Advancing Healthy Adolescent Development and Well-Being. n Charlyn Harper Browne, PhD n

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1 Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being n Charyn Harper Browne, PhD n SEPTEMBER 2014

2 Youth Thrive: Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 2014, Center for the Study of Socia Poicy The Center for the Study of Socia Poicy (CSSP) works to secure equa opportunities and better futures for a chidren and famiies, especiay those most often eft behind. Underying a of the work is a vision of chid, famiy, and community we-being. It s a unifying framework for the many poicy, systems reform, and community change activities in which CSSP engages. Center for the Study of Socia Poicy 1575 Eye Street, Suite Broadway Suite 1504 Washington, DC New York, NY teephone teephone fax fax Acknowedgment The author gratefuy acknowedges the hep of the foowing individuas in review of this report: Susan Notkin, Judith Metzer, Judy Langford, and Francie Zimmerman, coeagues with the Center for the Study of Socia Poicy (CSSP), and Rose Ann Renteria, a coeague at PHILLIPS programs. This report is in the pubic domain. Permission to reproduce is not necessary. Suggested citation: Harper Browne, C. (2014, September). Youth Thrive: Advancing heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being. Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Socia Poicy. This report and other documents about the Youth Thrive framework are avaiabe at

3 Contents n n n Background... 1 Status of Youth In and Aging Out of Foster Care... 2 Estabishing the Youth Thrive Framework... 2 Purpose of This Report... 3 The Foundationa Ideas of the Youth Thrive Framework... 4 The Strengths-Based Perspective... 4 The Bioogy of Stress... 5 Resiience Theory... 7 The Positive Youth Deveopment Perspective... 8 Focus on We-Being The Nature of Risk, Protective, and Promotive Factors The Youth Thrive Protective and Promotive Factors Framework Thriving Youth Resiience Socia Connections Knowedge of Adoescent Deveopment Cognitive and Socia-Emotiona Competence Concrete Support in Times of Need Integrating the Youth Thrive Framework in Poicy and Practice Concusion References... 37

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5 Youth Thrive: Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being n Charyn Harper Browne, PhD n Background n n n Adoescence is considered by many scientists to be the second most critica and the second most vunerabe deveopmenta period in the ifespan, surpassed in importance by eary chidhood (see, e.g., Dah, 2004; Moretti & Peed, 2004). Adoescence is a period of significant bioogica, neuroogica, psychoogica, socia, emotiona, and cognitive change; it is aso a period associated with risk for many behaviora, socia, and heath-reated probems. Recent advances in the bioogica and socia sciences have yieded much new knowedge about adoescence as a unique deveopmenta period (Dah, 2004). However, we sti know a ot more about what goes wrong in adoescence and why, and a ot ess about how to prevent probems and how to get young peope back on track (Richter, 2006, p. 7). A report from the United Nations Chidren s Fund (2011) emphasized that adoescence was not ony a period of great vunerabiity but aso an age of opportunity for chidren, and a pivota time for us to buid on their deveopment in the first decade of ife, to hep them navigate risks and vunerabiities, and to set them on the path to fufiing their potentia (p. 2). The Center for the Study of Socia Poicy (CSSP) introduced its Youth Thrive Protective and Promotive Factors Framework in 2011 as a strengths-based initiative to examine how a youth and young aduts, ages 9-26 years od, can be supported to advance heathy deveopment and we-being and reduce the ikeihood or impact of negative ife experiences. The overa focus on a youth is consistent with Pittman s notion that probem-free does not mean fuy prepared (Pittman, Irby, Toman, Yohaem, & Ferber, 2003, p. 6). Pittman ed the charge to shift the paradigm in youth work from preventing and fixing behavior deficits to buiding and nurturing a the beiefs, behaviors, knowedge, attributes, and skis that resut in a heathy and productive adoescence and aduthood (Act for Youth Center of Exceence, 2014, para. 1). The Youth Thrive framework is a strengths-based initiative to examine how a youth can be supported in ways that advance heathy deveopment and webeing and reduce the ikeihood or impact of negative ife experiences. According to Resnick (2005), advancing heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being is an intentiona, deiberate process of providing support, reationships, experiences, and opportunities that promote positive outcomes for young peope, most broady viewed as enhancing the capacity to be happy, heathy, and successfu (p. 398). Athough the Youth Thrive initiative is concerned with promoting positive outcomes for a youth, CSSP is committed to improving the ives of the most vunerabe chidren, youth, and famiies. Thus, Youth Thrive s initia efforts focused on youth receiving chid wefare services, in particuar youth in or emancipated from the foster care system. Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 1

6 Status of Youth In and Aging Out of Foster Care CSSP beieves that by integrating the Youth Thrive framework into poicy and practice the deveopmenta needs of young peope invoved in the chid wefare system wi be better attended to, and that these youth wi receive the supports and experiences necessary to ensure enhanced opportunities for productive and secure ives (Notkin, 2011, p. 2). According to the Adoption and Foster Care Anaysis and Reporting System, approximatey 50% of the foster care popuation in fisca year 2012 (191,277) were youth ages 9-20 (U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services, Administration for Chidren and Famiies, Administration on Chidren, Youth and Famiies, Chidren s Bureau, 2013). These youth must cope with the physica and psychoogica trauma associated with matreatment, abandonment, or other circumstances that resuted in their out-of-home pacement, and the consequent separation from their famiy. It is not surprising, then, that youth in foster care are incuded within the popuation of chidren considered to have specia heath care needs (Lopez & Aen, 2007), defined by the federa Materna and Chid Heath Bureau as those who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physica, deveopmenta, behaviora, or emotiona condition and who aso require heath and reated services of a type or amount beyond that required by chidren generay (Chid and Adoescent Heath Measurement Initiative, 2012, p. 1). Youth [in and] transitioning from foster care need and deserve the same opportunities, experiences, and high expectations as a other youth in the community (Langford & Badeau, 2013, p. 10). Severa studies have found youth who age-out 1 of the foster care system are more ikey than their peers with no foster care history to experience homeessness; substance use and abuse; compromised physica and menta heath; pregnancy and parenting; educationa and forma training deficits; underempoyment, unempoyment, or dependence on pubic assistance; invovement with the crimina justice system; and sexua and physica victimization (see, e.g., Casey Famiy Programs, 2008; Courtney, 2009; Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Courtney et a., 2007; Courtney, Piiavin, Grogan-Kayor, & Nesmith, 2001; Daining & DePanfiis, 2007; Gardner, 2008; Jonson-Reid & Barth, 2000; Langford & Badeau, 2013; Lenz-Rashid, 2004; Longitudina Study on Chid Abuse and Negect, n.d.; Lopez & Aen, 2007; Massinga & Pecora, 2004; Nationa Data Archive on Chid Abuse and Negect, ; Pecora et a., 2003; Reiy, 2003; Rowand, 2011; Unrau & Grinne, 2005). Research aso shows that adoescence is a period of unique deveopmenta needs and earning opportunities during which much can be done to better serve oder chidren whie they are in care and to provide them with better opportunities as they transition out of the system (Massinga & Pecora, 2004, p. 151). Whie CSSP acknowedges youth in and transitioning out of care have unique chaenges and needs, at the same time CSSP supports a normacy perspective put forth by Langford and Badeau (2013): Youth [in and] transitioning from foster care need and deserve the same opportunities, experiences, and high expectations as a other youth in the community (p. 10). Estabishing the Youth Thrive Framework CSSP estabished three goas in response to the very troubing findings about the status of youth in and emancipated from the foster care system: (a) to synthesize research on positive youth deveopment, resiience, brain deveopment, and the impact of trauma as we as seek advice from experts in chid wefare, neuroscience, and youth deveopment, advocacy, and poicy; (b) to gain an understanding about pathways to heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being; and (c) to estabish a unifying set of principes that wi in turn transate into recommendations to guide poicy makers and practitioners in their work with vunerabe youth (Notkin, 2011, p. 1). 1 Youth who age out are those who exit care at the age of majority (18-21 depending on the state), without the support of a egay recognized permanent connection. 2 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

