tried to be understood: 7

16 1. Which one or which ones (consistency, caring, results) come(s) to the forefront as compared to others, 2. The answers given contain certain grounds or not (rules, laws, norms). In addition, the cases that are handled have the characteristics that offer the chance to make comparisons of results, consistency and caring. While some questions have the feature of putting results the more common response, the others have the feature of putting consistency or caring ahead. Nevertheless, as stated frequently in the conceptual framework of ethical classification, it is not possible to compare these factors at the point of superiority to each other in some cases, and it should not take us to the result it is more ethical or it is not ethical in every case with reference to the answer given when one of them comes to the forefront. With the answers given to the following table, it is aimed to create foresight in evaluation and to present a framework. In this sense when the answers given to the questions in the table are evaluated, they should be thought within the original dimension of the presented case. For example let us handle the first case: In the board meeting of teachers your manager makes some accusing interpretations. Do you take the risk of standing up to him/her? In this case what is questioned is when its results are considered whether we can reveal a certain manner towards a superior of ours or not. In another case we could easily reveal that manner. In this case the real target is to understand whether we can present consistency or not even if the case carries a possibility of loss of power for us. That is why among the factors that are subject to preference, it is possible to be able to determine the manner that can be more positively evaluated from ethical standpoint. In this case when consistency is compared to results, it is close to a more ethical manner. On the other hand in another case this situation can become different. Let us take case number 9: You are an elementary school teacher. One of your students studies very hard but he/she cannot be successful. Because he/she is under the standard would you fail the student? In this example consistency necessitates failing every child who gets bad grades. However when results are considered, it is possible to see that waste of effort may leave negative impacts on the child that may be permanent for a lifetime. Moreover the preference of failing the child or not failing the child is closely related to caring factor as well. When this case is evaluated, to say consistency is the more ethical thing is not as clear as it was in the previous case. As is seen, in every different case all three factors can have different values in ethical dimension. There are differing complexities of power relationships. For instance in 1, 3 and 15, the consequences of confronting a higher power need to be considered against being consistent to principle, while in 5 and 9 the respondent is in a position of power which makes the care orientation as important a consideration as the consequences. The aim of this research is to analyze the answers in terms of a complex ethical framework. In the face of these events the respondent will either behave habitually without thinking about the relative power of the other person or consider the consequences of differences in power. 8

17 Table 3. The Case Comparison Table in the Triple Ethics Classification Perspective Cases 1 In the board meeting of teachers your manager makes some accusing interpretations. Do you take the risk of standing up to him/her? 2 You would like to resign from teaching in order to make more money by doing a private job. But in order to earn the bank promotion that will be delivered in March, you postpone your resignation to April 1 st. The manager trusts you on the April 23 rd Children s Day organization. Would you mention the manager your intention to resign? 3 You hit the inspector s car in the parking lot by accident. Would you leave a note on the inspector s car and take the blame for the accident? 4 A parent wants to join your class claiming that his/her intellectually slow child will develop his/her social skills and self-respect seriously. However your class is already crowded. Would you allow the child join your class? 5 A poor student of yours wears a watch and you suspect that it is stolen. Would you ask how he/she got the watch? 6 A colleague of yours goes into depression. He/she acts in a really unpleasant way. Would you keep him/her at arm s length until he/she gets well? 7 You are to be appointed as a manager. However you are required to resign from the employee union that you are a member of. Would you accept this? 8 A teacher friend of yours to whom you owe a favor wants you to raise his/her child s exam grades artificially. Would you accept that? 9 You are an elementary school teacher. A student of yours studies very hard but he/she cannot be successful. Would you fail the student because he/she is under the standard? 10 A teacher friend of yours goes out of town without getting permission. The manager calls you. He/she says that there is an urgent message to your friend. Would you tell the manager how and where he/she can reach your friend? 11 You and your best friend teach in the same field. You learn that limited number of teachers will be appointed for a project in your field that will have a high return. Would you tell this to your friend? 12 You learn that a member of staff is HIV positive. Would you inform the management of the school? 13 You have no physical illness but you have an emotional burnout. Would you receive a report from a doctor not to go to work? 14 You have twin siblings in your class. One of them is successful and the other one is not that successful. Would you change the grades of the less successful one for him/her not to feel inferior to his/her sibling? 15 One of the highest ranking officials in your education system added a degree to his/her CV that he/she did not own. The official is an effective person who has dedicated himself/herself to his/her profession for many years. Would you inform the press? 9

18 The Evaluation of the Factors Consistency, Results and Caring According to the Factors Coming to the Forefront When the answers given regarding the cases are evaluated, it is observed that different factors come to the forefront for every case. When a general evaluation is performed, it is possible to say that the participants gave the answers to one of the factors according to the characteristic of the case. The table constituted according to the answers is as follows: Table 4. Consistency (Co), Results (R), Caring (Cr), The Evaluation of the Factors According to the Factors Coming to the Forefront Case No RCoCr RCo CrCo CrR R Co Cr Ƒ % Ƒ % Ƒ % Ƒ % ƒ % Ƒ % ƒ % TOTAL When the table is analyzed, it is possible to observe that the factors that come to the forefront in the answers regarding the cases present diversity. The expressions that are put forward: I. Reveal that for every question every individual gives answers by putting forward different factors. For example in the second case when the expressions that every individual put forward are evaluated in this direction; Yes because if I don t report then I would let him/her down and I would feel guilty. (Teacher 1) Yes, until that day he/she should find somebody. (Teacher 2) 10

19 Yes. If I am responsible in an organization then I would say in advance that I would resign so that they can make the necessary arrangements. I cannot leave other people in a difficult situation for my own interests. (Teacher 4) From the answers, it is possible to observe that in the first expression caring, in the second one result and in the third one result-consistency come to the forefront. This can also be seen in the answers given to the other cases. As an exception the answers given in the cases 1, 12 and 13 put forward certain factors. The expressions used in these cases are result oriented. 1. The answers given in the case are as follows: It depends on the situation. If I am seriously accused in front of everybody and if I am right then I stand up to him/her. (Teacher 9) It depends on the situation. If my manager s grounds are right then I agree. Partially I question his/her intention. (Teacher 10) It depends. If he/she is not right then I stand up to him/her. (Teacher 2) Result oriented answers in the same direction are seen in the cases 12 and 13 as well: Yes, because a life-threatening danger for hundreds of people is in question. (Teacher 4) Yes, the necessary precautions should be taken. (Teacher 8) Yes, it is necessary to pay attention with regards to the children s health. (Teacher 1) Yes, I need to be peaceful. (Teacher 2) Yes, I already cannot be productive. (Teacher 3) II. It is possible to observe that generally the answers given present one factor, and the answers given by presenting two or three factors are about 25% of all the answers. This state can be interpreted as ethically being one way comes to the forefront in handling the events based on the triple perspective. In this sense some of the answers given are as follows: 4th case: It depends. It would also be important that I decide the extent of the aggressive behaviors of the slow learning child. (Teacher 1) -result oriented- 7th case: No, it happened to me in my career and I did not resign. (Teacher 3) -consistency- 9th case: No, I would make him/her pass the course by giving his/her in-class performance grades high. For me the important thing is that the student strives to do something, to put effort and labor. (Teacher 4) -caring- The Evaluation of Whether the Answers Contain Certain Grounds (Rules, Laws, Norms) or Not: When the answers given to the cases are analyzed, it is possible to observe that different grounds come to the forefront for every case. When generally evaluated, it is possible to indicate that the 11

20 participants gave answers that use different grounds as base according to the characteristic of the case. The table that is constituted according to the answers is as follows: Case No Table 5. The Evaluation of Whether the Answers Contain Certain Grounds (Rules, Laws, Norms) or Not: Principle Social Norm Altruism Individual Utility Utility of the Majority Ƒ % Ƒ % Ƒ % Ƒ % Ƒ % Total th case: Yes, I would want one of us to take the project whoever would be more useful and more successful. I would not do such a thing. (Teacher 4) - altruism- 2nd case: In this case I would not resign. (Teacher 10) -principles- 15th case: No if the official is a successful, objective and competent person. (Teacher 3) - maximum benefit or greatest good for the greatest possible number 5th case: No, because the devil looks after his own. He/she would lie anyway. I would give special attention to him/her. I would get in contact with his/her parents. I would make a speech in the classroom about how wrong these behaviors are without hurting anybody, without giving any names, and I would make him/her understand his/her fault. I would monitor the student s behaviors closely. (Teacher 4) -social norm- 2nd case: Yes, nobody is irreplaceable. (Teacher 3) -individual utility- Moreover when the results that the two tables reveal are examined altogether, it is possible to state that there is a relationship between the triple ethical perspective factors and the grounds. Therefore it is possible to indicate that the same factors come to the forefront in the answers based on the same type of grounds. From this point it is observed that: 1. In the answers which the consistency factor came to the forefront, answers that are connected to principles and social norms are given. 2. In the result oriented answers, the individual and social utility grounds came to the forefront. 3. The altruism ground forms the basis to the answers that carry the caring factor. 12

21 7th case: No, it happened to me in my career and I did not resign. (Teacher 3) consistency/principle- 12th case: Yes, in order for the necessary precaution to be taken. (Teacher 2) -consistency/social norm- 6th case: It depends on the situation. (Teacher 2) -result/individual utility- 15th case: It depends on the situation. In my opinion this event (question) is a bit contradictory. In order to be sure of what a person who has devoted himself/herself to the profession and to the community has done, firstly we should know that he/she is honest. If what he/she had done were things that are only for show and he/she tries to publicize himself/herself then I would inform the press without thinking. If he/she was a person who had done very important services and really had devoted himself/herself to the society then I would not spill the beans. (Teacher 1) -result/utility of majority- 5th case: As a teacher I think that I should know my students well. The better my communication with my students the better we get along well with each other. I would say that his/her watch was beautiful and ask him/her who bought it. If the student knew me sufficiently then I would believe that he/she would tell me the truth. (Teacher 6) -caring/altruism- Discussion and Suggestions There is a certain fact that people are required to make decisions constantly throughout their lives. Making a decision is an indicator of free will and consciousness. While making decisions people may have to live a dilemma among numerous alternatives or they may have to think the result of their decisions and the people who are going to be affected from the decision. Although there are various variables underlying decision making, ethics can be stated as one of the most important ones (Kıranlı & İlğan, 2007). When teaching profession and teachers are taken into consideration, the value of ethics become more and more significant because the ethical decisions of the teacher as a social agent influence directly the students and other school stakeholders. Despite the obvious importance of ethics not only in social life but also in educational context, it can be said that appreciation of the ethics in Turkey took place in a recent period. One concrete indication of this is a regulation about ethics issued by the Ministry of Education in 2004 (Özdemir; Boydak Özan and Yirci, 2013). According to this regulation, the Board of Ethics for public officials was established to build and improve ethics culture, guiding the educational staff regarding ethical issues and evaluating the ethics praxis in educational contexts (Official Gazette, 2004). One of the duties of the board of Ethics is to organize in-service training programs for the educational staff all over the country. Increasing the number of these ethics training programs could be useful to help the teachers to gain an ethical insight. The findings of the study have the characteristic that they put forward the fact that the teachers who got involved in the research consider each of the factors of consistency, results, caring. According to the findings, the teachers sometimes consider one of the factors, sometimes two of them and sometimes all three of them. In addition, it is possible to indicate that in different cases having similar characteristics, different factors come to the forefront and in this sense there is a certain inconsistency. In the light of this finding it can be said that some practical lessons should be included into the teacher training programs at the universities in Turkey. This could help teachers develop a broader ethical awareness related to their professional conduct before they get into the profession. To be able to act ethically in the broadest sense requires teachers to consider all three characteristics, and they can do this only if they know about alternatives to their habitual ethical stance. Similarly, Strike (1995) believes that teachers should be educated on ethical issues that they 13

22 could possibly face when they start the profession. They must be given enough time and opportunity to think about the ethical nature and dimesions of their profession (Aijasaho; Vaismaa; Uusiautti and Määttä, 2012). That s why; we need more clarification and discussion on teachers ethical knowledge and the values and beliefs that underlie that knowledge. A more transparent sense of ethical knowledge could provide teachers with a more comprehensive sense of professionalism and basis for renewed ethical school cultures (Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2011). In this perspective currently, there is no course or lesson content in ethics in teacher training programs at the universities in Turkey. Even an open group discussion of similar cases which might arise can alert prospective teachers to different possible systems of ethical values. Another result that is reached is that ethically our actions are affected from the norms of the society we are in, principles that are formed in time and the roles we play in the social domain. This finding shows consistency with Toprakçı and his friends research in According to this research teachers ethical behaviors are affected by their professional role in the society. As a result which ethical classification the teachers will take into consideration may depend on the situations, the time, and the roles in the social domain; however it is necessary that teachers should notice the ethical dimension of the profession. Teachers should act in an ethical sensibility that could help educational process to be more effective. This ethical classification which is alternatively presented in this research can also be tested with the participation of the other stakeholders that constitute the school society. References Aijasaho, V.; Vaismaa,K.; Uusiautti, S., & Määttä,K. (2012). Classroom teachers perceptions of ethical educational work, Journal of Studies in Education, 2(4),1-14. Aydın, İ. (2006). Eğitim ve öğretimde etik, Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık. Badiou, A. (2006). Etik, (çev. Tuncay Birkan), İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Bentham, J. (1988). The principles of morals and legislation. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Bilington, R.(2011). Felsefeyi yaşamak, ahlak düşüncesine giriş, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Özdemir, T., Y.; Boydak Özan, M.; & Yirci, R. (2013). Teachers and school administrators opinions regarding ethical leadership behaviors of provincial/district national educational office administrators, International Journal of Social Science, 6(3), Clarken, R. H. (2009). Moral intelligence in the schools. School of Education, Northern Michigan University Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Çiftçi, N. (2003). Kohlberg in bilişsel ahlak gelişimi teorisi, ahlak ve demokrasi eğitimi. Değerler Eğitimi Dergisi 1(1), Haynes, F. (2002). Eğitimde etik (Çev. S. K. Akbaş). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Gammel, S.(2006) Ethics and morality, The Ethics Portfolio Technical University Darmstadt For Nanocap. Gilman, S. C.(2005) Ethics codes and codes of conduct as tools for promoting an ethical and professional public service: Comparative successes and lessons, Washington DC: The World Bank. 14

23 Gintis, H., Bowles, S., Boyd, B., Ernst, F.(2003). Explaining Altruistic Behavior in Humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, İpbüker, C., Göksel, Ç., & Deniz, R.(2005) Mühendislik etiği (Ders Notu), İstanbul: İTÜ Yayınları. Johnson, E. (2006). Ethical perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press Kanungo, R. N. (2001). Ethical values of transactional and transformational leaders. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 18(4), Kıranlı, S., & İlğan, A. (2007). Eğitim örgütlerinde karar verme sürecinde etik, Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (14), Kidder, R. (2005). Moral courage for a university ethics capstone class? New York: Harpercollins. Kocabas, İ., & Karakose, T. (2009). Ethics in school administration, African Journal of Business Management, 3 (4), Langlois, L. (2004). Responding ethically: Complex decision-making by school district superintendents. International Studies in Educational Administration, 32(2), Langlois, L. (2011). Anatomy of ethical leadership, Edmonton: AU Press. Marshall, C., & Rossman G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research. (4 th ed.). Thousand Oaks: CA, Sage. Lawrence Neuman, W. (2003). Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (5 th ed.), New York: Pearson Education, Inc. Mill, J. S. (2001). Utilitarianism, Ontario: Batoche Books. Millett, S. (2002). Toward an ethical school. The Australian Higher Education Suppplement, 1-18 Retrieved on September 05, 2012 from Olen, J., & Berry, V. (1992), Applying ethics: A text with readings. (4 th ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Official Gazetta, Establishment of the board of ethics for public officials and the law on the amendment of certain laws. Regulation, No 5176, 25 May Özbek, O. (2003). Beden eğitimi öğretmenlerinin mesleki etik ilkeleri ve bu ilkelere uyma düzeyleri. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3d ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pieper, A. (1999). Etiğe giriş, Çev. Veysel Ataman, Gönül Sezer, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları Rebore, R. W. (2001). The ethics of educational leadership (1st Ed.) Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Sayımer, İ., (2006), Halkla ilişkiler etiğinde öne çıkan modellerin etik sistemler açısından değerlendirilmesi, Küresel İletişim Dergisi, 2, Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school improvement. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc. Shapira-Lishchinsky, O. (2011). Teachers critical incidents: Ethical dilemmas in teaching practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, Shapiro, J. P., & Stefkovich, J. (2005). Ethical leadership and decision-making in education: Applying theoretical perspective to complex dilemmas (2 nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 15