7 Key Terms n Cognitive and Socia-Emotiona Competence: Acquiring skis and attitudes that are essentia for forming an independent identity and having a productive, responsibe, and satisfying aduthood n Concrete Support in Times of Need: Understanding the importance of asking for hep and advocating for onesef; receiving a quaity of service designed to preserve youths dignity, provide opportunities for ski deveopment, and promote heathy deveopment n Knowedge of Adoescent Deveopment: Understanding the unique aspects of adoescent deveopment; impementing deveopmentay and contextuay appropriate best practices n Socia Connections: Having heathy, sustained reationships with peope, institutions, the community, and a force greater than onesef n Youth Resiience: Managing stress and functioning we when faced with stressors, chaenges, or adversity; the outcome is persona growth and positive change The Youth Thrive framework is based on five interreated protective and promotive factors that studies show are reated to a decreased ikeihood of negative outcomes and an increased ikeihood of positive outcomes as adoescents transition to aduthood. The five factors are (a) youth resiience, (b) socia connections, (c) knowedge of adoescent deveopment, (d) cognitive and socia-emotiona competence, and (e) concrete support in times of need. In addition to deineating and disseminating the evidence that informed the Youth Thrive framework, strategies, poicies, and toos for supporting the buiding of the protective and promotive factors in day-to-day practice with youth are currenty being deveoped. Thrive Protective and Promotive Factors Framework. This synthesis refects CSSP s theory of change, which affirms the necessity of working in a domains of the socia ecoogy individua, famiy and reationa, community, societa, and poicy in order to make a difference in the ives of famiies and chidren (see Figure 1). CSSP s theory of change puts famiies and chidren in the center of a mutifaceted mode that incudes buiding protective factors for famiies, reducing risk factors for chidren, strengthening oca communities, and connecting a of this to systems change and poicy and infusing it with a fierce commitment to equity across ines of race, ethnicity, and cuture. (Center for the Study of Socia Poicy, 2013a, para. 3) Purpose of This Report The Youth Thrive initiative began at a time when advances in the fieds of neuroscience, deveopmenta psychoogy, and trauma burgeoned. These advances in knowedge have contributed to a paradigm shift in understanding adoescent deveopment and behavior, the deveopmenta impacts of trauma, and the pathways to heathy growth and deveopment. Around the same time, there was a growing emphasis at the federa eve for chid wefare agencies to eevate their attention to the we-being needs of chidren and youth in foster care. The purpose of this report is to provide a synthesis of the ideas and research from the neurobioogica, behaviora, and socia sciences that inform the Youth Figure 1. CSSP s Theory of Change Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 3

8 The next section of this report examines the ideas and research that serve as the foundation of the Youth Thrive framework. This discussion is foowed by a synthesis of the research that provides the evidence base for the theoretica articuation of the Youth Thrive protective and promotive factors. The report concudes with the current appications of this framework through Youth Thrive s work. The Foundationa Ideas of the Youth Thrive Framework n n n The Youth Thrive framework is grounded in six foundationa ideas: (a) the strengths-based perspective, (b) the bioogy of stress, (c) resiience theory, (d) the Positive Youth Deveopment perspective, (e) a focus on we-being, and (f) the nature of risk, protective, and promotive factors. Foundationa Idea 1: The Strengths-Based Perspective Youth Thrive is a strengths-based framework. That is, Youth Thrive is grounded in the beief that a youth possess and have the abiity to use strengths. Epstein (2004) conceived youths strengths as emotiona and behaviora skis, competencies, and characteristics that create a sense of persona accompishment; contribute to satisfying reationships with famiy members, peers, and aduts; enhance one s abiity to dea with adversity and stress; and promote one s persona, socia, and academic deveopment (p. 4). Thus, identifying and buiding upon a youth s strengths is regarded as essentia for heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being. For more than 40 years, socia science researchers and heping professions practitioners have promoted the idea of a strengths-based approach to thinking about and working with chidren, youth, and famiies as an aternative to a deficits-based mode (Bundo, 2001; Brun & Rapp, 2001; Cox, 2006; Leadbeater, Scheenbach, Maton, & Dodgen, 2004; Manthey, Knowes, Asher, & Wahab, 2011; Saeebey, 2000). A deficit perspective defines individuas, famiies, and communities in negative terms by primariy focusing Youths Strengths Emotiona and behaviora skis, competencies, and characteristics that create a sense of persona accompishment; contribute to satisfying reationships with famiy members, peers, and aduts; enhance one s abiity to dea with adversity and stress; and promote one s persona, socia, and academic deveopment (Epstein, 2004, p. 4). on probems that need to be fixed by experts (Centre for Chid We-Being, 2011; Maton et a., 2004). This emphasis impicity communicates ow expectations of the identified individuas, famiies, and communities and a high probabiity of hepessness or faiure (Abrams & Cebaos, 2012; Centre for Chid We-Being, 2011). Looking at chidren and famiies through a deficit ens obscures a recognition of their capacities and strengths, as we as their individuaity and uniqueness (Benard, 1996, p. 1) and crippes the individua s abiity to transcend ife chaenges (Brun & Rapp, 2001, p. 279). Grant and Cade (2009) asserted, This focus on the negative... further infuences [heping professionas ] attitudes toward those who receive services, so that we see [them] as somehow very different from us, and we interpret [their] actions, feeings, experiences, and beiefs from a pathoogica framework (p. 425). Furthermore, a deficit approach tends to resut in practices, programs, poicies, and systems that are punitive and stigmatizing (Nationa Technica Assistance and Evauation Center for Systems of Care, 2008; Wadfoge, 2000). Deficitsbased socia poicies often disempower individuas, famiies, and communities facing truy difficut situations and seek soutions by diagnosing, fixing, punishing, or simpy ignoring those affected.... Beyond that, they are framed as the objects of poicies, rather than the active participants in the creation of soutions (Maton et a., 2004, p. 5). The meaning of strengths-based seems intuitive so the phrase coud easiy become a sogan without substance. Manthey and coeagues (2011) stated: 4 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