24 Strike, K. A. (1995). Professional ethics and the education of professionals. Educational Horizons, 74(1), Starratt, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Stefkovich, J., Begley, P. T.(2007) Ethical School Leadership : Defining The Best Interests of Students, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(2). Stich, S.; John, M.; Roedder, E.(2008). Altruism, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Talınlı, İ. (2007). Çevre Mühendisliği Etiği Açısından Türkiyede Çevre Politikaları. 7 th National Environmental Engineering Congress, October 2007, İzmir. Toprakçı, E; Bozpolat, E. & Buldur, S. (2010). Öğretmen davranışlarının kamu meslek etiği ilkelerine uygunluğu. e- International Journal of Educational Research. 1(2), Yayla, A. (2005). Eğitim kavramının etik açıdan analizi. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Elektronik Eğitim Dergisi, 2(1), Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H.(2008). Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. White, T.I. (1993). Business Ethics: A Philosophical Reader, New York: Macmillan Publishing. 16

25 Designing English-Medium Classroom Management Course for Non-Natives Tuba Gökmenoğlu Cyprus International University, TRNC Sevinç Gelmez-Burakgazi Middle East Technical University, Turkey Abstract This qualitative phenomenological research study explores the practices of instructors teaching through the medium of English as a foreign language, in classroom management course. Data collection instruments are semi-structured interviews and the course syllabi. Phenomenological data analysis techniques (bracketing, determining themes) were employed. Results indicate that instructors do not use a specific model for the classroom management course. The challenges faced with design of an English-medium instruction such as difficulty in finding cultural course materials, lack of confidence among local students, adaptation of international students and the solutions (dividing the course into two parts: theory and practice; sharing own experiences; using tentative course syllabus) of instructors for these challenges were explored, and suggestions for the designers of English-medium courses were discussed. Keywords: English-Medium instruction; ınstructional design; classroom management Introduction Although it is argued that the mother tongue education is more effective than foreign language medium of instruction (Heugh, 2002), English as a foreign language has become the dominant medium of instruction in Turkey. This paper examines the role of English in the instructional design decisions and processes of classroom management course from the viewpoints of course instructors in a high reputated university in Turkey. English-Medium Instruction in Higher Education The increasing domination of English as the world's leading medium of communication has begun to have impact on educational institutions. The studies indicate that the age of learning compulsory English in Asia-pacific countries is surprisingly decreasing in recent years (Nunan, 2003). Most of the nations adapted their curricula by integrating compulsory English courses even in kindergarten level. To be world-renowned, in many other nations such as Hong Kong, China, Korea, India, Southern Africa, and Turkey, higher education institutions incorporate English-medium instruction in their curricula (De Wet, 2002; Ibrahim, 2001). English has also gained a momentum among European higher education institutions that focus on internalisation (Wende, 1997). Besides internalization, staff mobility, student exchange, and the common language of teaching and research materials are some of the drivers behind Englishization among European higher education institutions (Coleman, 2006). 17

26 Whereas the main purpose seems to be an internalization which means to support student and staff mobility, what lies beneath the reality is to increase the competitiveness of higher education institutions (Vinke et al., 1998). Recruitment of international staff and students are essential so as to enhance an institution s prestige. Therefore, to strengthen the competitiveness, higher education institutions raise the attractiveness and accessibility by designing their curricula in international language (Jensen & Johannesson, 1995). Moreover, owing to the universities dual responsibility of teaching and researching, the university ranking system is another driver behind Englishization. This dual duty requires the ability of publish in acknowledged journals which means, in turn, the ability of publish in English language, and serve their graduates good employment opportunities are some of the main criteria of gaining high ranking in reputation lists. A large-scale study with the participants of 19 European countries shows that while 8 percent of programs were delivered through English in 90s, this number is increased to 100 percent in Finland and the Netherlands in 2000s (Maiworm & Wachter, 2002). Besides the university reputation and employment concerns, another factor of English-medium instruction lies behind an economy of textbook markets created by Western publishing companies (Alidou, 2004). EMI (English-medium instruction) can be considered as a demand and supply process. While universities adopt their instruction in English to establish a recognition, families demand EMI with the belief of better education in English is prerequisite to ensure a better life (Gao, 2008). The literature on foreign-medium of instruction has firmly established that English-medium programs serve some benefits for students. Learning English in undergraduate level might help students to get admission from post-abroad education easier or possibility of finding a better work in the market (Gao, 2008) but to what extend instructors and student incorporate with the requirements of English-medium courses is controversial. Despite its benefits, there is a growing consensus among educators that EMI increases the workload of students and affects the quality of education negatively (Gao, 2008; Vinke et al., 1998). In Zonneveld (1991) the pace of instruction found slower in EMI courses than native language-medium courses in the Netherland Wageningen University of Agricultural Sciences, and students believe that the amount of subject matter covered in the class is decreasing owing to the pace of delivery. Furthermore, the atmosphere of lessons is less enjoyable than the other courses since it is difficult to make jokes and telling anecdotes in foreign language. In this sense, both teachers and students attitudes toward EMI courses are found negative when compared with the courses delivered in native language (Tung et al., 1997). Higher education institutions are faced with different type of instructional problems arising from inadequate use of foreign language by lecturers (Klaassen & De Graaff, 2001). Thus, instructors lack of clarity, redundancy, and expressiveness in EMI courses affect the attainment of instructional objectives negatively (Vinke, 1995). In line with this argument, Ammon and McConnell s (2002) review also reveals that staff and students need further training to improve their language skills, instructors do not have high motivation to teach in English, native speaker tutors inability to adapt to non-native speaking students, lack of interest of non-native speaking students toward EMI courses, loss of confidence and failure of students in EMI courses, inequity of assessment for native and non-native English speakers (Smith, 2004). Further, recent studies indicate that although EMI courses help students to improve their English skills especially the listening, students have negative attitudes toward EMI lectures and do not think that their comprehension level of EMI courses are not high enough, courses become more teacher-centered and students have less opportunities for meaning making and scaffolding (Chang, 2010; Suliman & Tadros, 2011; Yi Lo & Macaro, 2012). While the effect of EMI on student learning and attitudes is known by teacher educators, the literature on the effects of EMI on instructional practices and procedures is still its infancy. In other words, even though significant number of studies has been devoted on the effects of EMI on student outcomes, there is limited number of research focuses on the effect of English-medium courses on lecturers performance (Vinke et al., 1998; Zonneveld, 1991). 18

27 In Turkey, while Turkish is the main language of instruction, the number of universities offering EMI is increasing gradually. Many public and private universities incorporate English as a medium of instruction. These EMI higher education institutions attract students who desired to improve their English for overseas study or career advancement. The role of EMI in Turkish education can be explained as In Turkey English carries the instrumental function of being the most studied foreign language and the most popular medium of education after Turkish. (Dogancay-Aktuna, 1998, p.37). In Kırkgöz (1999), undergraduate students from economics department report having a difficulty in understanding main concepts in EMI courses. In addition, even though Turkish students have high motivation in learning English with regard to the future benefits of it, they find subject matter more difficult when it is delivered through EMI (Kırkgöz, 2005). Although considerable effort has been committed to understand the effects of EMI on student learning in many African, Asian, and European higher education institutions, the number of studies focusing on the effects of EMI in Turkish higher education institutions is limited. Thus, the bulk of this research has targeted to the experiences of lecturers of Turkish universities. In other words, the present paper aims to initiate this discussion within Turkish situation by focusing on some of the challenges that Turkish university instructors face when designing an EMI classroom management course. Designing Research-Based Instruction Classroom management (CM) is one of the most argued topics among teacher educators. Classroom management is associated with class discipline and eliminating misbehaviors while promoting the intended ones. In this sense, CM course can be defined as a survival guide for teacher in developing some of the most vital knowledge and skills to be an effective. The recent literature consistently shows that especially novice teachers find themselves insufficient and unprepared in terms of managing their classes (Browers & Tomic, 2000; Duck, 2007; Freiberg, 2002; Meister & Melnick, 2003; Stoughton, 2007). A significant body of research also attests to the fact that there exist a incongruence between classroom management and instruction with an aim to reconnect these two (Boostrom, 1991; Hansen, 1993; Martin, 1997; as cited in Richardson & Fallona, 2001). In other words, teachers who have insufficient in managing their classes are also ineffective in teaching their subject matter, in turn, this leads teachers feel insufficient and unsuccessful, and so, burnout and increase the likelihood of leaving the profession (Berliner, 1986; Browers & Tomic, 2000; Espin & Yell, 1994). Consequently, in teacher education programs, greater emphasis needs to be placed on developing teacher candidates classroom management skills to be able to equip more competent and effective teachers. Enhancing the knowledge and skills of teachers in effective classroom management involves a systematic approach to teacher preparation. According to Darling-Hammond (2006) the main dilemma in pre-service teacher education is the gap between theory and practice. How to bridge the gap between theory and practice is strongly associated with the qualities of preservice teacher education programs. In this sense, establishing teacher education programs onto the scientific manner is essential. Which elements should be considered, how educational goals and objectives should be written, which topics should be covered by instruction, what resources and materials are necessary to achieve learning outcomes are some of the core questions of the designers of teacher education programs. In answering such questions, when planning instructional designs (ID), some sorts of models are used. A model can be defined as a representation of complex issues, concepts, and processes, which includes set of plans and makes abstract instances to more concrete, understandable and clear (Gustafson & Branch, 1997). Coming from this angle, since instruction is a set of plans, concepts and processes, instructional design models are formulated to conceptualize representation of instruction with graphical illustrations (Ryder, 2010). In other words, ID models are the guidelines instructional 19

28 designers follow in order to create a workshop, a course, a curriculum, an instructional program, or a training session, that show the path and the relationships between the steps of a development by representing this path by graphics. ID in higher education is one of the most popular issues in recent years (Stes et al., 2010). As stated in the literature, ID approaches have an important role in defining and determining the aims of the course, preparing instruction process, deciding the materials and sources, and evaluation techniques and process. The first rule of succeed in harmony of the classroom is to provide a well-designed instruction (Lemlech, 1988). In other words, to ensure the success in classroom management, design of a high quality in instruction is imperative. That is, the high quality in ID helps teachers to ensure classroom organisation and desired student behaviors in the classroom. Randolph and Evertson (1994) argue that classroom management and instruction can not be thought separately since classroom management interweave with instruction. Şentürk and Oral (2008) argue that ID is not only an essential factor in scientific dimension of the effective course design, but also for a qualified classroom management. There has long been a debate on the teaching and learning approaches of classroom management adopted by teachers; the earlier studies showed that classroom management approaches proposed more authoritarian and disciplinary perspectives with effects of systems management approaches, industrial revolution, and mass education (Bullough, 1994; Lasley, 1994; Skiba & Peterson, 2003), which leave its place to more learner-oriented approaches (Randolph & Evertson, 1994). It is possible to meet many studies that implement a constructivist, and learnercentered approaches as a basic theme of classroom management course in the literature (Akar & Yıldırım, 2009; Martinez et al., 2001). The significant amount of work is devoted to understand the instructional approaches of classroom management course design. However, there is limited number of studies focusing on the processes and procedures of designing a foreign language-medium classroom management course. Located in the capital of Turkey, Middle East Technical University (METU) is one of the pioneering universities which was established as an English-medium instructed university. Thus, the focus of this study is the processes and procedures of English-medium CM course served at METU. In the light of this rationale, the main motivation of this study is to provide research and recommendations related to design procedures of EMI course, specifically addressing the area of classroom management. With this purpose in mind, this study is designed to explore the practices of instructors teaching through the medium of English in classroom management course in a well-known Turkish university. Following research questions are formulated: 1. How do the instructors design EMI classroom management course? 2. What are the basic problems of the existing instructional processes of English-medium classroom management course? Method Design and Participants The approach adopted is that of qualitative, phenomenological methodology, seeking to get an indepth, somewhat narrowly focused, complex image of procedures and offering insight rather than broad generalisations. Using phenomenological methodology, this study aims to explicit the meaning of the lived experiences for several individuals about a concept or the phenomenon (Creswell, 1998, p. 51). The phenomenological perspective will help researchers in providing rich data on which procedures instructors employed, and what problems they faced with during the design of an EMI course. In order to obtain a description of the instructors` experiences in classroom management course semi-structured in-depth interviewing was used since interviews are considered to the primary data gathering technique in phenomenological studies (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). The sample of the 20

29 study was selected purposively. The main criteria is to give classroom management course at least one semester. Thus, four instructors participating in the study were from the Department of Educational Sciences at Middle East Technical University, who are the instructors of Classroom Management (CM) course, one Professor, two Associate Professor, and one Assistant Professor. Among the four professors, two of them had their PhD degrees from abroad whereas the other two instructors earned their PhD in Turkey. Instructors ages ranged between 35 and 44, and three of them were female and one of them was male. They were instructing at this course between 4 and 8 semesters. Data Collection Instruments and Procedures Prior to the data collection, researchers applied for the Applied Ethics Research Center to get an approval of Human Subject Ethics Committee. As soon as getting an approval, interview protocol including semi-structured questions was prepared by the researchers. Expert opinions were taken from two instructors from Curriculum and Instruction department. With respect to the expert opinion, interview protocol was revised through the depth, scope, and appropriateness to the research questions and it was finalized accordingly. Interview protocol consisted of two sections namely demographic information and design of CM course. In the first section, there were six questions regarding age, gender, teaching experience and educational background. On the other hand, second section comprised of thirteen questions. Some of the questions in the protocol were; Could you please explain, how did you design this course? Did you consider any kinds of instructional design model while developing your EMI course? What are the strengths and weaknesses of your design procedure? Interviews were conducted by the researchers through face-to-face communication at instructors offices. Interviews lasted approximately an hour. Besides interviews, course syllabi were collected and analysed to ensure data triangulatio. Triangulation means that many sources of data could better explain a phenomena than a single data source, and is essential to enhance the construct validity (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998; Creswell, 1998; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2006; Yin, 1994). Among researchers a great deal of importance is given to reliability and validity issues since the research without rigor loses its trustworthiness (Morse et al., 2002). Different procedures exist in order to checking on or enhancing validity and reliability (Creswell, 1998; Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). In this study, multiple data sources (interviews with instructors, document analysis), multiple investigators (two researchers) were used in order to enhance validation through triangulation. The researchers had already conducted the study with the faculty members of the same department they worked with which enhanced prolonged engagement. Through peer review, debriefing, as a method to ensure the construct validity, the whole process of the research was checked by external scholars. For instance, after designing the interview schedule, it was improved with the help of expert opinions in the field to check the meaning, wording and purpose. Furthermore, the inter-coder agreement is one of the most important measures of trustworthiness of qualitative research (Kurasaki, 2000). Thus, to eliminate the risk of bias and subjectivity, both researchers coded the same data. It was observed that the codes and themes showed high parallelism and similarity across the researchers. By means of thick descriptions, the research setting was explained clearly and in detailed way. In addition to these applications, the researchers took other measures to ensure the validity and reliability; all the interviews were recorded with the consent of the interviewees so that all the data were collected without any trouble and absence of expressions. After collecting the data, the researchers transcribed all the interviews by themselves in order to become more familiar with the data. 21

30 Data Analysis Firstly, interviews were transcribed and filed separately. The codes were assigned to participants and their syllabi with letters (Instructor A, B, C, and D; Syllabus A, B, C, and D). Then, in the analysis part, the data were read over and over again while taking notes in order not to overlook any single detail that may serve for the better understanding of the research questions. The data analysis initiated with data reduction (or bracketing) as described by Creswell (1998) and Husserl (1960). In the first cycle of coding, data were labeled by descriptive codes. In doing this, the less important sections were eliminated and researchers begin to develop themes that responded to the guiding research questions. Next, in the second cycle coding, related codes were identified under the major themes. In the document analysis part, course syllabi were arranged and placed on a table to be able to compare each part for each instructor. Syllabi were analyzed through research questions. Results In this section, data gathered from interviews and course syllabi analysis were combined and discussed together. Existing English-medium CM course design procedures along with problems and suggestions were presented. Existing English-Medium CM Course The Form, ID Models, and the Approach of the Course At the beginning of the interview, instructors were asked about if there existed a defined course format for CM course. Instructor A, C, and D stated that there was not a defined format proposed by Higher Education Council of Turkey or the department. Instructor A and C mentioned that they designed this course by themselves. On the other hand, whereas Instructor B preferred to use the overall format of the designed CM courses by other instructors, Instructor D revised the previous formats accordingly while she was designing the course. When instructors were asked about their use of any instructional design model while designing CM courses, all instructors responded that they did not use any. However, Instructor A and C agreed on that Posner s course design could be influential and effective if the course would have been redesigned. To illustrate Instructor C said: If you know what you would like to do then, Posner`s design works. As Posner`s design is a kind of course design it follows a step by step structure. Personally, it seems to be more sympathetic more applicable. For instance, Smith and Ragan`s model makes me think like it is more effective in school-beyond contexts. I don`t feel like it is for university environments such as writing test items and so on. I mean it is not for me to write test items beforehand and then design the course. Instructors had different reasons for not using an instructional design model. To begin with, Instructor A, proposed that content of this course has an important role in designing instruction of CM course and added that classroom management had its own needs in itself. On the other hand, Instructor B and D reported that although they did not think to use any instructional design model; they revised the course periodically according to the needs and flow of the course during the semester. Accordingly, Instructor C reported that she prepared a tentative course syllabus for CM course and she applied changes when needed. Lastly, Instructor C, stated that Course design is an endless process that continues during the semester while thinking the suggestions of the students, their characteristics, and classroom dynamics. 22

31 Owing to the studying constructivism in CM in PhD dissertation, Instructor A strongly incorporated this approach in her course. Similarly, as Instructor B adapted from Instructor A s course syllabus and materials, she used and applied constructivism approach, too. Lastly, Instructor C and D stated that they aimed to create a learner based classroom environment while considering the needs of the students. Aims, Objectives and Content of the Course Higher Education Council (YÖK) gives the description of the course in teacher education catalogue as: Basic concepts related to classroom management, communication and interaction within the classroom, definition of classroom management, different aspects and features of the classroom management in maintaining discipline in the class, in-class and out-of-class factors affecting classroom atmosphere, models of classroom management, development and administration of rules in the classroom, physical arrangement of the classroom, management of disruptive behaviour in the classroom, timing in the classroom, classroom organisation, establishment of a positive classroom atmosphere (YÖK, 2012). In semi-structured interviews, instructors were asked whether there were different aims of the CM course other than YÖK s, Instructor A pointed that the basic aims of this course were to help students in experiencing overall classroom management course process, and putting theory into practice. In addition, Instructor B stated that although she did not know about YÖK s aims, aim of her course was to develop students self classroom management approach. On the other hand, Instructor C criticized YÖK for not defining the specific aims of the course. Similar to Instructor A and C, Instructor D also implied that learning classroom management by experiencing in real classroom environment was important which gave the change of putting theory into practice for students. The objectives and the content of the CM course were defined in all four syllabi. Instructors reported that while deciding on the objectives and the content of the course, Instructor A and C established their objectives based on research. Similarly, while determining the course content, Instructor A reported that the content of her course was determined based on the results of her PhD dissertation. She further explained that she identified the content matter in accordance with the existing literature, learner needs and other dimensions of the CM course. Similarly, Instructor C designed the course content based on the interviews conducted with teachers about their CM needs and difficulties they encountered. On the contrary, Instructor B reported that she did not work on the course objectives or content as she adapted the course the way Instructor A instructed. Instructor D explained that she revised and updated the course syllabus almost every semester. However, she did not apply major changes in the objectives and content part of the course. Methods Instructors were asked about teaching-learning methods they used. As both Instructor A and B`s course designs were based on constructivism, their instructional strategies were also similar and included discussion, lecturing, case study, group and/or pair work. However, Instructor C and D reported that there was not a specific instructional method for the course. They added that classroom dynamics and students characteristics and needs guided the course methods and they sometimes lectured, sometimes applied practice-based or theory-based activities accordingly. The syllabi of three courses also included the same methods with what instructors reported in the interviews. In Syllabus D, there was not a separate method section but Instructor D informed students that participation in class discussions and group work was encouraged. 23

32 Materials Instructor A revised the materials of the already designed course and added new cases and current books to the process based on the data that obtained in her PhD dissertation. Instructor B and D used the same materials with Instructor A. While considering students needs and classroom dynamics, Instructor C decided on the materials and revised the current books different from the existing required books generally used in the course. All instructors reported that they enriched the course content by using cultural specific cases and Turkish articles. These findings were supported by syllabi analysis. All four syllabi gave reference to their teaching materials-resources. In addition to a long reference list related to the course, Syllabi A, B, and D presented required two textbooks whereas Instructor C includes one required textbook. All the books suggested in all four syllabi were written in English by American and British writers. Evaluation Instructor A explicated that she decided on the evaluation process by considering the course objectives. In evaluation process, Instructor C stated that he considered students needs. Regarding the syllabi of the CM courses, all four courses employed both formative and summative evaluation techniques. The components of the evaluation process of Syllabi A, B, and D were similar. However, Syllabus C had different style of evaluation among all three. The basic components of evaluation were determined in all four syllabi as participation in class discussions and group work, midterm, portfolio, final exam, and individual or group case or article presentation on phases of classroom management. In case or article presentation, students were expected to search for Turkish cases and articles, and present them in English. Problems of Existing English Medium Instructed CM Course To answer the second research question, instructors were asked about the design problems of EMI course. All instructors in the interview mentioned different problem situations in their instructional process. Inconsistency between course content and Turkish context was the main problem for Instructor A and B, while distracted and unmotivated students during the course were a problem for Instructor C and D. Instructor D illustrated that when she feels students unmotivated looks, she sometimes speaks in Turkish, asks questions so as to enhance students` class participation and uses humor to take their attention. She added that she revises and applies changes in the tentative CM syllabus considering the flow of the course.as the existing design of CM course delivered by Englishmedium instruction, the main reason of low motivation and interest among students toward CM course emerged from EMI. Instructor A stated that You tell the students that please read this chapter before coming to class. The cases in the chapter take their attention and they say that Teacher this case may not be faced with in our classrooms. What is the reflection of this in our culture? Which situations do our teachers face with? What can be done? You adapt your lecture by revising the chapter and the cases... Students point that we would like to read culturally more suitable examples. Accordingly, Instructor B stated that English is the language of developed countries. Thus, the cases and the sources of misbehaviors given in the books written in English. These cases are based on the situations of modern countries which do not match with our realities. To tackle with the first problem, Instructor A, B, and D integrated cultural specific cases and journal papers related with Turkish Education System to their designs. However, the common problem discussed by all instructors is the difficulty in finding Turkish cases written in English. Therefore, instructors added supplementary materials written in Turkish. Another EMI-based problem highlighted by Instructor D was lack of confidence among local students. She further added that she had one international student in her class and the cultural integration was another problem she encountered with. 24

33 Moreover, Instructor A and C suggested an additional practice class integrated into CM course for an internship. In this part, students might visit schools and have real experiences in a real classroom environment or teaching practice course might be offered at the same term with CM course. By way of illustration, Instructor A and C commented on internship and field practice respectively: Actually it would be better if we could be able to collaborate with students when they are having field practice so as to give feedback to their work. We are doing in-class micro teaching activities. In doing this, they are getting familiar with practical applications. Field practice course is offered at the 2nd semester. However, I do think that it would be better if it could be offered at the 1st or 2nd semester in the 4th year. It affects instructional design through a number of ways like our decisions on designing a theorybased or practice-based course. Discussion and Implications This article investigates and describes the design of CM course in a English medium university. Design is defined as the analysis of learner characteristics, pre-existing learning, and performance indicators, development, implementation, evaluation and management of instructional/non-instructional processes, besides intends to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings, institutions, and the workplaces (Reiser, 2007). For a long while, design has been considered as a formal discipline, and finally, started to be considered as an artistic science (Crawford, 2004, p.414). Regardless of their experiences in their profession, CM is considered as one of the toughest areas in relation to their job (McCormack, 1997). Therefore, a qualified ID is not only an essential factor in scientific dimension of the effective course design, but also vital for an effective classroom management (Şentürk & Oral, 2008). The purpose of the present study was to explore the existing design procedures of EMI classroom management course in an English-medium university. While the importance of designing an ID model is acknowledged by instructors, they did not employ any type of ID model during their course design process. According to the results, two instructors designed their CM course based on scientific data gathered by interviews and observations. In course design process, they tried to figure out the needs of students and teachers in relation to the basic classroom management skills and knowledge which is one of the best ways to start at a design. In spite of considerable efforts, there is still a strong need for a research-based instructional design for CM course. The origins of the ID models go back to World War II since many scientists and psychologist worked on experimental research to develop educational settings and materials for military services (Reiser, 2007). Gagne, Briggs and many fathers of the area impressed the substantial influence on educational context. There are several approaches, numerous viewpoints and thus several theoretical models and philosophical expectations so as to conform the needs and expectations of the instructional designer in a proper way (Crawford, 2004). Rowland (1993) claims two perspectives of ID; (a) logical, rational and systematic ID perspective which demands rules, principles, and procedures, and (b) intuitive, creative, or artistic ID perspective (p. 88). Although there are many studies on the latter perspective, the former perspective is still the dominating base of currently used ID models (Dick et al., 2005). Some of these models have had notable influence on designers ID decisions for a long time. One of them is Tyler s design. In Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Ralph Tyler (1969) introduces a linear view of curriculum planning which gives special emphasis to planning, describing three steps involved: selection, organization and evaluation of learning experiences. His model centers on these four fundamental parts in order to develop curriculum and plan of instruction. On the other hand, Smith and Ragan`s (2005) model consists of 25

34 three main parts namely, analysis, strategy and evaluation. Furthermore, Posner and Rudnitsky (2006) propose a model not an instructional model but a course design. From their viewpoint, designing a course is a special work of general process of curriculum development. On the other side, Oliva (2001) introduces a model that combines curriculum and instruction and carefully explores issues and challenges at each stage. Among the numerous ID models, one of the most widely used model is ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation) which is a simplified model of designing learning resources (Peterson, 2003), employing a linear procedure for designing (McDonald & Mayes, 2007). In ADDIE models, designers generally consider the learner characteristics, goals and objectives, teaching and learning strategies, evaluation tools and techniques (Gagne et al., 1992; Morrison et al., 2004; Uduma & Morrison, 2007). Hamdani et al. (2011) advocate that instructional design processes have more different characteristics than the ADDIE models which propose following a custom pattern without consideration of different conditions. These models are also criticized since they focus on phases and they do not guide designers either in taking steps of selection of an appropriate method in some context or performing the activities (Vidal-Castro et al., 2012). Gustafson and Branch (1997) also highlight the differences of newer models from generic ADDIE models; in contrast to recent models which are more flexible, and iterative, ADDIE models require a rigid linear process starting from analysis to evaluation. Still being one of the most commonly known ID approach, ADDIE have mostly behavior-oriented perspectives falling between behaviorism and cognitive learning theory that requires teaching predetermined knowledge and skills to reach the desired student outputs (Conrad & TrainingLinks, 2000; Elengold, 2001; Hamdani et al., 2011). Although there are many opponents of systematic ID models, they are still the best ones used in designing a course or a program. The suggestion here is to apply the procedures of a model which is directly appropriate with the target instructional design. In classroom management context, the initiating questions should be asked by designers such as: With whom do we design or our instruction?, What are the stakeholders of CM?, What are the problems and weaknesses of existing designs?, What are the needs of learners, society, subject matter?, What are the aims, purposes and objectives of CM course? These questions can be extended by asking about determining the approach and philosophy of the course, how to select teaching methods and materials, how to evaluate learning outcomes and so on. As stated in the course syllabi there are many aims of CM course. One of the common aims defined in the course syllabi is preventing student misbehaviour. It is widely known that one of the most important reasons of new teachers feeling of burnout and leaving teaching profession is student misbehavior (Public Agenda, 2004). In addition, without well informed and skilled in classroom management strategies, most of the teachers start their profession by being managed rather than manage the classroom (Clement, 2010). Consequently, the teachers who involve in effective classroom management course situations will start the profession one step ahead. From this point of view, designing an effective classroom management course is imperative. Based on this conclusion, this paper recommends for future researchers to conduct a wider study with more instructors of EMI classroom management course, and students in order to reach an appropriate ID model for EMI classroom management course. On a broad view, the primary role of ID model is to provide the appropriate process through which an instructional product is developed, as described through an instructional design model (Crawford, 2004). Thus, as stated by Hamdani et al. (2011), models offer explicit guidance to instructors on how to develop an instruction, when to write instructional objectives, how to select materials and resources, and how to evaluate the instructional process, and outcome, and in turn, this model will also help designers in understanding whole process or a system by simplifying the complexities into clarified steps. To reach a model, data need to be collected through systematic class observations, document analysis, and in-depth interviews. Further research should also be conducted by the 26

35 application of the model through defıned steps. After the implementation, the problems and weaknesses of the model should be discussed as well as strengths. Besides, ID models, the teaching and learning approaches and different theories have more popularity in shaping the classroom environment than ever. Today, mass education has just about to lose its power and instruction is modified to a more learner-centered perspective (Baturay, 2008). The opponents of the former designs have recently developed constructivist ID models which tend to reject the idea of universal truths in educational contexts (Hamdani et al., 2011; Lebow, 1993). Constructivist IDs are task-based which demands higher order thinking skills, and high levels of processing such as creative problem solving, critical thinking and discovery (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Consistent with the literature and current trends, the instructors in this study adopted their course design based on either learner-centered or constructivist approaches. The results of this investigation have also identified some of the effects of English as a global language on practices in CM course. Instructors mentioned on the need for supporting the theoretical content with more practical applications, and enriching the content with Turkish context which was not included into the course content enough. The findings also imply that course content needs to be supported by the theoretical basis of the program with practical applications. For instance, instructors can give projects which provide students a chance of observing and practicing what they have learned in CM class. Therefore, this study suggests integrate a teaching practice or internship so that students have an opportunity to experience in a real classroom environment. In doing this, students might have the chance of connecting theory and practice dimensions of CM. As an alternative way, the course might be offered at the same semester with the teaching practice course. Furthermore, CM course needs to be supported with cases, articles, and videos appropriate for Turkish context. A couple of weeks might be devoted to study and critique of Turkish articles and/or cases. Moreover, using cases from Turkish schools in the classroom will be beneficial in that context since case-based instruction seems to be one of the most effective pedagogical approaches for framing problems and facilitates experience-based knowledge construction (Williams, 1992). Therefore, theory sessions might start with lectures given by instructor; continue with group and individual activities, discussion and reflection on case studies, problem solving tasks and school observations. These cases might include not only text parts, but also visual parts. All the course materials should be aligned with the overall philosophy and approach of the design. Lastly, this part of the ID model also includes the decision of evaluation procedures based on the overall approach of the course. In addition, most prominent among the findings were the difficulty in finding textbooks with cases and situations that were appropriate for Turkish context. To cope with the problem of material inequalities, university administration should support instructors by using some kinds of academic or economic incentives to prepare appropriate course pack or textbook in English. Further, finding other type of course materials like cases, articles, and videos including how to deal with the misbehaviors occurring in Turkish classrooms were another difficulty. There is little evidence in the literature about the problems and difficulties of design process of EMI courses that instructors faced with (Vinke et al., 1998; Zonneveld, 1991). In this sense, this study contributes literature in terms of exploring the problems experienced by instructors while designing EMI course. Another problem instructors experienced was the incongruence between the different realities of education systems between Turkey, Britain, and the US. Instructors needed to use instructional materials written by American or British authors. It is obvious that, there are notable differences among Turkish and English classroom settings; whereas the most commonly cited problems in Turkish schools are noise, not waiting for turn-taking, complaining about peers, inattentiveness, smoking and off-task behavior, other nations have problems of drug and alcohol use, teen pregnancy, dropping-off school, cyber-bullying, etc in 27