9 There has been recent concern that socia work agencies, programs, practices, and therapies that caim to be strength-based often misperceive what it means.... [It] does not mean someone is merey being nice or ignoring probems (p. 126). Rather, a strengths-based approach is an overa phiosophica view that requires a different way of thinking about chidren, famiies, and communities in order to effectivey impement strengths-based practice, research, and poicy (Grant & Cade; 2009; Saeebey, 2000, 2006). Numerous researchers have chaenged the criticism that a strengths-based way of thinking and working minimizes the rea or perceived adversities individuas, famiies, or communities may be experiencing (see, e.g., Grant & Cade, 2009; Maton et a., 2004; Sander, Ayers, Suter, Schutz, & Twohey-Jacobs, 2004). O Conne (2006) asserted, the [strengths-based] paradigm does not eiminate the need to address barriers such as poverty, abuse, negect, and other hardships that are very rea and devastating for too many chidren and youth (p. 6). Simiary, Grant and Cade (2009) stated: In contrast to the notion that the strengths perspective gosses over probems, we consider that it chaenges practitioners to combine an understanding of the potentias of individuas with an acute sensitivity to the barriers they may face (p. 426). Sander and coeagues (2004) argued, the goas of buiding strengths and preventing probems are synergistic: A poicy that promotes strengths may aso provide the most sustainabe and effective approach to reducing probem outcomes (p. 31). Foundationa Idea 2: The Bioogy of Stress The Youth Thrive framework is aso informed by the research on the bioogy of stress in that understanding the bioogy of the stress response is criticay important in forging reationships and creating environments that support the deveopment of resiience in youth. Key to this understanding is that adverse chidhood experiences can have consequences for physica, socia, emotiona, and cognitive deveopment through adoescence and into aduthood; adverse chidhood experiences aso can have ong-term effects on physica and menta heath (Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention, Nationa Center for Injury Prevention and Contro, Division of Vioence Prevention, 2014a; Feitti, 2002; Gunnar, Herrera, & Hostinar, 2009; Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid, 2005/2014; Shonkoff & Garner, 2012). Chidren exposed to consistent, predictabe, nurturing, and enriched experiences deveop neurobioogica capabiities that increase their chances for heath, happiness, productivity, and creativity, whie chidren exposed to negectfu, chaotic, and terrorizing environments have an increased risk of significant probems in a domains of functioning (Perry & Hambrick, 2008, p. 40). The word stress is used in everyday conversations to refer to feeing overwhemed, worried, tense, or sad; it is aso used to refer to the chaenging ife experiences that trigger these feeings. Many heath psychoogists refer to the experiences that are perceived to be chaenging or threatening as stressors and to the bioogica and emotiona responses to such events as stress (Baron, 2001). Across the ifespan, young chidren, adoescents, and aduts are faced with stressors that can be perceived as mid, moderate, or traumatic. When faced with a chaenge or threat, the brain automaticay triggers a series of bodiy changes such as increased heart rate, bood pressure, and production of stress hormones. These changes are caed the stress response system. The Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid (2005/2014) cassified three types of stress responses in young chidren: positive, toerabe, and toxic. Positive, toerabe, and toxic stress responses are differentiated by the frequency, intensity, and duration of the stressor, as we as the avaiabiity of a caring, supportive adut (Middebrooks & Audage, 2008; Shonkoff & Garner, 2012). The Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid s cassification of stress responses is regarded in this report as appicabe across the ifespan and as reevant for the deveopment of resiience (see Tabe 1). Positive Stress. Positive stress is experienced when youth are faced with chaenging ife events that resut in brief stress reactions such as increased heart rate and mid changes in hormone eves (Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid 2005/2014). Positive stress is beneficia to young chidren and adoescents (Easterbrooks, Ginsberg, & Lerner, 2013; Middebrooks & Audage, 2008; Shonkoff & Garner, 2012) for two reasons. First, earning how to cope with positive stress is necessary for the deveopment of a heathy stress response system. Citing the Nationa Scientific Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 5

10 TABLE 1. Cassification of Stress Responses (Adapted from the Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid, 2005/2014) Type of Stress Response Exampes of Stressors Stress Response System Positive Being frustrated; getting immunized; first day of a new job; meeting new peope; faiing a test Brief increases in heart rate, bood pressure, or mid changes in stress hormone eves Toerabe Toxic Death of a oved one; frightening accident; serious iness; prejudice and discrimination Chid abuse and negect; famiy vioence; materna depression; parenta addiction; persistent poverty; racism Leve and duration of activation of the stress response system is based on the presence of supportive reationships and environments Strong, frequent, proonged activation of the stress response system in the absence of supportive reationships and environments disrupts eary brain deveopment and can resut in heath, emotiona, and behaviora probems ater in ife Counci on the Deveoping Chid, Easterbrooks and coeagues (2013) stated positive stress occurs in the context of stabe and supportive reationships. Such reationships hep bring... stress hormones back within a norma range so that chidren can deveop a sense of mastery and sef-contro (p. 102). Second, exposure to experiences that create positive stress is considered to be necessary for heathy deveopment because youth have the opportunity to earn how to effectivey manage stress, reguate emotions, and deveop the socia, behaviora, and cognitive coping resources needed to overcome these obstaces (Gunnar et a., 2009, p. 4). Youth who have never had to address chaenges, incuding never experiencing faiure, are not fuy prepared for aduthood. Toerabe Stress. Toerabe stress is experienced when youth are faced with more severe chaenges or adversity that resut in bodiy changes that are Key Terms n Positive Stress: Bioogica and emotiona responses that resut from brief negative experiences (e.g., first day at new schoo; faiing a test); necessary for the deveopment of a heathy stress response system n Stress: Bioogica and emotiona responses to chaenging, threatening, or traumatic experiences n Stress Response System: The series of bodiy changes, triggered automaticay by the brain (e.g., increased heart rate, bood pressure, production of stress hormones) that occur when faced with a chaenge or threat n Stressor: An experience that is perceived to be chaenging, threatening, or traumatic n Toerabe Stress: Bioogica and emotiona responses that resut from more intense negative experiences (e.g., death of a oved one; frightening accident); may become toxic if not buffered by supportive reationships and environments n Toxic Stress: Bioogica and emotiona responses that resut from strong, frequent, proonged adversity (e.g., chid abuse and negect, famiy vioence) n Youth Resiience: Managing stress and functioning we when faced with stressors, chaenges, or 6 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