36 their schools (Akkok et al., 1995; Allen, 2010; Atıcı & Merry 2001; Malone et al., 1998). This explains why the cases and solutions discussed in the books do not match with the school problems in Turkey. Consistent with the literature, another EMI based problem highlighted by instructors in this study was the lack of confidence and low motivation in the class. This finding is one of the common problems of EMI courses that may cause students lack their interest, loss their confidence and fail to adapt among students (Smith, 2004; Tung et al., 1997). It should be accepted that English is a Lingua Franca, and in the time of being a global village, English will continue to become widespread language more and more. Students and faculty members will continue to participate Erasmus-Sokrates programs in order to socialize with foreign cultures and experiences which have valuable impacts on their professional and private lives (Coleman, 2006). Moreover, higher education institutions will continue to adapt English-medium instruction to get more recognition by developed countries, and get higher rankings due to the increasing number of indexed publications, hosting more foreign students, researchers and faculty members, and the number of graduates with comparatively better jobs. Although English is a global language, there is little research on its impact on educational systems around the world (Nunan, 2003). The most of the work is devoted on the effects of EMI on student learning, especially the students with lower language skill competencies. Literature shows that besides positive effects, EMI creates some vital learning acquisition problems. However, the effect of EMI on policy and instruction level is still its infancy. When the issue put into the context, instead of suggesting the language change for international universities, it is better to search for the answers of how to develop more qualified EMI courses. Given the findings outlined and discussed above, then, a number of measures should be taken by Turkish or other higher education institutions that offer all or some part of their courses in English. The measures in relation to design procedures of instruction presented here are meant to facilitate classroom management course to minimize any loss of educational quality. Future studies in the assessment of design of CM course could be developed in many ways. First, it is strongly recommended that, the findings might be enriched by the ideas of the local and international undergraduate students besides instructors who offered CM course. In doing this, researchers might suggest an ID model for English-medium instructed CM course. In the following step, this ID model might be employed to see the strengths and weaknesses of the design. All of these efforts may help researchers and scholars identify best designs for English-medium instructed CM course. Note: This study is the broader version with additional data collection of the work named Instructional design approaches of instructors: A METU case which was presented in the 18th National Educational Sciences Congress at Kusadası/Turkey. References Akar, H., & Yıldırım, A. (2009). Change in teacher candidates metaphorical images about classroom management in a social constructivist learning environment. Teaching in Higher Education, 14(4), Akkok, F., Askar, P., & Sucuoglu, B. (1995). Safe schools require the contributions of everybody: The picture in Turkey. Thresholds in Education, 21,

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42 Students' Opinions Regarding Reading Strategies Instruction Based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach Oktay Cem Adıgüzel Anadolu University, Turkey Meral Özkan Gürses Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey Abstract This study aims at investigating students opinions regarding the effect of reading strategies instruction based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach and applied in a French class as a second language in higher education over their reading skills and strategy use. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews both before and after the intervention. Participants of the study were six students representing high, medium and low proficiency levels in reading. Descriptive analysis was employed for data analysis. Findings generally indicate that students hold positive opinions about the effect of reading strategies instruction over their reading skills and strategy use. Furthermore, after the strategy instruction, a certain variation among the strategies applied by students was detected and students were noted to have higher levels of awareness concerning their reading skills and strategy use. Keywords: Reading strategies; strategy instruction; second language; CALLA Introduction Learning a language involves mastering four skills: reading, listening, writing, and speaking in the target language. Of all the language skills, reading can be considered as the primary tool for learning in the first language (L1) and in a second language (L2); and a good command of reading skill also in L2 may have positive influence over the academic success of students completing their higher education. Reading can be defined as a fluent and active process in which readers construct meaning by bringing knowledge, experiences and emotions to the text (Anderson, 1999: 1; Bouvet & Close, 2006). In this complex and cognitively demanding process involving the coordination of attention, memory, perceptual processes, and comprehension processes (Kern, 1989: 135), readers should take some conscious actions called "reading strategies" in order to build meaning. Reading strategies are defined as the actions actively chosen and controlled by the reader in order to reach the goal of reading (Carrell, Gajdusek & Wise, 1998: 97). Within the literature, researchers commonly agree that there is a relation between reading strategies and reading effectively in L2 and that strategy instruction has a positive influence over students skills to comprehend what they read (Anderson, 1999; Carrell, 1998; Koda, 2007; Taylor, Steven & Asher, 2006). 34

43 There have been several strategy instruction models within L2 teaching (Chamot & O Malley, 1994; Cohen &Weaver, 2005; Grenfell & Harris, 1999; Oxford, 1990). Among these models, Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) was developed in the United States in 1986 in order to overcome the academic problems that secondary education students who were learning English as L2 were having in their other classes (Allen, 2003: ; Chamot & O Malley, 1994: 4; Chamot & O Malley, 1996: 259). The results of the studies indicate that CALLA can be employed at various educational levels and settings such as colleges, universities, intensive language programs, and foreign language programs (Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary & Robbins, 1999: 7; Chamot & O'Malley, 1994: , Chamot & Robbins, 2006: 6). CALLA has three main components; content topics, academic language development, and explicit instruction in learning strategies for both content and language acquisition. The content is chosen among the topics that are compatible with students levels and field of study. Following the formation of a framework concerning the significant topics in students fields of study, it is suggested that their interest and motivation should also be taken into account during topic selection (Allen, 2003: 330; Chamot & O'Malley, 1994: 10-32). Content helps students enlarge their repertoire across different topics and influences their motivation positively. The inclusion of content does not mean to review what students learn in other classes or to teach subjects of a specific course in a language class. The primary goal is to furnish students with language learning strategies and academic language skills through content in order to equip them with effective learner qualities; hence to improve their academic success (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994: 10-32). Academic language development involves all four language skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. These are taught in any content subject area (Allen, 2003: 330). According to Cummins (1980: ), cognitive/academic language proficiency could be differentiated from basic communications skills. While cognitive/academic proficiency is related to literacy skills in L1 and L2, basic communications skills are related to accent, oral fluency, and sociolinguistic competence. Chamot and O Malley (1994: 40-42) based on this distinction suggested by Cummins, divide language skills into two as academic and social language skills. Social language refers to a specific type of language used to socialize in a given environment whereas academic language means the one used while teaching and learning by teachers and students. Social language functions cover those such as meeting someone or initiating a social conversation with a stranger. On the other hand, academic language functions include searching for information, informing, comparing, ordering, classifying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating and bears importance in terms of turning students into effective learners (Chamot & O Malley, 1994: 184). Another distinctive feature of the model is that teaching of language learning strategies takes place explicitly, interwoven with the language topics. Cohen (2000:15) highlights that many learners "need to be trained explicitly to become more aware of and proficient with a broad range of strategies". The goal of explicit strategy instruction is to offer students a list of strategies which can be used as a menu to choose in accordance with different learning activities and tasks (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994: 11). Strategy instruction should be integrated to language instruction (Chamot, Thomppson, Küpper, Barnhardt & Barrueta, 1990: 20). Therefore, what sets the strategy to be taught within CALLA is the program. The first thing to be done is to decide on content goals and learning tasks; and then strategies compatible with the content and tasks should be determined (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994: 64). CALLA has been utilized in various countries such as the United States, Canada, and Spain; and it stands as an effective strategy instruction model according to the results of several longitudinal and broad-scope studies (Chamot, 1995: 380; Chamot & O Malley, 1996: 259; Lynch, 1993: 5). This 35

44 model was also used by other researchers in order to investigate the effect of the strategy instruction on reading and/or strategy use. The results of several studies indicate that strategy instruction based on CALLA has positive effect on reading performance (Arpacıoğlu, 2007; Çubukçu, 2008; Handside, 2007; Karbalaei, 2001; Takallou, 2011) on strategy use (Arpacoğlu, 2007; Handside, 2007; Kantarcı, 2006; Takallou, 2011). In these studies, researchers used quantitative methods by comparing pretest and posttest scores regarding participants' reading performance and strategy use and/or qualitative methods (e.g. think-aloud protocols) in order to determine the effect of strategy instruction on strategy use. However, it is also important to evaluate a strategy instruction model through students opinions regarding the effect of a strategy instruction model. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating what students think about the effects of reading strategies instruction based on CALLA over their skills to comprehend what they read and over their use of reading strategies. Method In order to examine students opinions about the effect of CALLA over their comprehension skills and strategy use, as a qualitative data collection method, semi-structured interviews were conducted before and after the intervention. Participants The participants of the study are six students who were chosen among 18 students attending French Preparatory Program at Eskişehir Osmangazi University during the spring term of As data was intended to collect both before and after the intervention and semi-structures could yield a huge amount data, it couldn't be possible to conduct interviews with all students participating in the reading strategies instruction. Therefore, interviews were conducted with a small sample. One of the participants were males, 5 were females. All participants volunteered to participate in the study. Participants were chosen from different success groups according to Reading Comprehension Achievement Test developed by the researchers and administered before the intervention. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation were calculated as, respectively, and The lowest and highest scores obtained Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (the maximum point of the test was 33) were calculated as, respectively, 9 and 24 (Özkan Gürses & Adıgüzel, 2013). From each success group (representing high, medium, and low proficiency in reading) two students were chosen. Students in low proficiency had the lowest scores (9 and 14), those in medium proficiency had the average score (18) and those in high proficiency had high scores (23) from the test. Data Collection Semi-structured interview approach was used in the data collection. In this approach, the questions or general topics can be predetermined but the interviewer is free to explore or probe within predetermined area (Hoepfl, 1997). The research question and related literature guided the formation of the interview questions. Six field experts from Educational Sciences, French Language Teaching, and English Language Teaching were consulted to double check the compatibility of the questions with this study s aim. The wording of questions was modified in accordance with expert advice. On the 20th of February, 2011, the interview guide was tested with a student in a session that lasted for 38 minutes. Based on the data obtained during that interview, the guide was approved to be consistent with the research aim. Interviews were conducted by the second author. 36

45 Data Analysis First thing done for the analysis of interview data was to transcribe the audio records of the interviews. Descriptive analysis approach was employed for the analysis of interview data. A thematic frame was set for the analysis based on interview questions. The main themes identified were: (1) students opinions about their skills to comprehend what they read, and (2) students opinions about the reading strategies they used. Data were coded along with the thematic frame, and a field expert from Educational Sciences was asked to code the same data. Subsequently, the comparison of codings yielded that the reliability of the interviews was 95% according to the formula (Reliability = Agreement / Agreement + Disagreement x 100) developed by Miles and Huberman (1994: 64). Findings are displayed in tables and supported with direct quotes. Procedure Reading strategies instruction was implemented by the second author who is French lecturer in accordance with action research model defined as any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers, principals, school counselors, or other stakeholders in the teaching/learning environment to gather information about their particular schools operate, how they teach, and how well their students learn (Mills, 2003: 5). Action research model can be carried out in order to test a new approach (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008: 298). In this study, CALLA was implemented as a new instruction model in order to improve students reading skills in L2 by teaching reading strategies. The steps of action research called the Dialectic Action Research Spiral by Mills (2003:19) were followed: identify an area of focus, collect data, analyze and interpret data, and develop an action plan. At the beginning of the action research process, as an area focus, the need of reading strategies instruction of students learning second language in higher education was determined. Strategies to be taught were selected according to related literature and data base. As a reading strategies instruction model, CALLA was regarded suitable for the students in question. Teaching reading strategies based on CALLA lasted 8 weeks, four-hours a week between 16th of March and 12th of May, 2010 at the preparatory program. For ensure the validity of action research, a validity committee consisting of four members (three experts and the researcher conducting strategy instruction) came together once every two weeks throughout the strategy instruction. Courses were video-taped, and some sections of the videos that had undergone macro-transcription were viewed during validity committee meetings once in two weeks (Özkan Gürses & Adıgüzel, 2013). The intervention included training on goal setting, previewing, using background knowledge, making inferences, selective attention, self-questioning, and summarizing. Training of these strategies involved five steps: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. These steps are not to be followed in a certain sequence. Teacher may fall back on previous steps if students need. Preparation regards raising students awareness of the strategies they already use. In presentation, teacher announces the name of the strategy to be taught, clarifies its functionality, and models its use. During practice, students are given opportunities to test-drive the strategy. During evaluation, students assess their strategy use and finally, they are encouraged to transfer the strategy they tried to other tasks during expansion (Chamot, et al.,1999: 43-45). During the intervention, various problems emerged such as the medium of instruction (French vs Turkish), student participation. For the first two weeks, the instruction was carried out in French; however, students were not able to fully participate in the lessons and to express their opinions effectively. It was thought that students level in French was not suitable especially for the 37

46 presentation step of the instruction. Therefore, Turkish was used as the medium of instruction especially at the presentation step. Some students were reluctant to learn during the weeks when self-questioning and summarizing strategies were presented. Within the last two weeks instead of teaching a new reading strategy, students were given the chance to practice the strategies they learned on texts considered to be different and more interesting. Furthermore, the reciprocal teaching technique was put into practice during the 6th and 7th weeks of the intervention so as to make students more active and involved in strategy use. CALLA allows trainers to use reciprocal teaching technique, which is a group work providing students with the chance of using various reading strategies, especially during practice (Chamot & O Malley, 1994: 91). In this technique, a student bears the role of a teacher, summarizes the previously read part, asks questions to the students about the text, identifies the difficult points in the text, and makes predictions about the topic of the following part in which students swap their roles, and repeat the same process (Chamot & O Malley, 1994: 91). When students read a text and discuss about it using this technique, they congruously employ several strategies such as summarizing, questioning, monitoring comprehension, and predicting during reading. Chamot and O Malley (1994: 298) state that it would be wise to use short stories or novels for training, especially, literature students about strategies and that students would find the opportunity to like and comprehend a text simultaneously. Findings and Interpretation Interviews with six students, both before and after the intervention, were conducted in order to collect data about students opinions concerning the effects of reading strategies instruction based on CALLA over their reading skills and strategy use. Findings from the interviews were grouped under two themes; (1) students opinions about their skills to comprehend what they read, and (2) students opinions about the reading strategies they used. Each is presented separately to make it easy to compare the differences between pre and post interviews. Students Opinions about Their Skills to Comprehend What They Read Table 1 depicts related findings in three sub-themes such as (1) students opinions about their level of comprehension in reading, (2) students opinions about the comprehension problems they have in reading, and (3) students opinions about their goals to improve their comprehension levels. Table 1. Students Opinions about Their Skills to Comprehend What They Read Students Opinions about Their Skills to Comprehend What They Read n=6 Number of Opinions Pre Post Students opinions about their level of comprehension in reading 7 11 Assessing oneself as a good reader 2 2 Assessing oneself as an average reader 2 1 Comprehending the text in French without translation 1 1 Comprehending a level-appropriate text 1 0 Comprehending what is read 1 0 Increase of reading speed and level 0 2 High-level comprehension of a low-level text 0 1 Understanding a text in general without using a dictionary 0 1 Understanding the main idea 0 1 Easy comprehension by way of strategies 0 1 Finding specific information in the text

47 Students Opinions about Their Skills to Comprehend What They Read n=6 Number of Opinions Pre Post Students opinions about the comprehension problems they have in reading Inadequate vocabulary 6 5 Effective use of time 2 1 Lack of grammar 1 1 Difficulty in reading in detail 1 2 Slow reading 2 0 Incomprehension when reading aloud 1 0 Reading in detail 0 1 Incomplete comprehension of an authentic text 0 1 Students opinions about their goals to improve their comprehension levels 6 8 Reading a literary work in French 1 2 Reading a journal or newspaper in French 1 2 Understanding the main idea(s) of a text without using a dictionary 2 1 Full comprehension when reading in French 1 1 Matching comprehension level in French with that in English 1 0 Reaching proficiency level in reading 0 1 Comprehending what is read while thinking in French 0 1 Not. Pre: Before the intervention Post: After the intervention A closer examination of Table 1 reveals that students opinions about their level of comprehension in reading and their goals to improve their comprehension levels increased after the intervention whereas the number related to the comprehension problems they have in reading decreased. Moreover, students opinions stated for each theme differed after the intervention. Students opinions about their level of comprehension in reading in detail shows that a very broad opinion such as comprehending what is read has taken more specific forms after the intervention such as understanding the main idea(s), understanding a text in general without using a dictionary, and finding specific information in the text. Furthermore, the opinions stated after the intervention does not concern any specific text level. Thus, it may be concluded that students started to see themselves capable of understanding the main ideas or understanding any text in general after the intervention. Moreover, some students compared their performances, and they noted that there was an increase in their pace of reading and comprehension after the intervention. Based on these findings, it wouldn t be wrong to conclude that students started to verbalize their opinions about their level of comprehension in detail and that they improved their level of comprehension during the intervention. Concerning the level of comprehending in reading, a participant said; P6- Pre ( ): I was really bad until two weeks ago, but now I m good, I m really good. Watching movies also helps a lot. A: Watching facilitates reading comprehension indirectly...? P6-Pre ( ): since we watch with French subtitles comparing reading comprehension with comprehending the subtitles of a movie before the intervention. Yet, after the intervention the same participant said; 39