11 stronger, onger-asting, and have the potentia to become toxic if not experienced in the context of supportive reationships and environments (Easterbrooks et a., 2013; Middebrooks & Audage, 2008; Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid, 2005/2014). The essentia characteristic that makes this form of stress response toerabe is the extent to which protective adut reationships faciitate the chid s adaptive coping and a sense of contro, thereby reducing the physioogic stress response and promoting a return to baseine status (Shonkoff & Garner, 2012, p. 236). Toxic Stress. Toxic stress is experienced when there is intense and sustained activation of the stress response system due to exposure to horrific, uncontroabe events or conditions such as sexua abuse, negect, or exposure to vioence and supportive reationships and environments are not avaiabe (Middebrooks & Audage, 2008; Shonkoff & Garner, 2012). Extensive research on the bioogy of stress now shows that heathy deveopment can be deraied by excessive or proonged activation of stress response systems in the body and the brain, with damaging effects on earning, behavior, and heath across the ifespan (Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid, 2005/2014, p. 1). The Nationa Scientific Counci on the Deveoping Chid identified severa damaging effects of toxic stress on eary brain deveopment that, without intervention, may compromise adoescent and adut functioning (see text box beow). Damaging Effects of Toxic Stress on Eary Brain Deveopment n Deveopment of a smaer brain n Low threshod for stress that resuts in being overy reactive to upsetting, chaenging, or adverse experiences n Heightened fear, anxiety, and impusive responses n Impaired reasoning, panning, and behavior contro n Cognitive deficits n Suppressed immune system causing vunerabiity to chronic heath probems Athough advances in neuroscience and toxic stress studies have increased understanding about how the reverberations of chidhood trauma may compromise adut functioning (Pynoos, Steinberg, & Goenjian, 2007, p. 331), research has aso shown, even when stress is toxic, supportive parenting, positive peer reationships, and the avaiabiity and use of community resources can foster positive adaptation (Easterbrooks et a., 2013, p. 102). Thus, appropriate support and intervention can hep in returning the stress response system back to its norma baseine (Middebrooks & Audage, 2008, p. 4). Foundationa Idea 3: Resiience Theory The Youth Thrive framework grows out of resiience theory. Resiience theory provides researchers and practitioners with a conceptua mode that can hep them understand how youth overcome adversity and how we can use that knowedge to enhance strengths and buid the positive aspects of their ives (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005, p. 413). Research on resiience has paraeed and been a derivative of strengthsbased research (Leadbeater et a., 2004). The eary studies of chidren who manifested heathy rather than pathoogica adaptation in the presence of mutipe risk factors conceived this phenomena as a personaity trait possessed by some individuas and not by others (Benard, 2004; Fraser, Kirby, & Smokowski, 2004; Wright & Masten, 2006). Further, eary researchers assumed there was something extraordinary about these chidren (Masten, 2001) and abeed them invunerabe, invincibe, or stress-resistant (see, e.g., Anthony, 1974; Anthony & Coher, 1987; Garmezy, 1987; Garmezy & Neuchterein, 1972; Pines, 1975; Wyman et a., 1999). But these characterizations were miseading. There is itte evidence to support the impication that some chidren are simpy not vunerabe to the effects of risk factors.... On baance, the term invunerabiity has been superseded by the broader concept of resiience (Fraser et a., 2004, p. 22). Luthar (2003) defined resiience as the manifestation of positive adaptation despite significant ife adversity. Resiience is not a chid attribute that can be directy measured; rather it is a process or phenomenon that is inferred from the dua coexisting conditions of high adversity and reativey positive Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 7

12 adaptation in spite of this (p. xxix). There are four ideas that are fundamenta to the way numerous eading researchers conceive resiience, and that guide this report (see, e.g., Luthar, 2003; Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Masten, 2001; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990; Masten & Powe, 2003; Rutter, 2007; Wright & Masten, 2006), specificay: n Resiience is a process and an outcome; it is not a personaity trait n Resiience is contextua with respect to setting, point in time, cuture, and socia factors n Resiience refects a person s pattern of positive adaptive behavior in response to current or past risk factors or adversity n Resiience resuts in persona growth and positive change In conceptuaizing resiience as contextua, researchers acknowedge that individuas may demonstrate adaptive behavior in response to negative experiences at one point in time or in one setting, but not at other times or in a settings; thus, resiience is not absoute (Masten & Powe, 2003). The contextua aspect of resiience aso means that it is necessary to extend concepts of resiience and strengths-buiding to famiy, institutiona, neighborhood, and community eves of anaysis (Maton et a., 2004, p. 15). In this regard, it is important to investigate cutura, socia, poitica, and ideoogica factors (e.g., both priviege and inequities based on race, ethnicity, cass, gender, and sexua As our society is increasingy becoming muticutura, it has become essentia to discover the processes contributing to resiient adaptation in individuas from diverse cutura, ethnic, and racia backgrounds. Knowedge of these divergent deveopmenta pathways can enabe scientists to impement more cuturay sensitive preventive intervention strategies to foster the deveopment of resiient adaptation within diverse exosystemic contexts (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000, p. 857). orientation) in the context of a resiience framework (Fraser et a., 2004; Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000, Maton et a., 2004; Ungar, 2005; Wright & Masten, 2006). Foundationa Idea 4: The Positive Youth Deveopment Perspective The Youth Thrive framework refects the core ideas of the Positive Youth Deveopment (PYD) perspective. The PYD perspective is a strengths-based phiosophy and an approach to poicies and programs designed to promote and enhance adoescent deveopment and we-being (Benson & Saito, 2001; Benson et a., 2006; Lerner, 2009; Whitock, 2004; Zarrett & Lerner, 2008). Whitock emphasized that the PYD perspective is a community strategy, not just a program strategy.... It is important to create deveopmentay attentive communities not just deveopmentay attentive programs [p. 2].... Young peope thrive when they are deveopmentay supported across a sectors of the community schoo, youth serving agencies, faith organizations, community governance, business, juvenie justice system and more (p. 1). The PYD phiosophy and approach acknowedges that many youth are faced with chaenges and trauma that may resut in probem behaviors and adverse outcomes. Centra to the PYD perspective is the idea that it appies to youth in genera and not singuary to troubed or at-risk youth. The PYD perspective reaffirms the need to invest fuy in a youth. It urges us not to ignore the need to support those not in obvious troube, whie chaenging us not to imit the expectations and range of supports offered to those who are (Pittman et a., 2003, p. 6). The PYD perspective does not conceive efforts to support adoescents as primariy heping them to overcome deficits and risk. Instead, it recognizes that a adoescents have strengths and that chidren and youth wi deveop in positive ways when these strengths are aigned with resources for heathy deveopment in the various settings in which adoescents ive and interact (Zarrett & Lerner, 2008, p. 1). Various PYD approaches are said to share severa essentia characteristics (see, e.g., Hamiton, Hamiton, & Pittman, 2003; Lerner & Lerner, 2011; Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine, 2002; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003a, 2003b; Sesma, Mannes, & Scaes, 2006; Whitock, 2004), specificay: 8 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

13 TABLE 2. The Five Cs of Positive Youth Deveopment (Zarrett & Lerner, 2008, p. 2) Cs Competence The Five Cs of Positive Youth Deveopment, Pus the Sixth C Definitions a positive view of one s actions in specific areas, incuding socia, academic, cognitive, heath, and vocationa Confidence an interna sense of overa positive sef-worth and sef-efficacy Connection positive bonds with peope and institutions in which both parties contribute to the reationship Character respect for societa and cutura norms, possession of standards for correct behaviors, a sense of moraity and integrity Caring/Compassion A sense of sympathy and empathy for others and a sense of socia justice Contribution (Sixth C) Giving of onesef to famiy, schoo, community, and society n Identify and buid on youths strengths n Support a youth in their deveopment, even though needs may differ n Provide access to caring peope and physicay and psychoogicay safe paces that (a) are supportive and empowering; (b) provide expicit rues, responsibiities, and expectations for success; and (c) cutivate a sense of hope n Provide SOS services that enhance adoescent deveopment, opportunities to buid skis and engage in meaningfu and chaenging roes and activities, and supports that promote a positive cimate for heathy deveopment and we-being n Encourage youth to make informed decisions, seect their experiences, and engage as active agents in their own deveopment n Buid meaningfu, respectfu, sustained reationships between youth and aduts A chid or adoescent who deveops each of these Five Cs is considered to be thriving (Zarrett & Lerner, 2008, p. 1). n Coaborate across community youth-serving and non-youth-serving sectors Three important contributions to the PYD perspective are the Five Cs approach, the deineation of 40 deveopmenta assets for heathy adoescent deveopment, and the Circe of Courage mode. The Five Cs competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring/compassion (see Tabe 2) are psychoogica, behaviora, and socia outcomes for youth that are regarded as vita for their successfu transition to aduthood (Bowers et a., 2010; Hamiton et a., 2003; Lerner, 2004; Lerner, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2000; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003a; Zarrett & Lerner, 2008). Researchers theorized that young peope whose ives incorporated these Five Cs woud be on a deveopmenta path that resuts in the deveopment of a Sixth C: Contribution (Lerner & Lerner, 2011, p. 6). The Search Institute (2007) deineated a set of interreated experiences, reationships, skis, and vaues that are known to enhance a broad range of youth outcomes (Sesma et a., 2006, p. 282). These 40 externa and interna deveopmenta assets (see Tabe 3) are regarded as the buiding bocks Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 9