48 P6-Post ( ): I need to make a comparison to assess myself. When I do it, I see that I m really OK. Seriously, I m much better than before. P6-Post ( ): I m trying to guess, I mean, if there is an implication of something positive or negative in the text, I can easily sense it P6-Post ( ): I guess I m good at summarizing because we had plenty of exercise on it. I feel like I m used to it. These statements show that s/he assesses himself/herself by use of strategies such as making inferences and summarizing. Examination of students opinions about the problems they have in reading shows that all students before the intervention and still a large number of them after the intervention complained about inadequate vocabulary. Following the intervention, effective use of time were not stated that much. Moreover, problems stated before the intervention such as incomprehension when reading aloud and slow reading were not mentioned after the intervention. On the other hand, more students verbalized the problem of difficulty in reading in detail after the intervention, and some problems that had not been mentioned prior to the intervention were also stated, which are reading in detail and incomplete comprehension of an authentic text. These findings suggest that students had fewer problems related to the inadequate vocabulary, pace of reading, and time constraints upon completion of the intervention. Other problems that were stated more often than before such as reading in detail, difficulty in reading in detail can be attributed to students heightened levels of awareness about the sources of problems they had. A participant said the following about the problems experienced during reading in French before the intervention; P4-Pre ( ): To me, grammar is not a problem, but vocabulary is. Generally, when I don t understand some points, it is the vocabulary that causes it. However, the same participant mentioned the following after the intervention; P4-Post ( ): Generally, I don t get into details while reading, I guess it is the biggest problem; besides, inadequate vocabulary is still a problem for me., combining another problem with lack of vocabulary. Analysis of students opinions about their goals to improve their comprehension levels shows that the numbers of opinions both before and after the intervention are not that different. Nevertheless, some of the opinions such as reading a literary work in French, reading a journal or newspaper in French were more often stated by the participants after the intervention. The goal of understanding the main idea(s) of a text without using a dictionary was mentioned by fewer students following the intervention. Furthermore, the goal verbalized before the intervention, matching comprehension level in French with that in English, was not stated again after the intervention; and two goals not mentioned prior to the intervention but were said by the participants following the intervention are reaching proficiency level in reading and comprehending what is read while thinking in French. Based on these results, it is possible to conclude that participants wanted to achieve higher levels of profession after the intervention. A participant mentioned that s/he aimed to have a good command of French in order to read literary works in French both before and after the intervention; 40

49 P1-Pre ( ): I love Balsac, and I want to read his works in French. I read the Turkish versions, but it should feel different reading in the authentic language. You know, for example, we can t translate poems exactly. Even if we do, many things get lost in translation; that s why I wanted to study a language in the first place. P1-Post ( ): I want to, as I said earlier, to read for example The Hunchback of Notre dame by Victor Hugo in its original language. I want to reach to that level that I can read anything in French. In a nutshell, students opinions regarding their reading comprehension skills point that students improved not only their level of comprehension, but also their awareness concerning their level of comprehension and the problems they experience while reading after the intervention. Students Opinions about the Reading Strategies They Used Findings related with students opinions about reading strategies they used were grouped under two themes: (1) Students opinions about the types of reading strategies they used; and (2) Students opinions about the factors considered to be influential over reading strategies they used. Table 2 shows data related with types of reading strategies students used both before and after the intervention. Table 2. Students Opinions about the Types of Reading Strategies They Used Students opinions about the types of reading strategies they used n=6 Number of Opinions Pre Post Metacognitive Strategies Students Used Goal setting 5 6 Previewing 4 5 Self-monitoring Monitoring comprehension 3 3 Monitoring strategy use 4 5 Self-assessment 5 5 Self-questioning 3 5 Selective attention Noticing the visuals 4 5 Noticing the contextual clues (title, footnote, etc.) Noticing linguistic features and grammar Noticing the familiar vocabulary 1 0 Noticing the unknown vocabulary 3 1 Noticing pronunciation 1 2 Noticing specific parts of the text 4 4 Noticing the proper nouns 1 4 Noticing the numbers

50 Students opinions about the types of reading strategies they Number of Opinions used n=6 Pre Post Noticing the key words 0 2 Direct attention 2 1 Cognitive strategies students used Making inferences 6 6 Elaborating 6 9 Relating the text to the background knowledge 5 5 Relating the parts of the text with one another 1 4 Predicting 1 3 Transferring 2 3 Deducing 3 5 Re-reading 6 5 Underlying 5 5 Taking notes 5 5 Summarizing 5 6 Translation 6 6 Using dictionary 6 6 Reading aloud 1 2 Forming schemas 3 1 Analyzing 5 5 Skipping 3 5 Mental picture 0 4 Not. Pre: Before the intervention Post: After the intervention As can be found in Table 2, students employed more different types of strategies after the intervention. As for the types of metacognitive strategies used by students, the number of opinions concerning goal setting, previewing, self-monitoring, and selective attention, which were practiced during the intervention, went up. The increase in the number of opinions regarding the subtitles under self-monitoring and selective attention such as monitoring strategy use, self-questioning, noticing the visuals, title, and footnote, and noticing the linguistic features and grammar can be interpreted as the positive influence of strategy instruction. One of the participants stated that s/he hadn t known much about goal setting and self-questioning two of metacognitive strategies before the intervention, and started to read any text without thinking about the text; P5-Pre ( ):..title reveals what kind of a text it is. I know nothing about what to do. Actually, I start reading right off the bat. But, if it is a text that I know something about, then I pay more attention. However, if it is not interesting for me, then I feel a little reluctant about reading it P5-Pre ( ): I have never noticed. Maybe, I can talk to myself and say things like, yeah this means that, bla bla, and I may even take notes. Yet, I don t especially ask questions and look for answers. The same participant said the following after the intervention; P5-Post ( ): If I need to answer questions, then my goal becomes to find answers in the text. If it is the theme, then I try to find the theme. Therefore, I don t do much for the texts if the goal is explicit. I scan the text, and if there are questions to be 42

51 answered I look for the key words in the text P5-Post ( ): If it is a theme, or question, you know it is selective attention again. It s the most frequent strategy I employ, and I noticed that I m asking questions to myself while reading. I mean not only for texts in French, but for anything I read, yet subconsciously. Findings regarding cognitive strategies indicate that the numbers of opinions about the strategies practiced during the intervention such as predicting and summarizing augmented. About making inferences, predicting, relating the text to the background knowledge, summarizing, skipping, and transferring among the cognitive strategies, a participant mentioned that s/he focused on making sense more on lexical and sentential level, and that s/he used making inferences, skipping, and transferring strategies before the intervention; P2-Pre ( ): When I come across an unknown vocabulary item in a paragraph or sentence, I first try to make sense of it by guessing its meaning from the context P2-Pre ( ): I start. I skip the sentence if I don t understand it at all; but if I can make sense of it even a little bit, I work on it and spend a lot of time to figure it out.p2-pre ( ): There isn t anything I especially do to figure it out. I force myself to remember its meaning if it is a word. Or, I check my English and Turkish vocabulary to make sense of it. I think much about it. You know western languages are syntactically different, therefore I try to understand the sentences in a reverse order. After the intervention, the same participant stated that s/he used predicting, relating the text to the background knowledge, summarizing, and making inferences strategies; P2-Post ( ): First I think about the text before I get started. I try to predict what that text might be about. I check what I know about the topic once I predict what it is. When I begin reading, I start making predictions again, but this time predictions are more solid, there are more clues to predict. Then I see if I m right or not. At the end of reading, I mentally summarize what I understood from the text. P2-Post ( ): I try making inferences, I use the contextual clues and my background knowledge to make sense of the unknown word. I employ predicting and making inferences strategies really often. Based on the findings regarding students opinions about the strategies they used, one can conclude that students learned to vary the strategies they use, and their awareness of the strategies was heightened. Table 3 displays students opinions about the factors considered to be influential over the reading strategies they used. Table 3: Students Opinions about the Factors Considered to Be Influential Over the Reading Strategies They Used Students opinions about the factors considered to be over the Number of Opinions reading strategies they used n=6 Pre Post Reading Task (for exam or questions below the text) 4 5 Text Type 1 2 Text Difficulty 1 4 Text Length 1 2 Reading Purpose 1 4 Text Topic 0 2 Not. Pre: Before the intervention Post: After the intervention 43

52 As the numbers in Table 3 indicate, students opinions about the factors considered to be influential over the reading strategies they used increased after the intervention. Reading task is the most frequent opinion stated both before and after the intervention. This may be attributed to the fact that all students have an extended language learning background, that all of them took the university exam as a language student, and therefore that they were well aware of alternating their strategies in accordance with reading task. Other frequent opinions mentioned by students after the intervention are text difficulty and reading purpose. Moreover, there was no opinion regarding the topic of the text before the intervention, but two students emphasized it as a factor affecting their strategy use after the intervention. These findings suggest that many students alternate the reading strategies they use in accordance with reading task, some features of the text, and reading purpose; and students awareness of the flexible use of reading strategies congruous with several criteria increased. About the factors influencing the strategies students used, a participant said that s/he alternated his/her strategies only according to the difficulty of text before the intervention; P3-Pre ( ). If it is something that appeals to me, if it has an easy title, I mean if I recognize the words in it, something that I can understand, then I read it and make a mental summary of it. However, if the title and beginning sentences are difficult for me, first I clarify all the unknown vocabulary, and then I move on with reading, then I again mentally summarize the text. The same participant stated that text difficulty, the existence of questions below the text, text type, and text topic are the factors that guided her/him to use appropriate reading strategies after the intervention; P3- Post ( ): For instance, if there is a statement that I can t figure out, then I read it loudly. There are some other strategies as well; If there are questions following the text then I employ selective attention, previewing, and scanning. If there is no question, and the text is a kind of article, then, as I said earlier, I go sentence by sentence, and translate it. If there is a vague statement for me, then I read it aloud P3-Post ( ): if it is something that I m interested in, for example language use, or foreign language, then I read it quickly. As obvious from the sentences in the quotations, students began talking about the strategies and the conditions for strategy alternation more in detail and by mentioning the names of strategies after the intervention. In conclusion, students opinions about the reading strategies they used point that students began alternating strategies and that they gained a high level of awareness of the strategies they used and practiced during the intervention, they became well aware of strategy type to be used. Conclusion and Suggestions In this study, students' opinions about the effect of reading strategy instruction based on CALLA on reading comprehension and strategy use were examined through data obtained before and after the intervention. The findings related to reading comprehension revealed that students gave a more detailed picture of their level of reading comprehension and that they became more aware regarding their reading comprehension after the intervention. Furthermore, it can be said that while participants' reading comprehension level increased and that the problems they experienced during reading decreased according to students' opinions. Therefore, it can be suggested that reading 44

53 strategies instruction based on CALLA had the positive effect on students' reading skills. This result is parallel with the studies of other researchers which examined the effect of reading strategy instruction based on CALLA on reading comprehension level in higher education (Arpacıoğlu, 2007; Çubukçu, 2007; Karbalaei, 2011; Takallou, 2011). However, in these studies the effect was measured through quantitative data. As one of the aims of strategy instruction is to provide the tools to selfdiagnose their strengths and weakness in language learning (Cohen, 2003), it is important to know to what extent the strategy instruction model achieved to this aim. According to the findings of the present study, it can be suggested that reading strategy instruction based on CALLA had positive effects on students' awareness about their strengths and weakness in reading. The findings related to strategy use suggest that the number of strategies students used increased and that they became more aware of the strategies they used and the factors influencing their choice of strategies after the intervention. All point that reading strategies instruction based on CALLA has positive effects over students strategy use and strategy awareness. These results are consistent with those of the studies carried out in higher education (Arpacıoğlu, 2007; Kantarcı, 2006; Takallou, 2011) in which the effect of reading strategy instruction was examined through quantitative data obtained from questionnaires and/or qualitative data obtained think-aloud protocols which "provide data through verbalization of what is being thought during a particular task" (Bouvet, 2002). In the present study, semi-structures interviews were used before and after the intervention in order to reveal students' opinions about their strategy use. Semi-structured interviews allowed to obtain deeper information about students' strategy use than questionnaires which are commonly used in order to reveal information about strategy use. Think-aloud protocols reveal valuable information about strategy use. However, this information could be more related to strategies used for a particular task. In the present study, semi-structured interviews provided information about more general strategy use because participants are asked to describe their strategy use in various situations. Therefore, according to the findings of the present study, it can be suggested that reading strategy instruction based on CALLA had positive effect on students' general strategy use and strategy awareness in L2 reading. Under the light of the findings of the present study and previous studies, it may be suggested to design reading strategies instruction based on CALLA for students learning L2 in higher education. However, these results of the present study should be interpreted by taking into account its limitations. Given the design and the small sample of the study, it is not possible to generalize its findings. Therefore, in order to generalize the findings of the present study, there is a need to carry out more studies in different settings by using different research designs. These studies in language learning would be beneficial for implementing more effective strategy instruction and extending strategy instruction in language classes. Lastly, administering strategy instruction in an integrated manner with L2 teaching would necessitate training language teachers about it. Thus, it is suggested to organize educational activities where language teachers and teacher candidates can be informed about strategy instruction. Note: This article is based on the dissertation of the second author with the supervision of the first author, completed at Anadolu University, December References Allen, S. (2003). An analytic comparison of three models of reading strategy instruction. IRAL, 41,

54 Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: issues and strategies. Toronto, Ontario, Kanada: Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Arpacıoğlu, E. B. (2007). The effect of combined strategy instruction on reading comprehension. Unpublished master s thesis. Ankara: Bilkent University Graduate School of Education. Bouvet, E. (2002). Reading in a foreign language: Strategic variation between readers of differing proficiency. Flinders University Languages Group Online Review. 1 (1). Retrieved May 13, 2008 from Bouvet, E., & Close, E. (2006). Online reading strategy guidance in a foreign language: Five case studies in French. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 29 (1): Carrell, P. L. (1998). Can reading strategies be successfully taught? The Language Teacher. Retrieved August 28, 2008, from Carrell, P. L., Gajdusek, L., & Wise, T. (1998). Metacognition and EFL/ESL reading. Instructional Science, 26, Retrieved April 28, 2008, from Chamot, A. U. (1995). Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach: CALLA in Arlington, Virginia. The Bilingual Research Journal, 19 (3-4), Retrieved December 13, 2008 from /index.htm#34 Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P. D., & Robbins, J. (1999). The Learning strategies handbook. New York: Pearson Education. Chamot, A. U., & O Malley, J.M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York. Chamot, A. U., & O Malley, J.M. (1996). The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach: A model for linguistically diverse classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 96 (3), Retrieved October 23, 2008, from Chamot, A.U., & Robbins, J. (2006). Helping Struggling students become good language learners. National Capital Language Resource Center. Retrieved October 13, 2008 from CALLA_FL.doc. Chamot, A.U., Thomppson, I., Küpper, L.,Barnhardt, S. & Barrueta M. (1990). Learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom: reading. McLean, Virginia: Interstate Research Associates. Retrieved December 13, 2018 from Eric database. Cohen, A. D. (2000). Strategies-Based Instruction for Learners of a Second Language. National Association of secondary school principals (NASSP) Bulletin, 84, Retrieved September 23, 2008, Cohen, A. (2003). Strategy Training for Second Language Learners. Retrieved September 23, 2008 from Cohen, A.D., & Weaver, S. J. (2005). Styles and strategies-based instruction: A teachers' guide. CARLA Working Paper Series A rewritten version of Paper 7. University of Minnesota. Retrieved September 23, 2008 from Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issue. TESOL Quarterly,14 (2), Retrieved June 18, 2009 from Çubukçu, F. (2008). How to enhance reading comprehension through metacognitive strategies. The Journal of International Social Research, N. 2, p