14 Externa TABLE 3. The 40 Deveopment Assets (Search Institute, 2007) 1. Famiy support 11. Famiy boundaries 1. Achievement motivation 11. Restraint 2. Positive famiy communication 12. Schoo boundaries 2. Schoo engagement 12. Panning and decision-making 3. Other adut reationships 13. Neighborhood boundaries 3. Homework 13. Interpersona competence 4. Caring neighborhood 14. Adut roe modes 4. Bonding to schoo 14. Cutura competence 5. Caring schoo cimate 15. Positive peer infuence 5. Reading for peasure 15. Resistance skis 6. Parent invovement in schooing 16. High expectations 6. Caring 16. Peacefu confict resoution 7. Community vaues youth 17. Creative activities 7. Equaity and socia justice 17. Persona power 8. Youth as resources 18. Youth programs 8. Integrity 18. Sef-esteem 9. Service to others 19. Reigious community 9. Honesty 19. Sense of purpose 10. Safety 20. Time at home 10. Responsibiity 20. Positive view of persona future for heathy youth deveopment and as necessary for adoescents to become caring, responsibe, successfu, and contributing aduts (Benson, Leffert, Scaes, & Byth, 1998; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003a). [The 20] externa assets describe the necessary ingredients in youths environment (home, schoo, community) for positive deveopment. The 20 interna assets serve to nurture, within individuas, positive commitments, vaues and identities, as we as socia competencies (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003a, p. 97). The Circe of Courage mode of positive youth deveopment grows out of the cutura wisdom of Native American and First Nations 2 peopes. The Circe of Courage mode is based on the universa principe that to be emotionay heathy a youth need a sense of beonging, mastery, independence, and generosity. This unique mode integrates the cutura wisdom of triba peopes, the practice wisdom of professiona pioneers with troubed youth, and findings of modern youth deveopment research (Recaiming Youth Internationa, n.d., para. 1). The four universa human needs are regarded as the foundation for resiience and positive youth deveopment (see Tabe 4). Foundationa Idea 5: Focus on We-Being The Youth Thrive framework focuses on heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being for a youth, with particuar attention on youth receiving chid wefare services. Achieving socia, emotiona, and physica we-being may be severey compromised for youth receiving chid wefare services due to their experiences both before and whie in out-of-home care (Bruskas, 2008; Frerer, Sosenko, & Henke, 2013; Hieger, 2012; Langford & Badeau, 2013). Thus, intentiona, systematic, and coordinated efforts are needed for these youth that promote and support their heathy deveopment and we-being. Langford and Badeau (2013) isted the foowing criteria as 2 First Nations peopes are the indigenous peopes of Canada. 10 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

15 TABLE 4. Core Principes of the Circe of Courage Mode (Recaiming Youth Internationa, n.d.) Human Need Beonging Mastery Independence Generosity Description In Native American and First Nations cutures, significance was nurtured in communities of beonging.... Be reated, somehow, to everyone you know. Treating others as kin forges powerfu socia bonds that draw a into reationships of respect (para. 4). Competence in traditiona cutures is ensured by guaranteed opportunity for mastery. Chidren were taught to carefuy observe and isten to those with more experience. A person with greater abiity was seen as a mode for earning, not as a riva. Each person strives for mastery for persona growth, but not to be superior to someone ese. Humans have an innate drive to become competent and sove probems. With success in surmounting chaenges, the desire to achieve is strengthened. To ead by exampe and be responsibe (para. 5). Power in Western cuture was based on dominance, but in triba traditions it meant respecting the right for independence. In contrast to obedience modes of discipine, Native teaching was designed to buid respect and teach inner discipine. From eariest chidhood, chidren were encouraged to make decisions, sove probems, and show persona responsibiity. Aduts modeed, nurtured, taught vaues, and gave feedback, but chidren were given abundant opportunities to make choices without coercion. It means that peope can rey on you and trust you at a times (para. 6). Virtue was refected in the preeminent vaue of generosity. The centra goa in Native American chid-rearing is to teach the importance of being generous and unsefish.... You shoud be abe to give away your most cherished possession without your heart beating faster. In heping others, youth create their own proof of worthiness: they make a positive contribution to another human ife (para. 7). important for positive socia, emotiona, and physica we-being for a youth: n deveop and maintain reationships and socia networks n successfuy interact within their community n recognize, understand, and express emotions n channe emotions into heathy behaviors n be physicay heathy and fit n make safe and constructive ife choices The goas of safety and permanency have historicay been of primary focus in chid wefare systems, research, poicy, and practice; focusing on we-being has been a significant gap in the fied (Langford & Badeau, 2013; Lou, Anthony, Stone, Vu, & Austin, 2008; Wuczyn, Barth, Yuan, Harden, & Landsberk, 2005). However, there is a growing body of evidence indicating that whie ensuring safety and achieving permanency are necessary to webeing, they are not sufficient. Research that has emerged in recent years has suggested that most of the adverse effects of matreatment are concentrated in behaviora, socia, and emotiona domains.... Integrating these findings into poicies, programs, and practices is the ogica next step for chid wefare systems to increase the sophistication of their approach to improving outcomes for chidren and their famiies. (Administration for Chidren and Famiies, Administration on Chidren, Youth and Famiies, U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services, 2012, p. 2) The Administration for Chidren and Famiies adapted the we-being framework proposed by Lou and coeagues (2008) that identifies four domains of we-being that contribute to heathy functioning and success throughout chidhood, adoescence, and into aduthood: cognitive functioning, physica heath and deveopment, emotiona/behaviora Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 11

16 Societa Domain Ideoogy Systems Laws & Poicies Norms Mass Media Cuture Socia Conditions Community Domain Neighborhoods Institutions Resources Supports Opportunities Reationa Domain Famiy Peers Other Infuencers Individua Domain Strengths Adversity Background Figure 2. Risk, Protective, and Promotive Factors Across the Socia Ecoogy Adapted from the Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention, Nationa Center for Injury Prevention and Contro (2013) functioning, and socia functioning (Administration for Chidren and Famiies, Administration on Chidren, Youth and Famiies, U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services, 2012). Whie these four domains are ceary centra to we-being... CSSP s definition goes beyond these domains and expicity takes into account the interpay between a chid s we-being and the parenting or caregiving environment around them. The we-being of famiies and caregivers is a defining pathway to a chid s we-being; thus, heathy famiy reationships and attachment to a caring and reiabe adut must aso be incuded as part of the concept and recommended actions to promote webeing. (Center for the Study of Socia Poicy, 2013b, pp. 1-2) Foundationa Idea 6: The Nature of Risk, Protective, and Promotive Factors Risk, protective, and promotive factors exist in a domains of the socia ecoogy (Substance Abuse and Menta Heath Services Administration, 2013). A combination of individua, reationa, community, and societa factors contribute to the promotion of heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being or to the risk of negative outcomes (see Figure 2). For exampe, Seccombe (2002) concuded: Resiiency cannot be understood or improved in significant ways by merey focusing on... individua-eve factors. Instead carefu attention must be paid to the structura deficiencies in our society and to the socia poicies that famiies need in order to become stronger, more competent, and better in adverse situations (p. 385). Risk Factors. The Youth Thrive framework addresses risk factors that threaten heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being. Youth considered to be vunerabe are often targeted for programs and services on the basis of risk factors, that is, infuences that increase the probabiity of onset, digression to a more serious state, or maintenance of a probem condition (Fraser et a., 2004, p. 14). Using a sociaecoogica perspective, the Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine (2009) defined a risk factor as a characteristic at the bioogica, psychoogica, famiy, community, or cutura eve that precedes and is associated with a higher ikeihood of probem outcomes (p. xxviii). CSSP acknowedges a socia-ecoogica conception of risk factors shoud aso address characteristics, circumstances, or conditions in the societa domain that are associated with a higher ikeihood of poor outcomes, such as structura racism and poicies that imit access to quaity heath care. CSSP s perspective is consistent with the mission of addressing the socia determinants of heath articuated by the Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention and the Word Heath Organization (see Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention, 2012). 12 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

17 Key Terms n Cumuative Protective Factors: The presence of mutipe protective factors; associated with a decreased ikeihood of invovement in probem behaviors n Cumuative Risk Factors: The presence of mutipe risk factors; associated with an increased ikeihood of mutipe probem outcomes n Promotive Factors: Conditions or attributes of individuas, famiies, communities, or the arger society that activey enhance we-being n Protective Factors: Conditions or attributes of individuas, famiies, communities, or the arger society that mitigate or eiminate risk n Risk Factors: Conditions or attributes of individuas, famiies, communities, or the arger society that increase the probabiity of poor outcomes n Socia Determinants of Heath: The integrated socia structures and economic systems that contribute to heath disparities n Socia Ecoogy: The interpay among individua, famiy and reationa, community, and societa factors Toxic Stress: Bioogica and emotiona responses that resut from strong, frequent, proonged adversity Socia determinants of heath are economic and socia conditions that infuence the heath of peope and communities. These conditions are shaped by the amount of money, power, and resources that peope have, a of which are infuenced by poicy choices. Socia determinants of heath affect factors that are reated to heath outcomes.... CDC is committed to achieving improvements in peope s ives by reducing heath inequities. Heath organizations, institutions, and education programs are encouraged to ook beyond behaviora factors and address underying factors reated to socia determinants of heath. (para. 1 & 3) Focusing on a singe risk factor when addressing adoescent outcomes is not consistent with the reaity of ife for many youth in vunerabe circumstances (Bernat & Resnick, 2006; Carr & Vandiver, 2001; Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine, 2009; Sameroff, Gutman, & Peck, 2003; Sander et a., 2004; Turner, Hartman, Exum, & Cuen, 2007; Wright & Masten, 2006). Risk factors rarey occur in isoation.... Outcomes generay worsen as risk factors pie up.... Thus, it has become critica to examine cumuative risk factors in order to more accuratey predict and understand deveopmenta outcomes (Wright & Masten, 2006, p. 20). Cumuative risk factors are defined as increased risk due to (a) the presence of mutipe risk factors; (b) mutipe occurrences of the same risk factor; or (c) the accumuating effects of ongoing adversity (Wright & Masten, 2006, p. 19). Sameroff and coeagues (2003) examined the resuts of various cumuative risk studies. In one anaysis... athough no singe risk factor had a strong reation to disorder or positive deveopment, the accumuation of risk factors across famiy, parent, peers, and community had a substantia effect in predicting mutipe probem outcomes (Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine, 2009, p. 86). Numerous studies have found adoescent adverse outcomes and probem behaviors such as dropping out of schoo, substance abuse, deinquency, eary sexua behavior, repeat pregnancies, and vioence to be correated with various risk factors such as poverty, community vioence, famiy confict, ack of parenta supervision, academic faiure, feeings of aienation, and eary antisocia behaviors (see, e.g., Boonstra, 2011; Dion et a., 2013; Fagan, Van Horn, Hawkins, & Arthur, 2007; Frankin, Corcoran, & Harris, 2004; Hawkins, Cataano, & Mier, 1992; Herrenkoh et a., Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 13

18 2007; Macgowan, 2004; Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine, 2009; Office of the Surgeon Genera, 2001; Wasserman et a., 2003). Athough correated, Be asserted (as cited in Griffin et a., 2011), risk factors are not predictive factors because of protective factors (p. 185). Singuary focusing on risk factors to identify youth may be sufficient if the ony goa is to provide services to the youth most in need. Whie that is a necessary goa, aone it is not sufficient to achieve the critica goa of increasing the ikeihood that vunerabe youth are on a trajectory of heathy, productive outcomes. Addressing protective factors, as we, is vita. Efforts to improve chid and adoescent heath have typicay addressed specific heath risk behaviors.... However, resuts from a growing number of studies suggest that greater heath impact might be achieved by aso enhancing protective factors that hep chidren and adoescents avoid mutipe behaviors that pace them at risk for adverse heath and educationa outcomes. (Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention, 2009, p. 3) Protective Factors. The Youth Thrive framework emphasizes the importance of addressing protective factors that contribute to heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being for a youth. Much of the research on protective factors for youth has focused on vunerabe youth popuations. However, it has become cear that most youth benefit from... [protective] factors, whether they are at heightened risk for negative outcomes or not. Thus, recent research has begun to focus on the effects of protective factors not ony in high-risk popuations but aso in the ives of adoescents in genera (Bernat & Resnick, 2006, p. S12). Interest in protective factors emerged from the eary strengths-based and resiience research (see, e.g., Garmezy, 1985; Rutter, 1987; Werner, 1989) as investigators sought to identify characteristics or conditions that might expain why chidren and youth who were exposed to the same mutipe risk factors were affected differenty (Bernat & Resnick, 2006; Cicchetti, 2003; Hanewad, 2011; Office of the Surgeon Genera, 2001; Resnick, 2005). Werner (2000) anayzed severa ongitudina studies that focused on resiience and protective factors in individua deveopment across the ifespan. In speaking about protective factors, Werner (2000) concuded, they make a more profound impact on the ife course of chidren who grow up under adverse conditions than do specific risk factors or stressfu ife events (p. 117). Protective factors have been conceived in two different ways in the iterature (Bernat & Resnick, 2006; Office of the Surgeon Genera, 2001). One view conceives protective factors and risk factors as opposite ends of a continuum. For exampe, parenta monitoring might be considered a protective factor because it is the opposite of ack of parenta supervision, an identified risk factor for many probem behaviors in adoescence. But a simpe inear reationship of this sort... burs the distinction between risk and protection, making them essentiay the same thing (Office of the Surgeon Genera, 2001, para. 26). Another view conceives protective factors as conceptuay distinct from risk factors; that is, as characteristics, circumstances, or conditions that mediate or moderate the effect of exposure to risk factors and stressfu ife events resuting in a decreased ikeihood of negative outcomes (Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention, Nationa Center for Injury Prevention and Contro, 2014; Luthar et a., 2000). Using a socia-ecoogica perspective, the Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine (2009) stated a protective factor is a characteristic at the bioogica, psychoogica, famiy, or community (incuding peers and cuture) eve that is associated with a ower ikeihood of probem outcomes or that reduces the negative impact of a risk factor on probem outcomes (p. xxvii). As with its perspective about risk factors, CSSP acknowedges a socia-ecoogica conception of protective factors shoud aso address characteristics, circumstances, or conditions in the societa domain that are associated with a ower ikeihood of probem outcomes or that mitigate the impact of risk factors, for exampe anti-hate aws defending marginaized popuations, such as LGBTQ 3 youth (Substance Abuse and Menta Heath Services Administration, 2013, p. 6). Promoting the heath and we-being of chidren... requires extending interventions beyond the famiy or individua eves.... In other words, risk and protective factors have to be considered beyond the four was of parenting to embrace the socia, economic, 3 LGBTQ is the acronym for esbian, gay, bisexua, transgender, and questioning. 14 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