55 Grenfel, M., & Harris, V. (1999). Modern languages and learning strategies: In theory and practice. Retrieved September 22, 2008 from &ppg=86 Handyside, M. B. (2007). The effects of metacognitive training on English language learner's reading comprehension. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Catholic University of America, Washington. Hoepfl, M. C. (1997). Choosing qualitative research: A primer for technology education researchers. Journal of Technology Education, Vol. 9, N.1. Retrieved December 15, 2012 from Kantarci, F. (2006). Students awareness of reading strategies. Unpublished master s thesis. Bilkent University, Ankara. Karbalaei, A. (2011). Assessing reading strategy training based on CALLA model in EFL and ESL context. Ikala Revistan de Language y Eultuza, 16, 27, Retrieved August 22, 2011 from Kern, R. G. (1989). Second language reading strategy instruction: Its effects on comprehension and word inference ability. The Modern Language Journal, 73, Koda, K. (2007). Insights into second language reading: Cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, Lynch, J. (1993). Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (Project CALLA), community school district 2 special alternative instruction program. Final evaluation report, OREA Report. New York: New York City Board of Education. Retrieved December 13, 2008 from Eric database. Mills, G. E. (2003). Action research: A guide for teacher researcher (Second edition). New Jersey: Pearson Education Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). An Expanded sourcebook qualitative data analysis, (Second edition) California: SAGE Publications International Educational and Professional Publisher. Oxford, R.L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Özkan Gürses, M., & Adıgüzel, O. (2013). The effect of strategy instruction based on the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach over reading comprehension and strategy use. Journal of Education and Learning, 2 (2), p Takallou, F. (2011). The effect of metacognitive strategy instruction on EFL learners reading comprehension performance and metacognitive awareness. Assian EFL Journal Retrieved August 22, 2011 from Taylor, A. M., Stevens, J.R., & Asher, W. (2006). The effects of explicit reading strategy training on L2 reading comprehension. In J.M. Norris & L.Ortega (Eds.). Language Learning & Language Teaching Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching (p ). Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H (2008). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (Altıncı basım). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. 47

56 Investigation of the Development of 7 th Grade Students Skills to Define, Construct and Classify Polygons with Cabri Geometry Ahmet Yanık Emine Cahide Karaali Ortaokulu, Eskişehir, Turkey [email protected] Tuba Ada Anadolu University, Turkey [email protected] Abstract The aim of the study is to investigate the development of 7 th Grade students skills to define, construct and classify polygons in geometry course with Cabri Geometry II Plus software geometry, an example of dynamic geometry software. The study used qualitative and quantitative research methods in accordance with the research objectives and focus, so it was designed as a mixed method research. The participants of the study were 21 7 th Grade students, 11 girls and 10 boys, who were attending a secondary school in Eskişehir city center during school year. As a source of qualitative data, four students in this class were selected for the interview. The data were collected with Polygon Identification and Classification Scale, one group pre-test and post-test in order to determine the level of development and significance level of the gender variable, and Cabri Geometry worksheets developed by the researchers. The quantitative data were analyzed with SPSS Statistics 20. Also, t-test and Wilcoxon test were used in data analysis. The data obtained from the interviews were analyzed through descriptive analysis. The qualitative data showed that the mean of correct answers given by the students to the questions in the Polygon Identification and Classification Scale was higher in the post-test than the pre-test. The t- test results for the pre-test and post-test mean scores and the results of the paired samples test showed a significant difference in favor of the post-test. There was no significant difference based on the gender variable. On the other hand, the data obtained from the interviews were coded under five different themes. The activities about the concept of formation showed that incorrect formations caused incorrect generalizations about the shapes. The study found that, as a result of the teaching practice in the study, hierarchical relations among polygons were expressed correctly. Finally, after the practice, the participants succeeded in defining polygons with their own words. Keywords: Geometry; polygons; Cabri Geometry; geometric construction Introduction Mathematical thinking involves and develops skills that the individual needs to be successful in his or her daily and professional life such as problem-solving, analyzing, classifying similarities and differences, generalizing, abstract thinking, thinking about possible consequences, and creative thinking (Driscoll, 2007). One of the important research fields in mathematics education that aim to maximize mathematical thinking is geometry. Geometry is one of the fundamental and conceptual cornerstones of mathematics. Geometry is a study area that requires improved skills of visual perception and analysis and developing skills to see relationships between objects, classify and make modern designs. 48

57 In addition to helping establish relationships between the geometric structures in geometry universe and the branches of mathematics, geometry also facilitates efficient use of knowledge acquired through the topics of geometry in problem-solving, daily life and other school subjects (Tutak & Birgin, 2008). The effects of dynamic geometry software in teaching-leaning process have been a popular research topic over the recent years. This is because these kinds of software promotes learning through discovery contribute to students development of problem-solving skills (Ubuz, Üstün & Erbaş, 2009). Also, dynamic geometry software allows for presenting geometric concepts at different levels. According to Güven and Karataş (2009), these concepts are examined under two stages: finding discovery and proof verification. Gillis suggests that dynamic geometric software developed to change this structure allows students to construct geometric shapes, perform measurements, change forms and shapes, and discover geometric concepts (Gillis, 2005). Some properties of geometric structures may be independent while we can also often see parameters changing depending on each other and it is only through discovery that students are able to describe this situation and to abstract. According to Jones, Fujita and Kunimune (2012), although many mathematical objects have geometric shapes that is given meaning in the mind, geometric shapes contain a mathematical essence. In this regard, it should be possible to construct geometric representations on paper or computer screen. a representation is supposed to be in two states: finite and various forms and ideal objectivity. for example, some representations like a square is more peculiar than others. They assist in the process of problem solving. Geometric thinking need to be supported with different techniques and strategies in the process of teaching geometry. Also, proof skills should be supported and different methods should be recommended. Several studies have shown the positive results of them (Jones, Fujita and Kunimune, 2012). Problem-solving techniques have gained different aspects in life situations developing and changing with technology. A variety of tools for geometry can be used in teaching and learning activities. Dynamic geometry environments is an example of these tools. Dynamic Geometry Software According to National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], technology allows teachers to assess the process as well as the product in problem situations and to enrich application processes by examining them in the light of this data. Using dynamic geometry software, students can examine the characteristics of shapes, study the slope and linear relationships, use representations and conduct physical experiments (NCTM, 2000). Dynamic geometry software allows for making significant transformations and makes it possible to experiment with geometric objects. Using concrete models, drawings, and using dynamic geometry software allow students to establish relations with geometrical ideas effectively. By means of well-planned activities, proper tools and support from teachers, students can create their own assumptions and test them. Cabri Geometry, an example of dynamic geometry software, allows students to come up with their own constructions. 49

58 Cabri Geometry Software Cabri Geometry software facilitates defining and comprehending the relationships between shapes helps them acquire meaningful information and relationships. In addition, Cabri facilitates using original methods, making assumptions, and testing assumptions. It allows students to understand the important points about a problem or theorem and to carry out more detailed studies (Pandiscio, 2002). Dynamic geometry software like Cabri Geometry include some stages of geometry such as being deductive, implicational and practical steps in teaching process (Straesser, 2002). A strong connection to be established between drawing and theoretical infrastructure plays an important role in teaching geometry. Köse claims that Cabri Geometry software facilitates understanding the mathematical infrastructure of objects by exposing their properties (Köse, 2008). This dynamic software allows students to construct, move, rotate and resize shapes. By using the dynamic features of the software in their drawings, students examine the changing or constant conditions in shapes. In this way, they can explore the constant and changing properties of constructions and test the accuracy of assumptions and predictions (Köse, 2008). In addition, it provides teachers with concrete feedback about students and lesson plans. Aim and Significance The aim of the study is to investigate the development of 7 th Grade students skills to define, construct and classify polygons in geometry course with Cabri Geometry II Plus software geometry. Thus, the study seeks answers to the following questions about the development of 7 th Grade students skills to define and classify polygons: 1. How do they construct polygons with Cabri Geometry? 2. What strategies do they use when constructing polygons with Cabri Geometry? 3. How do they establish relationships between the constructed with the help of Cabri Geometry and the features of polygons? 4. What kind of verbal expressions do they use when expressing the polygon, triangle and quadrilateral constructed with Cabri Geometry? 5. What kind of verbal expressions do they use when making a hierarchical order of polygons, triangle and quadrilateral constructed with Cabri Geometry? What features do they take into consideration when making a hierarchical order of polygons? Research has shown that students have problems in understanding and classifying the relationships between mathematical meanings. In recent years, dynamic geometry software has been one of the main tools used in geometry class. This study aimed to observe the process of geometric thinking in students, obtain in-depth knowledge about concept formation and explore students skills to create and classify formations when faced with constructions. Research suggests that, in environments using dynamic geometry software, students can improve their understanding of mathematical concepts and the software helps them come up with deductive reasoning. Dynamic geometry software aims to develop visualization, exploring and mathematical ideas. It also facilitates the development of problem solving skills. Activities and problems prepared with Cabri Geometry II Plus provide students with the opportunity to use their skills and creativity and, by means of its dynamic feature, it facilitates viewing the problem or a formation from different angles. This was the reason why this software was preferred for the practice session. 50

59 Methodology The study used qualitative and quantitative research methods in accordance with the research objectives and focus, so it was designed as a mixed method research. Mixed methods researches contains a mixture of qualitative and quantitative research methods or paradigms (Johnson & Christensen, 2004). Mixed research designs involve collecting, analyzing and interpreting qualitative and quantitative data regarding the same basic problems in a study or a series of studies (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Quantitative Method The study used one group pre-test and post-test in order to determine the level of development and significance level of the gender variable in order to collect data. A group is administered independent variables in the one group pre-test and post-test model. In this model, data is collected from a single group in the study for the period before the study (pretest), then the practice stage is performed and, finally at the end of the practice stage, the same group is tested again. If the numerical data obtained indicates a significant difference, this difference is considered to be caused by the practice (Cemaloğlu, 2012). The participants of the study were 21 7 th Grade students, 11 girls and 10 boys, who were attending a secondary school in Eskişehir city center during school year. The participants for this study were selected as 7 th Grade students because the topic of Polygons is covered extensively in the 7 th Grade mathematics curriculum. Qualitative Method With respect to the qualitative aspect of this mixed methods research, the study was designed as a teaching experiment to examine the development of skills to define, construct and classify polygons with Cabri Geometry software. Teaching experiment is a method that allows researchers and teachers to observe the nature of mathematical thinking and the development of ways of thinking (Czarnocha & Maj, 2008). In addition to observing classroom environment and monitoring teaching and learning process, teaching experiment also facilitates the development of teaching and learning activities (Czarnocha & Prabhu, 2006). The participants chosen with respect to the qualitative aspect of the study, were selected based on achievement in mathematics course, achievement in the scale and interest in computer course. It should also be noted that the researchers attended both mathematics and information and communication courses throughout the school year. The students selected for the interviews were given names similar to their actual names. Table 1 shows the scores received by the interviewed students. Table 1. Qualitative Study Participants Mathematics 1st Exam. Scores Pre-test Scores Post-test Scores Interest in computer Kerem , good Nilüfer ,0 81,8 good Burak ,6 84,8 very good Çiğdem ,0 63,6 medium 51

60 The public school where the study was conducted had a total of 240 students, 13 classrooms, 21 teachers and one computer lab. The computer lab, the computers and other technical equipment used in this lab met all the software and hardware needs. Data Collection and Analysis The data were collected with the Polygons Identification and Classification Scale, the worksheets developed by the researchers, the interview protocol, computer logs and the researcher s journal. The quantitative data were analyzed with IBM SPSS 20, Wilcoxon test and t-test. In the analysis of the qualitative data, the qualitative data sets obtained through the interviews were created and analyzed with descriptive analysis. The qualitative data obtained were coded and analyzed by two field experts according to the pre-determined themes. The descriptive analysis included direct quotes from the statements made by the individuals interviewed or observed in order to reflect their views effectively. The reason for this is to describe the data in a systematic way and present the reader with arranged and interpreted data. Then these are explained and interpreted, cause-effect relationships are examined and results are obtained. Interpretation stage involves establishing relationships among the emerging themes, explain their meanings and making future predictions (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). The qualitative data analysis in this study was based on four stages: Stage 1: The data were written in the interview data transcription form, Stage 2: The interview coding key was formed, Stage 3: The interview data were coded, and Stage 4: The codes were compared and the reliability was tested (Köse, 2008). In the first stage, the interviews conducted with four students were transcribed into the interview form. In the second stage, the theoretical base of the study and the interview questions formed according to it were taken into consideration when forming the coding key. Two researchers together formed the coding keys of the interview forms in which the descriptive data were written and the other parts were left blank. In the third stage, the interview forms of the four students were marked for each of the questions by the researchers independently and, in the final stage, the codes of the two researchers were compared and the reliability of the study was improved. The reliability of the study was calculated by using Agreement/Agreement + Disagreement formula (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In the reliability tests conducted between the researchers, the percentage of reliability was found to be above 70%. This percentage indicates that inter-rater reliability was achieved between the researchers. Findings Table 2 shows the pre-test and post-test means based on the topics as a part of the quantitative part of the study. As can be seen in the table, the mean of the correct answers given by the students to the questions in the Polygon Identification and Classification Scale increased by 11.68% after the teaching practice in comparison with the mean of the scores before the practice. Also, it was found that the mean of each of the groups increased when the questions in the scale were examined in three groups. 52

61 Table 2. Pre-test and Post-test Means Based on the Topics As can be seen in Table 3, the t-test results for the pre-test and post-test mean scores and the results of the paired samples test showed a significant difference in favor of the post-test. This indicates that Cabri Geometry applications, an example of dynamic geometry software, has a positive impact on student achievement. Table 3. t-test Results for the Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores Paired Samples Test Test N X SS Sd t p Pre- test 21 15, Post- test 21 19,19 4, In Table 4, according to the t-test results of the Polygons Identification and Classification Scale Scores Based on Gender, the female students performance increased slightly more than that of the male students. However, according to the t-test results, this difference was not a significant one. Thus, Cabri geometry applications did not create a significant difference based on the gender variable. The development levels of the female and male students in the study sample were found to be in parallel to each other. Table 4. t-test Results of the Polygons Identification and Classification Scale Scores Based on Gender Independent Samples Test Gender N X SS Sd t p Girl 11 16, Boy 10 14, Girl 11 20, Boy 10 17,90 5, ,14.27 With respect to the qualitative aspect of the study, the interviews were structured based on the cases of the formation of polygons, knowledge of their properties, expressing polygons and arranging polygons in a hierarchical order. The data obtained were categorized into the following themes: Using Tools for Parallel and Perpendicular Lines, Constructions Based on Other Geometric Structures, Distinctive Constructions and Strategies, Expressing a Polygon with Their Own Words, Identification and Hierarchical Order of Polygons. Figure 1 shows the relationships among the themes. 53

62 Using Tools for Parallel and Perpendicular Lines Correct identification of polygon Making the right constructions Distinctive Constructions Hierarchical Order of Polygons Figure 1. Relationships among the Themes Using Tools for Parallel and Perpendicular Lines: According to the data obtained from the interviewed students, the students did not pay attention to using tools to construct parallel and perpendicular lines. An example of this was observed with Burak when he was supposed to use parallel lines when constructing a trapezoid (Figure 2). Researcher : I want you to draw a trapezoid. Burak : OK. Researcher : Do you remember how I did that in the lesson? Burak : No. Researcher : If you do it in this way, when you draw it, I hold it on a corner and move it. And the shape won t be correct then. We drew two parallel lines for that in the lesson. i) ii) Figure 2. Burak Used Random Points in the Plane As shown in Figure 2, Burak was not able to remember trapezoid construction. When he was told that he needed to use two parallel lines, he used the parallel line tool and took the lines as perpendicular in the plane. Thus, Burak did not make the mistake made by many students due to their misconception that lines should always be horizontal. Constructions Based on Other Geometric Structures: This theme was about whether the interviewed students constructed the required polygon by using other elements (parallel lines, perpendicular lines, 54

63 circles, rotation, translation, etc.) or by constructing a shape similar to the quadrilateral shape in their minds. An example of this was observed in the interview with Kerem about the process he followed in square formation. Researcher : Now, I want you to construct a square. Kerem : I can use the circle. Also, I can do that with 90º rotations Researcher : There may be more than one way. Can you show me how you can do it with the circle? i) ii) iii) iv) Figure 3. Kerem s Construction As can be seen in Figure 3, (i) Kerem took a horizontal line passing through the center of the circle, (ii) he took another line perpendicular to the vertical line and (iii)-(iv) he drew the tangent lines passing through the points where these two lines cut the circle. Thus, the student made use of different geometric structures in square construction and used the circle and perpendicular lines together. Distinctive Constructions and Strategies: This theme was about distinctive constructions performed by the students when constructing the required polygons. During the practices, the methods presented in the worksheets or their own distinctive products were examined. For example, Nilüfer constructed a rectangle and a square in the same shape and she seemed to have mastered both constructions. 55