19 Tabe 5. How Protective Factors Interact with Risk Factors to Infuence Positive Outcomes (Arnstrong, Strou, & Boothroyd, 2005; Barter, 2005; Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005) Roe of Protective Factors Mitigate the negative effects of risk factors Interrupt the cumuative effects of risk factors Hep to avoid the negative effects of risk factors Exampe Schoo connectedness is the strongest protective factor to decrease substance use, eary sexua initiation, and other probem behaviors (Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention, 2009). Parenta nurturance and invovement mediates the effects of cumuative risk factors ike chid matreatment, famiy vioence, and poverty (Trentacosta et a., 2008). Presence of an adut mentor heps youth in negative contexts avoid negative outcomes ike youth vioence and poor academic achievement (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005). and poitica forces that affect famiies and communities. (Barter, 2005, p. 348) Studies have identified independent protective factors that buffer the effect of exposure to risk or modify the response to various risk factors (see, e.g., Arthur, Hawkins, Poard, Cataano, & Bagioni, 2002; Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2000). For exampe, in many studies of the impact of traumatic experiences on chidren, it has been found that the presence of at east one stabe and supportive caregiver can protect or buffer the chid, thereby reducing the risk that the chid deveops serious probems ater in ife (Cook & Du Toit, 2005, p. 250). Studies have aso shown the presence of mutipe protective factors in an individua s ife has cumuative effects (see, e.g., Carr & Vandiver, 2001; Fraser et a., 2004; Jessor, Van Den Bos, Vanderryn, Costa, & Turbin, 1995; Turner et a., 2007; Wright & Masten, 2006). Jessor and his coeagues (1995) have documented the positive effects that mutipe protective factors have within high-risk environments.... In short, this research generay suggests that as protection accumuates individuas are more ikey to refrain from invovement in probem behaviors (Turner et a., 2007, p. 91). Researchers described three ways in which protective factors interact with risk factors to infuence outcomes (see, e.g., Armstrong et a., 2005; Barter, 2005; Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005) (see Tabe 5). Irrespective of the way in which they serve as buffers, the core eement regarding protective factors is their positive infuence on deveopmenta outcomes in the presence of risk factors (Sesma et a., 2006). Promotive Factors. Promotive factors, on the other hand, are defined by some researchers as variabes that infuence positive deveopmenta outcomes and exert positive effects on behavior independent of risk factors (Fraser et a., 2004; Jenson & Fraser, 2011; Lou et a., 2008). Farrington and Ttofi (2011) noted other researchers have used the term promotive factors to refer to the opposite end of a risk factor continuum that is, to refer to variabes that predict a ow probabiity of negative youth outcomes. As previousy indicated, this definition is one of the ways that the term protective factors has been defined in the iterature. Thus, consistent with the definition initiay cited above, CSSP conceives promotive factors as characteristics, circumstances, or conditions in a domains of the socia ecoogy that activey enhance positive psychoogica we-being (Pate & Goodman, 2007, p. 703), independent of risk factors. The term promotive factors is not as widey used as the term protective factors (Fraser et a., 2004). However, within the Youth Thrive framework it is considered usefu to make the distinction between promotive and protective factors to expicity underscore the understanding that heathy deveopment and we-being cannot be expained simpy as preventing, mitigating, coping with, or eiminating risk. Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 15

20 The Youth Thrive Protective and Promotive Factors Framework n n n Youth Thrive is a research-informed framework that refects the idea that a youth have the potentia for successfu, heathy deveopment and we-being. The framework describes five interreated attributes and conditions that are simutaneousy protective factors which prevent or mitigate the effect of exposure to risk factors and stressfu ife events and promotive factors which foster heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being. The Youth Thrive theory of change is conceptuaized as foows: Youth in genera, as we as those at heightened risk for negative outcomes, have a greater ikeihood of achieving heathy outcomes as a resut of experiences that support the buiding of the Youth Thrive protective and promotive factors and the reduction of The Youth Thrive framework describes five interreated attributes and conditions that are simutaneousy protective factors which prevent or mitigate the effect of exposure to risk factors and stressfu ife events and promotive factors which foster heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being. risk factors. Figure 3 depicts the Youth Thrive theory of change, which identifies the specific risk factors, protective and promotive factors, and individua outcomes of focus in this framework. For youth who have been removed from their home, having an opportunity to cutivate and sustain a trusting, supportive, and dependabe reationship with an adut is paramount. Langford and Badeau (2013) provided a vision for youth currenty in and INCREASE PROTECTIVE AND PROMOTIVE FACTORS Youth resiience Socia connections Knowedge of adoescent deveopment Concrete support in times of need Cognitive and socia-emotiona competence in youth REDUCE RISK FACTORS Stressors Inadequate or negative reationships with famiy members, aduts outside youth s famiy, and peers Insufficient or inadequate opportunities for positive growth and deveopment Unsafe, unstabe, inequitabe environments DYNAMIC OUTCOMES: HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT AND WELL-BEING Physicay and emotionay heathy Hopefu, optimistic, compassionate, and curious Abiity to form and sustain caring, committed reationships Success in schoo and workpace Service to community or society Figure 3. The Youth Thrive Theory of Change 16 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

21 transitioning from foster care that is consistent with the outcomes descriptive of heathy adoescent deveopment and we-being articuated in the Youth Thrive framework (see text box beow). Youth and young aduts who have experienced foster care have ifeong persona, famiy, and community connections that hep them to navigate ife s ups and downs in a heathy and effective way, to dea with probems, to meet their needs, to see opportunity in the future and to reaize success. This vision acknowedges the critica importance of heathy and ifeong reationships. It aso recognizes that young peope wi inevitaby encounter chaenges and probems aong the path to aduthood and that they need support to deveop the knowedge, skis, and connections essentia for meeting their physica, socia, and emotiona goas. Importanty, this vision aso incudes an expicit statement regarding feeing a sense of hopefuness, seeing opportunity in the future, and reaizing success a key aspects of weness (Langford & Badeau, 2013, p. 18). The next section of this report wi incude an examination of the construct thriving foowed by a detaied description of each protective and promotive factor and a synthesis of research that informs and supports each factor. Athough each factor wi be addressed independenty, CSSP considers Youth Thrive to be a hoistic framework and emphasizes the interreationship among the five protective and promotive factors. For exampe, aduts who have accurate knowedge of adoescent deveopment are better abe to form trusting, caring, non-judgmenta socia connections with youth. Strong, positive socia connections peope and institutions provide support for the deveopment of cognitive and socia and emotiona competence. Strong, positive socia connections aso serve as buffers against many types of probem behaviors and hep youth to earn how to effectivey manage stressors both of which are aspects of youth resiience. Youth resiience heps adoescents to have a greater sense of sef-efficacy, which enabes them to make productive decisions, incuding when and how to seek concrete support in times of need. Understanding how the Youth Thrive protective and promotive factors infuence one another is important because research findings suggest (a) youth with mutipe protective factors are at decreased risk for negative outcomes and increased ikeihood of positive deveopment, and (b) interventions with youth shoud target mutipe risk, protective, and promotive factors rather than focusing on singe factors in isoation (Fraser et a., 2004; Jessor et a., 1995; Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine, 2009; Substance Abuse and Menta Heath Services Administration, 2013; Turner et a., 2007). Thriving Numerous PYD schoars have conceptuaized, operationaized, and attempted to measure thriving (see, e.g., Benson, 1990; Benson et a., 1998; Benson & Scaes, 2009; Dowing, Gestsdottir, Anderson, von Eye, & Lerner, 2003; Lerner et a., 2000; Scaes, Benson, Leffert, & Byth, 2000; Search Institute, n.d.). Benson (1990) first used the term... to refer to a set of positive vita signs in adoescence (e.g., academic success, caring for others and their communities, the affirmation of cutura and ethnic diversity, commitment to heathy ifestyes) (Bundick, Yeager, King, & Damon, 2010, p. 884). More recenty, in their study of resiience among miitary youth, Easterbrooks and coeagues (2013) conceived thriving as positive and heathy functioning [that] occurs when a young person s strengths as an individua are couped with the resources in his or her environment (p. 103). Based on a review of the theoretica and empirica iterature about the construct of thriving, Bundick and Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 17