64 iii) iv) v) vi) Figure 4. Nilüfer s Construction. In Figure 4, (i) Nilüfer took a circle in the plane and then (ii) she took a horizontal line passing through the center of the circle and another one perpendicular to that horizontal line. (iii) by drawing the tangent lines passing through the points where these two lines cut the circle, she took the fourth line segment outside the shape. (iv) She constructed the rectangle. After that, (v) she extended the tangent lines and constructed the square. Thus, (vi) she constructed a square and a rectangle in the same shape in a dynamic way. In the interviews conducted with other students, four of the students were able to form 26 complete constructions out of 32 constructions in total and they constructed nine of them with distinctive methods different from what they had practiced in lesson. Also, the students who did not make any construction mistakes generally preferred distinctive methods while the students who had difficulty in constructing a shape tended to recall the practices in lesson. Kerem performed seven complete constructions out of eight constructions and he developed his own strategies in four of them. Nilüfer and Burak did not make any construction mistakes and they used their own distinctive strategies in two constructions. Çiğdem, on the other hand, performed only three complete constructions out of eight constructions and she used a strategy different from the practices in lesson in only one of them. Expressing a Polygon with Their Own Words: After the required constructions about polygons were completed, the students were asked the question How do you explain what this polygon is to someone who does not know it? in order to observe the students knowledge of the properties of these polygons such as how the students would take the vertex points, how they would not focus on the sides and whether they would use the concept of closed region or not. Figure 5 shows the triangle drawn by Çiğdem during the interview. Researcher : How can you explain what a triangle is to someone who does not know it? Çiğdem : I explain that a triangle has three sides and three vertexs, they are scalene and the angles in a triangle equal 180. Figure 5. (Çiğdem drew a triangle based on what she told about a triangle.) 56

65 Researcher : How can you explain what a quadrilateral is to someone who does not know it? Çiğdem : It is a shape with four sides and opposite sides parallel. Researcher : So you say its opposite sides are parallel. How do you know that its opposite sides are parallel? Çiğdem : Because they never intersect each other. Researcher : Do you think all things that do not intersect each other are parallel? Çiğdem : Yes. Researcher : OK. Well, can you move that shape? Çiğdem : (Nodding, she realized what she had thought at the beginning was wrong.) It is not proper when I move it. They seemed to be parallel at first. In Figure 5, Çiğdem drew a quadrilateral using the polygon tool and performed the measurements. Figure 5. Çiğdem s Quadrilateral Çiğdem failed to notice that the shape with seemingly parallel lines was actually dynamic and she believed that these lines were parallel and would never change. This student knew about the rule of parallelism correctly and she was confident about that, but she didn t realize her mistake about quadrilaterals. During the dialogue given above, Çiğdem realized that what she had thought at the beginning was wrong and she changed her behavior about this subject (Figure 5). Identification and Hierarchical Order of Polygons: The interviewed students were asked questions requiring hierarchical order of polygons. Based on the students constructions, more special and more general statements about polygons were obtained. In addition, the constructions were examined in the following order: Scalene triangle Isosceles triangle Equilateral triangle, Quadrilateral Trapezoid Parallelogram Rectangle Square. The students responses were examined in the same order, too. As an example, Nilüfer made a correct hierarchal order of triangles in the interview when she was asked to perform dynamic geometry applications. Researcher : Which of the three triangles on the screen do you think is the most special one? Nilüfer : The scalene triangle. Researcher : Why? Nilüfer : Because all of its angles and side lengths are equal. Researcher : OK, which one comes after the scalene triangle? Nilüfer : The isosceles triangle. Researcher : Which of the triangles would you prefer to teach if you were a teacher? Nilüfer : First, the scalene triangle. Then the isosceles triangle. And finally, the equilateral triangle. Nilüfer thought that the features of an equilateral triangle would apply to the other triangles and she stated that if she had organized them in a presentation, she would have organized them according to the hierarchical order. After completing the quadrilateral, trapezoid and parallelogram constructions, the same student gave correct answers to the questions about the hierarchical order and she stated 57

66 that the most general one was the quadrilateral while the most special one was the parallelogram. Kerem thought that the square was the most special one and what distinguished it from the other quadrilaterals was its side lengths (the rhombus was not used in the practice). He also mentioned the rectangle s four right angles. Regarding the difference of the rectangle from the other quadrilaterals, Burak focused on the side lengths of the shape and thought of the concept of parallelism only about the side lengths of the parallelogram. He also added that the square was more special than the rectangle because all of its sides are equal. Finally, Çiğdem stated that the square had more features than the other quadrilaterals and this was similar to the situation of the equilateral triangle about the classification of triangles. Conclusion and Implications All of the students interviewed used the circle for the square construction. Also, the students were observed to tend to use the circle in the isosceles and equilateral triangle constructions. The study found that the fact that the students who performed successful constructions used different elements or followed different methods in the process of constructions were not effective in explaining the features of the shape. The students interviewed performed 81.25% (26/32) of the constructions correctly. Out of these correct constructions 34.6% (9/26) were based on distinctive strategies independent from the construction approaches presented in the practices. Thus, it could be suggested that the teaching-learning process based on Cabri Geometry software has a positive impact on the students original thinking and creative skills. The study found that the circle used to construct an isosceles triangle limited the features of the isosceles triangle and misguided the students when the dragging feature of the program was used. The students who completed the construction with this strategy observed the side features of the isosceles triangle they obtained but they generalized the angle features incorrectly. The process of studying with the Dynamic Geometry software was so convincing that the students who participated in the interview sessions and performed their constructions with this method gave correct answers to the questions about the isosceles triangle in the scale but they were affected by this incorrect generalization in the interview sessions. As Laborde (2003) reported, this situation shows the importance of planning dynamic geometry applications at this stage. Analysis of the answers given by the students to the questions about how they would define scalene triangle and quadrilateral structures with Cabri Geometry showed that they emphasized vertex points, sides, and closed shape concepts and they used appropriate expressions. The study found that Cabri Geometry applications had a positive impact on the students definition skills. After the practice with dynamic geometry applications, the students preferred to make mathematical explanations about polygons instead of making definitions. This result is similar to the one reported by Jones (2001). The dragging feature of the software played a role in the students explanations. The study found that, as a result of the practice conducted with Cabri Geometry, the students expressed the hierarchical orders of polygons appropriately. When making the hierarchical orders, the students developed strategies such as focusing on angle and side features, ordering from easy to difficult, taking the development of structures into consideration, assigning a higher position to structures with more features in the hierarchical order. Also, the students compared the square, the most special type of quadrilaterals, and the equilateral triangle, the most special type of triangles. The students explored these two constructions, on top of the hierarchical order of their own groups, and compared their 58

67 common features. The results in this study were in parallel to the development of the Q- levels by Fujita (2008). In the light of the results, it could be suggested that the teaching-learning process regarding the subject of polygons should involve dynamic geometry software applications. This study showed the importance of students preliminary knowledge in teaching geometric concepts. The students with the required preliminary knowledge were found to be more successful in the practices. Thus, practitioners need to take students preliminary knowledge into consideration when designing and implementing these activities. Cabri Geometry applications should include practices in which they can use their own strategies to promote students creativity. Students need to be introduced to the concept of geometric construction and they need to be able to define these constructions. The study found that the students inferred the features of polygons from the features of the elements in the construction and they developed mathematical perspective in this way. The relevant practices need to be prepared by taking this into account. The hierarchical relations among polygons play a key role in teaching geometric concepts. For this reason, students need to be provided with activities designed to encourage students to form the relationships among polygons. In conclusion, this study clearly demonstrated the effect of Cabri Geometry software on students skills to define and classify polygons. Future research can potentially address the effect of different geometry software applications on these skills. References Cemaloğlu N. (2012). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (3. Baskı). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Czarnocha, B., & Prabhu, V. (2006). Teaching experiment/nyc Model. Roczniki PTM Dydaktyka Matematyki, 29, Czarnocha, B., & Maj, B. (2008). A teaching experiment. Handbook of mathematics teaching research A tool for teachers researchers. Poland: University of Reszów. Driscoll, M. (2007). Fostering geometric thinking a guide for teachers, Grades A division of Reed Elsevier Inc., Portsmount. Fujita, T. (2008). Learners understanding of the hierarchical classification of quadrilaterals. Joubert, M. (Ed.). Proceedings of the British Society for Research into Learning Mathematics, 28(2), Gillis, J. M. (2005). An investigation of student conjectures in static and dynamic geometry environment. PHD Diss., Auburn University-Alabama. Güven, B., & Karataş, İ. (2009). Dinamik geometri yazılımı Cabri nin ilköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının geometrik yer problemlerindeki başarılarına etkisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 42(1), Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2004). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 59

68 Jones K. (2001). Providing a foundation for deductive reasoning: students interpretations when using dynamic geometry software and their evolving mathematical explanations. Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol Jones, K., Fujita, T., & Kunimune, S. (2012). Promoting productive reasoning ın the teaching of geometry in lower secondary school: Towards a future research agenda. 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education. COEX, Seoul, Korea. Köse, N. (2008). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin dinamik geometri yazılımı cabri geometriyle simetriyi anlamlandırmalarının belirlenmesi: Bir eylem araştırması. Yayınlanmamış Doktora tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Laborde, C. (2003). Technology used as a tool for mediating knowledge in the teaching of mathematics: the case of Cabri-Geometry. The Asian Technology Conference in Mathematics. Hsin-Chu, Taiwan. Leech, N. L., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2009). A typology of mixed methods research designs. Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 43, Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2000). Principles and standarts for school mathematics Association Drive, Reston, Pandiscio, E. A. (2002). Exploring the link between preservice teachers conception of prof and the use of dynamic geometry software. School Science and Mathematics, 102(5), Straesser, R. (2002). Cabri-Geometre: Does Dynamic Geometry Software (DGS) change geometry and its teaching and learning. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 6(3) Tutak, T., & Birgin, O. (2008). Dinamik geometri yazılımı ile geometri öğretiminin öğrencilerin Van Heile geometri anlama düzeylerine etkisi. Proceedings of 8 th International Educational Technology Conference, Eskişehir: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Ubuz, B., Üstün, I., & Erbaş, A. K. (2009). Effect of dynamic geometry environment on immediate and retention level achievements of seventh grade students. Egitim Arastirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 35, Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2008). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (7. baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. 60

69 Investigating Pre-service Mathematics Teachers Geometric Problem Solving Process in Dynamic Geometry Environment Deniz Özen Adnan Menderes University, Turkey Nilüfer Yavuzsoy Köse Anadolu University, Turkey Abstract The aim of this study is to investigate pre-service elementary mathematics teachers open geometric problem solving process in a Dynamic Geometry Environment. With its qualitative inquiry based research design employed, the participants of the study are three pre-service teachers from 4th graders of the Department of Elementary Mathematics Teaching. In this study, clinical interviews, screencaptures of the problem solving process in the Cabri Geomery Environment, and worksheets included 2 open geometry problems have been used to collect the data. It has been investigated that all the participants passed through similar recursive phases as construction, exploration, conjecture, validate, and justification in the problem solving process. It has been thought that this study provide a new point of view to curriculum developers, teachers and researchers. Keywords: Problem solving; teaching geometry; dynamic geometry software; teacher education Introduction Geometry is the set of relationships that affect life with their distinctive qualities, have large impact areas as well as new and flexible structures, and can be visible and discoverable through various tools. Such a structure makes it possible to adopt and apply a variety of experimental strategies. Straesser (2001) suggests that geometry can be used in different ways if it is taught and learnt in different ways (p.331). One of the different teaching and learning methods of geometry is obviously the environments provided by dynamic geometry software (DGS). Software like Cabri II Plus, Geogebra, Sketchpad used in these environments provide new strategies that facilitate students geometric problem solving via their features.these software create experimental environments for teachers that their students do their experiments easier than other technological environments and traditional paper-pencil environment, observe whether the mathematical relations change or not, construct and verify their own hypothesis (Marrades & Gutiérrez, 2000; Straesser, 2001). These environments transform mathematics classes into scientific laboratories by presenting the opportunity to test the conjectures obtained in mathematics (Leung & Or, 2007). With this transformation students can realize alternative ways to learn mathematical concepts in the environment which they can experiment freely (Marrades & Gutiérrez, 2000) and can research in geometry (Luthuli, 1996 cited in Christou et al., 2005). During this research process, by manipulating figures, students are convinced that any conjecture is valid in all cases (De Villiers, 1993, 2003). 61

70 Many researchers (Goldenberg & Cuoco, 1998; Healy & Hoyles, 2001, Güven & Karataş, 2003; Van De Walle, 2004; Bağcivan, 2005; Bintaş, Ceylan & Dönmez, 2006; Karataş & Güven, 2008) have mentioned that dynamic geometry software provide students the opportunity manipulate figures via measuring and dragging tools, to make relationships, to observe the changing features in figures, to conjecture, to explore the theories and their relations, and to test them. Students skills to discover geometric relationships through this kind of software cannot be improved by any other environment without the aid of computers (Van De Walle, 2004). In some studies (Or, 2005; Scher, 2002; Köse & Özdaş, 2009), it has been observed that DGS improve students estimating and reasoning skills and provide them an opportunity of improving their analytical thinking skills. Additionally in some other studies (Christou et. al., 2004, 2005; Healy & Hoyles, 2001) it has been emphasized that the dragging and measuring features of DGS help students to understand the problems clearly and to explore the potential solutions of the given problem, and to construct new concepts. Accordingly the usage of DGS is a key mediation tool in exploring and researching mathematical concepts. According to the study of Christou et. al. (2005) it has been mentioned that DGS as a mediation tool, encourage students to use in problem solving and posing the processes of modeling, conjecturing, experimenting and generalizing. Besides it has also been mentioned that dynamic geometry environment support the relationship between the construction of new problems and the usage of problem solving strategies and the tendency of high level problem solving. In such environment the role of in-service and pre-service mathematics teachers is to support and encourage students to discover the mathematical concepts and relations, to construct their own conjectures and justify them with reasoning. In this way, they can choose appropriate problems and develop a variety of strategies and perspectives so that their future students can learn mathematical concepts. Besides, it has been suggested in the reconstructed Turkish Mathematics Instruction Curriculums in 2005 that DGS be used in related objectives of several grades. Considering the fact that teacher training curricula were revised in parallel to the revised primary education curricula, the study sample consisted of pre-service mathematics teachers and the study aimed to explore the processes in which the participating pre-service teachers solved open geometry problems in dynamic geometry environments. Theoretical Framework Various phases have been dealt with in the studies examining the processes of problem solving and proving in dynamic geometry environment. Mogetta, Olivero and Jones (1999), in their studies about problem solving, mention that construction, exploration, conjecture, and justification are the main phases of problem solving process. Also Olivero (2001) has mentioned that some researchers (Arzarello, Gallino, Micheletti, Olivero, Paola & Robutti, 1998; Boero, Garuti & Mariotti, 1996) claim that exploration and conjecture are main phases of cognitive process of making proof. As regards proving in dynamic geometry, Edwards (1997) explained the term conceptual territory before proving by using conjecturing, verifying, exploring and justifying which are the key elements of formal proof. The researcher also explained that this conceptual territory provides an area for the formation of instinctive ideas that can be tested and verified through formal ways and this situation forms the basis for the proof to be understood better. Another researcher Chazan (1993) emphasized that this approach reflects the quasi-experimental view of mathematics that enable students to transform their understandings from their own conjectures and verifications to formal proof. 62

71 Marrades and Gutiérrez (2000) explained the terms explanation, verification, justification, and proof, which are the phases mentioned above, as convincing somebody of the accuracy of a hypothesis. De Villiers (2004) define conjecturing as looking for an inductive pattern, generalization, and verifying as the reality of a statement or conjecture, or obtaining certainty about these. Considering the studies in which these processes are observed in a dynamic geometry environment, it has been observed that open problems or open tasks are noticed to be used in several studies (Arsac, Germain & Mante, 1988; Christou et. al., 2005; Jones, 2000; Olivero, 1998, 2001; Olivero & Sutherland, 2000, Mogetta, Olivero & Jones, 1999; Furinghetti & Paola, 2003). The open-problem expresses a special case that students face with a problem that all the potential solutions are hidden in mathematical research activities. According to Arsac and Mante (1983), for any problem to be any problem considered as an open-problem, it has under-mentioned characteristics: The task has to be short and not include a special solution or special problem solving strategy. Additionally, the solution of the problem does not transform the application or the usage of the results presented in the class in any case. The problem has to be chosen from the topic that students are less familiar with, has a solution that students can easily find out, and also let students to attempt solving, to conjecture and to find out a solution projects. The questions connected to the problem are like which relationship can you find between? or What kind of figure can be transformed into? types instead of prove that type. According to Olivero (2001) the phases of open problems are exploring, conjecturing, validating and proving. Students have an environment that they experiment and list the results on their own by the open problems (Olivero, 2001). Mogetta, Olivero and Jones (1999), in the study carried out by using an open geometry problem about triangles and their properties, mentioned that they observed that problem solving process has four phases as construction, exploration, conjecture, and justification. In addition to this four-phase process given in this research, the role of dragging has been considered and the validation phase has been added. Thus, a five-phase theoretical framework as construction, exploration, conjecture, validate, and justification has been taken as a basis in the study. With all these in mind, the main aim of this research is to investigate pre-service elementary mathematics teachers open geometric problem solving process in a dynamic geometry environment. Method Design of the Study This study was designed as a case study, a qualitative research method. The case study emerged as a result of the desire to understand social phenomena while retaining the holistic and meaningful characteristics of everyday events (Yin, 1994). The case study is a research method that focuses on a specific situation, allows the researcher to focus on a specific subject or case and enables the researcher to explain fine details in terms of cause-effect and mutual relationships among variables by means of the data it provides (Çepni, 2007). Participants The participants of the study are three pre-service teachers from fourth graders of the Department of Elementary Mathematics Teaching. When selecting the participants, criterion sampling type of purposeful sampling methods has been utilized. The main aim of considering the criterion sampling is 63

72 studying with the cases which are related to several sequences of criteria. The criteria taken as basis in this study are as follows; The participants of the research have been chosen from the students attending fourth grade of the department of Elementary Mathematics Teaching Training Program because they both have sufficient geometry content knowledge required for the research and have taken the course called as Technology supported Geometry Teaching (TSGT). The participants have been chosen from three different success levels (low, medium, high) in order to observe whether they have common or different phenomena among the situations varying in the research process. In the selection of students success levels, the lecturer s opinion about their classroom performances (participation in classroom activities, achieving the given task etc.), 3 research assignments as the requirement of the course, 1 activity presentation assignment and their performances in the mid-term exam have been taken into consideration. The pre-service teachers take compulsory and elective courses concerning both content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge during their academic life in the faculty of education. In the university where the participants are educated, TSGT course is given among elective courses in the 7th academic year. In this course, basic knowledge about the Cabri Geometry software is primarily given by the lecturer and pre-service teachers are enabled to use this software effectively. The TSGT course the participants took before the study was conducted in the computer lab as 3 hours a week for 14 weeks. They, for this course, prepared an activity with three research assignments, one of which is about quadrilaterals and their properties, and two of which are related to locus. These assignments and activities have been observed by the researchers and three participants with low, medium, and high success levels have been determined in accordance with the researcher and lecturer s opinions. The participants were coded as A, B, and C from high to low level of success. Data Collection Process In this study, clinical interviews, screen-captures of the problem solving process in the Cabri Geometry Environment, and worksheets including 2 open geometry problem have been used to collect the data. However, the analysis of only one of the problems has been given a place in the findings of the study because of the page limit. A clinical interview, which has been used frequently in the qualitative researches, is a technique led by Piaget to explore the construction of the knowledge and reasoning process (Clement, 2000). As a part of these clinical interviews, open problems (as seen in Appendix I) as an interview task and the clinical interview questions (How do you get this result?, Can you explain why do you think this?, etc.) provide researchers to investigate pre-service teachers problem solving process in detail have been utilized. After the selection process of the participants, the time schedules of the interviews have been organized for them, and their oral and written permissions have been taken. Later, the interviews have been conducted to each pre-service teacher in the appointed date. The clinical interviews held have been recorded by the video. The camera has been located to the suitable location which the participant and his/her problem solving process can be observed clearly. In the interviews the activities have been presented to the pre-service teachers in handouts and it has been asked them to cope with the open problems in the paper-pencil environment at first. After the process in the paper-pencil environment observed, it has also been asked again them to complete the same task in DGE. 64

73 To observe the construction process of the participants activities prepared in the Cabri Geomery Environment the screen-captures has been recorded by special capturing software. These records have been used to support the data obtained from video records. Additionally, in clinical interviews, worksheets including the steps when students follow them in the construction phase have been used in order to observe the problem solving process in the paper-pencil environment. Analyzing Data After the data obtaining process, the data has been transcribed and checked by the researchers. At first, the phases -as construction, exploration, conjecture, validate and justification- mentioned in the theoretical framework have been related to the pre-service teachers problem solving process. In the analyzing process data reduction, data display, drawing conclusion and verification steps has been utilized (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The intercoders reliability study has been used for the data coded by two different coders. The disagreements between the two coders have been overcome by discussing and the high percentage common view has been determined (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Findings In this study the problem solving processes of pre-service teachers have been investigated firstly in the paper-pencil environment and successively in the dynamic geometry environment. Figure 1. Participant A looks for AAA Similarity in the Process of Problem Solving in Paper-Pencil Environment It has been observed that the participants have difficulties in solving the given problem (as seen in Appendix I) in paper-pencil environment. Participant A and participant B have tended to look for a similarity (AAA type) between the triangle ABC and the triangle DEF (Figure 1), participant C was looking for any relationship randomly in the paper-pencil environment. However, all three participants moved to the conctruction level in dynamic geometry environment without mathematically verifying their conjectures determined in paper-pencil environment. In the dynamic geometry environment, it has been investigated that all the participants went through the similar phases in the open problem solving process. As seen on the Figure 2, the recursive processes as construction, exploration, conjecturing, validation and justification of each participant have been schemed and the geometric relationships (relationship between two perimeters, similarity, and relationship between two areas) which participants look for in each phase have been presented with numbers. For example, it has been investigated that participants A and B look for relationships between concepts, make conjectures based on these relationships and validate these conjectures in the exploration phase of their problem solving process. However, participant C has not passed 65

74 through validation phase for the conjectures made in the process. Additionally, it has been observed that although participant B and C explore the geometric relationships in such conditions, they can not make conjectures about their explorations and tend to look for a new relationship. Phases of problem solving process of participant A areas 1. The ratio between two perimeters 2. Similarity 3. The ratio between the two Phases of problem solving process of participant B 1. Similarity 2. The ratio between the two areas Phases of problem solving process of participant C 1. The ratio between the two areas 2. The ratio between the two perimeters 3. Similarity 4. The ratio between the two areas Figure 2. Phases of Problem Solving Processes of Participant A, B, and C. 66

75 In the problem solving process, it has been observed that participant A has been focused on the ratio between the perimeters, participant B has been focused on the similarity between two triangles and participant C has been focused on the ratio between the areas of the two triangles in the given problem firstly. Also it has been observed in the whole problem solving process that participant A and participant C have been noticed to research both the ratio between perimeters and areas, and the similarity, but participant B has been noticed to research only the similarity and the ratio between the areas. Nevertheless, it has been determined that at the end of the problem solving process, all the three participants were able to explore the seven times relationship between the areas of the triangle ABC and triangle DEF and to justify that they found. As seen on the Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5, the geometric relations that students found out in the problem solving process and the mathematical operations related to these relations have been presented in detail. Participant A 1. The ratio between the two perimeters: P(ABC)/P(DEF)=0.38 and validating the result by using drag test. 2. Similarity: No AAA or SS similarity found between the triangle DEF and ABC. 3. The ratio between the two areas: S(ABC)/S(DEF)=0.14 and S(DEF)/S(ABC)=7 Verifying these by using drag test. Figure 3. Participant A s problem solving process and mathematical operations they used 67

76 Participant C 1. The ratio between the two areas: 2. The ratio between the two perimeters: S(DEF)/S(ABC)=7 P(DEF)/ P(ABC) = Similarity: No AAA similarity between the triangle DEF and the triangle ABC 4. The ratio between the two areas: S(DCF)/S(ABC)=2 Figure 4. Participant C s Problem Solving Process and Mathematical Operations They Used Participant A and participant C have justified the seven times relationship that they constructed between the areas through the segment [FA], [DB], and [EC] that they drew into the triangle EFB, CFD and EAD. Therefore, participants constructed 6 more triangles whose bases and heights are at the equal length of those the triangle ABC has and that have the equal areas with the triangle ABC, interior area of the triangle DEF. The below-mentioned part of participant A s clinical interview process has been presented to clarify the justification process. Participant A (A): [measured the areas of the triangles ADE, DEF, ABC and FDC and the ratios between their areas through a calculator.] ADE [the area of ADE] was two times of ABC. If one triangle outside comes out two times, then the others will come out so We can already say this indeed The big triangle DEF was totally seven times of ABC When we say ABC is 1S, we say the area of DEF as totally 7S... Similarly, we found when ABC is S then ADE is 2S. Likewise we now find the area of FDC is 2S. There is 2S left for FBE. Researcher (R): Why do you think these three triangles with the same areas are two times of the area of the triangle ABC? And why the area of the big triangle, the outermost triangle DEF, is seven times of the area of the triangle ABC? A: We obtained triangles with two times areas by lengthening equally the sides of the triangle ABC in the same line. because BF and BC have equal lengths due to symmetry for the point in this line, the outer triangle CDF, triangle with 2S area, here will be separated as S and S, namely the areas of this BDC triangle and BDF triangle will be equal because of this. 68

77 R: Can we say, do you think, if their one sides are equal, they have equal areas? A: Well, now, uhmm, when we divide the outer triangle CDF with 2S area into the opposite side namely to the median from B, we can call them S and S. R: What is the reason for it? A: the reason for it is that the heights are equal. That is the heights we draw to this FC line are equal. if we think partially, now, we said this FDC will always be two times, namely similarly if we consider ADE, when we draw a segment from E to C... here again we found, uhmmm, ADE is 2S. The 2S area is separated with a median as S and S, as AEC and ECD. ABC was S, uhmm again something comes up, here it comes up as 2S Namely because of the equality of heights, those drawn from B Correspondingly we see that ABC and FBA are equal after separating as S and S. The reason for it is the equality of heights again In this concept the triangle to form at the outermost becomes totally seven times. There is seven times area difference between the areas of triangles DEF and ABC. Participant B s justifying the relation that he discovered in the given problem differs from that of other participants. This difference results from the two perpendiculars that he drew from the vertice A and vertice E to the line FC. The participant used the heights that were formed and the similarity between the triangle BHA and the triangle BGE formed through these perpendiculars in the comparison of the areas of the triangle ABC and the triangle EBF. Participant B 1. Similarity: Try to explore the similarity by using drag test. No similarity found. 2. The ratio between the two areas: S(DEF)/S(ABC)=7 validating the result by using drag test. Figure 5. Participant B s Problem Solving Process and Mathematical Operations He Used As seen in Figure 5, participant B constructed the segment [AH] and segment [EG] by drawing the lines AH and EG perpendicular to the line FC in order to justify the 7 times relationship between the areas of the triangle ABC and the triangle DEF. In the figure he drew, the participant noticed the similarity of the triangle BHA and the triangle BGA from both segment [AB] and segment [AE] being 69

78 equally long and from the parallelism of perpendiculars that comes down the same line ( [AH] // [EG]). Through this similarity, the student explained the relation between the segments AH and EG by saying AB and AE are equal namely here is a one to two ratio. From the similarity between these triangles, EA divided into EB Because of the ratio that I mentioned [ratio of similarity], [AH] is the half of the [GE]. Participant B is, in fact, aware of the fact that the length of the segment [EG], which is the height of the side BF of the triangle EFB, is two times greater than the length of [AH] segment, which is the height of the BC side of the triangle ABC. Thus, the participant, here, was able to justify that the relation that the area of the triangle EFB is two times greater than of the area of the triangle ABC. Based on the two times greater ratio between the area of two triangles, participant B justify the seven times greater ratio between the area of the triangle ABC and the triangle DEF as: Researcher (R): We ask you to find out the relation between the triangles ABC and DEF, can you say anything for that? Participant B (B): That is, when we consider the same process for the all triangles, the same result comes up so, because we will generalize this to other triangles. The areas of the triangles formed nearby come up as 2S, 2S and 2S. R: Yes. B: One of them is S, thus the triangle DEF comes up seven times of the triangle ABC we saw it more clearly with this software. In this study, another remarkable finding obtained in the problem solving process is related to the dragging function, which is one of the most distinguishing functions of dynamic geometry software. It has been determined in the process that participant A used the dragging function in the phase of validating the relations that he found out, participant B used this function in looking for relations between the geometric concepts in the exploration phase, and participant C didn t use this function in any phase. Discussion The spreading usage of dynamic geometry software in mathematics teaching and learning suggests how teachers of mathematics internalize these technologies. One of the answers of this question lies in the classes given in teacher training programs and the content of these lessons. In line with this thought, we, in this study, examined the problem solving processes of pre- service teachers through a dynamic program like Cabri Geometry, trying to understand how the experiences of these pre-service teachers reflect in their own cognitive processes. In the solving process of the given open problem, participants firstly have difficulties in the paperpencil environment and they did not find out any relation between the two triangles mentioned in the problem. In the dynamic geometry environment, participants passed through recursive phases as construction, exploration, conjecture, validate, and justification in the problem solving process. In this study, when the deductions made by participants A, B, and C in the process of problem solving are generally evaluated, participant A and participant B have been observed to make interpretations by making strong geometric relations and to validate the relations that they found out by supporting their geometry knowledge. However, participant C has some difficulties both in mathematically explaining the whole process and especially in justifying the relations that she found out. It can be 70

79 thought that these difficulties result from the fact that participant C did not pass through the validation phase and she has less and/or unsufficient geometry knowledge. DGS provide students to construct proper figures and subsequently play a role in helping students to notice the conjectures which cannot been observed easily via its dragging function (Christou et. al., 2004; Laborde, 2000; Or, 2005). Similar to the studies by Christou et. al. (2004), Laborde (2000) and Or (2005), it has been observed in this study that in some phases in the problem solving process participant A and B find the results more easily and observe the conjectures which they cannot observe in the paper-pencil environment, by using DGS s dragging function. Hence, DGS can be said to have a crucial role in problem solving, problem posing and using problem solving strategies (Christou et. al.,2005, Cai & Hwang, 2002). When the studies determined, it has been observed that dragging and measuring features of DGE provide students to understand the problem and to find the potential way of solution. As seen in the study by Or (2005), the participants have easily constructed the problem in DGE. In the exploration phase, participants have observed the construction that they made and have passed through to the forthcoming conjecture phase based on their observations. The active usage of the dragging feature, which is one of the effective features of DGS, in this phase and the forthcoming validate phase enable participants to justify the conjectures they find out in a strong way. This process is similar to the recursive process consisting of construction, experimentation and conjecturing phase in the study by Or (2005). In the study, the author expressed that several strategies used by students in the process help them to pass from emprical phase to the theoretical phase and as a consequence to support them to explain sufficiently and/or to prove. The theoretical phase mentioned is defined as the formulation of the proof of the explanation of the validity of students constructions. In our study, parallel to this, the process of their justification of conjectures enable participants to pass through formal proof by making meaningful arguments about the relations found out. Results and Suggestions In this study, it is aimed that the problem solving processes of pre-service primary mathematics teachers in DGE are investigated. To that end, the open problem solving processes of pre-service teachers in DGE have been analyzed and examined in detail. It has been observed that the problem solving processes of the participants have passes through the recursive phases as construction, exploration, conjecture, validate and justification. In the research process, it has been investigated that almost all participants actively used several features of DGS like measuring and dragging- and made suitable deductions in the solving process of the open problem given. In conclusion, it has been thought that this study provide a different point of view to curriculum developers, teachers and researchers. With the help of this study, pre-service teachers were made to be faced with unusal problem solving experience and, via their awareness of this experience they can create richer environments for their students to be thought by them and can support their learning by giving them several ideas. Therefore, it has been thought that this situation can help the pre-service teachers in their proffessional development. Note: This paper is an extended version of the study presented in 35th Conference of Psychology of Mathematics Education (35th PME) in Ankara, Turkey. 71

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