22 coeagues (2010, pp ) deineated five core principes of thriving viewed as appicabe to any stage in the ifespan. 1. Thriving is an essentiay deveopmenta construct, which entais a genera orientation toward and, over time, the reaization of reativey stabe movement aong an upward (though perhaps noninear) ife trajectory. 2. Thriving focuses on aspects of deveopment beyond merey the absence of the negative, and beyond mere competence or simpe achievement of deveopmenta tasks in this way, we might think of thriving as a theory of optima deveopment (not just adequate deveopment). 3. Thriving refers to the functioning of the integrated, whoe person across a ife domains; thus, the term impies persona baance, such that one is not considered to be thriving if he or she is functioning and deveoping positivey in one aspect or area of his or her ife but having serious deveopmenta probems in others. 4. Thriving recognizes the mutidirectiona nature of reations between person and context, through which both the individua and his or her contexts are mutuay enhanced. This notion of mutua enhancement impies a mora component of thriving when thriving individuas act on (and thus hep create) their environments, they seek to in some way contribute to others and/or the mutipe ecoogies in which they are embedded. 5. Thriving entais the engagement of one s unique taents, interests, and/or aspirations. In this ies the assumption of one s sef-awareness of his or her uniquenesses, and the opportunities to purposefuy manifest them. Through such engagement, one might be thought of as activey working toward fufiing his or her fu potentia. These core principes are embedded within the Youth Thrive framework and highight the necessity of a domains of the socia ecoogy individua, reationa, community, and societa working in an interactive and reciproca manner to enabe youth to thrive. Youth Resiience n n n Within the Youth Thrive framework, resiience is conceived as both a process and an outcome. That is, resiience is defined as the process of managing stress and functioning we in a particuar context when faced with adversity. Resiience is earned through exposure to increasingy chaenging ife events faciitated by supportive reationships and environments (e.g., peope, cuture, institutions, conditions, poicies). The outcome of resiience is positive change and growth. This definition refects eading researchers ideas that (a) resiience is demonstrated when an individua is abe to successfuy adapt despite current or past trauma; (b) in addition to coping, resiience invoves growth from the adaptive experience; (c) resiience is a function of the interaction between individuas and their environments; (d) resiience is contextua with respect to settings, situations, and time; (e) variabes that promote or impede resiient functioning operate within a domains of the socia ecoogy; and (f) resiience is not a persona trait (Easterbrooks et a., 2013; Luthar, 2003; Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000; Luthar et a., 2000; Masten, 2001; Rutter, 2007; Seccombe, 2002; Ungar, 2008, 2011; Wash, 2006; Wright & Masten, 2006). Resiience, by definition, means to adapt positivey to adversity. Thus, it is important to examine the reationships among stress, trauma, and resiience during the period of adoescence. Adoescence and Stress Adoescence can be a very happy and exciting period in the ifespan, but it can aso be a time fied with sadness or adversity. Irrespective of whether one s transition from chidhood to adoescence and adoescence to aduthood is smooth or difficut, most American youth have various normative experiences characteristic of this deveopmenta period that may be a source of stress (Sudo, Shaunessy, & Hardesty, 2008), such as (a) changes caused by puberty, (b) concerns about body image, (c) changing reationships with parents, (d) increasing demands of schoo work, (e) concerns about one s future, (f) feeings of oneiness or isoation, (g) probems with friends, (h) desire for romantic reationships, (i) concerns about sexua 18 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

23 Key Terms n Chronic Environmenta Stressors: A constant background eve of threat based in the environmenta physica and socia structure (e.g., racism, economic inequity) n Compex Trauma: Exposure to mutipe traumatic events and the impact of this exposure on immediate and ong-term deveopment n Daiy Hasses: Reativey minor events that occur in the course of day-to-day iving (e.g., missing the schoo bus, deeting a homework assignment by mistake) n Non-Normative Stressors: Atypica, unexpected unpeasant events or experiences (e.g., parenta divorce, serious iness) n Normative Stressors: Unpeasant events or experiences that are expected to occur during a particuar deveopmenta period (e.g., concerns about body image, grade anxiety, reationship concerns) orientation or gender identity, and (j) pressure from peers to engage in risky behavior that coud resut in negative consequences. Youths non-normative sources of stress are regarded as experiences affecting one person (e.g., parents divorcing) or a subset of the adoescent popuation (e.g., youth receiving chid wefare services), and are not regarded as predictabe experiences characteristic of this deveopmenta period (Grant et a., 2003). An often overooked non-normative source of stress is the chronic environmenta stress experienced by ethnic minority youth (Anderson, 1991; Toan, Sherrod, Gorman- Smith, & Henry, 2004). Chronic environmenta stress is defined as a constant background eve of threat based in the environmenta physica and socia structure. It incudes racism and economic Exposure to the daiy hasses of youth ife, normative stressors, non-normative stressors, or traumatic stressors are a potentiay harmfu to youth because they can interfere with heathy deveopment and we-being; but this does not mean negative outcomes are inevitabe, even when youth have experienced compex trauma (Cook et a., 2005). inequity, but aso heightened danger and the intrusion of socia probems into everyday ife. Chronic environmenta stress impinges on optimism, sense of contro, and goa-directed behavior. (Toan et a., 2004, pp ) Athough LGBTQ youth were not considered in the origina conceptuaization of chronic environmenta stress, CSSP considers heterosexism a component of this type of stress as we. Like racism, heterosexism is an ideoogica system that operates at a eves of the socia ecoogy, from egisative to individua action (Smith, Oades, & McCarthy, 2012). Heterosexism denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexua form of behavior, reationship, or community (Herek, 1990, cited in Smith et a., 2012, p. 6). Whether youth experience normative stressors, non-normative stressors, or the daiy hasses (Sudo et a., 2008) of adoescent ife (e.g., being ate for cass), stressors are potentia threats to their heathy deveopment and we-being (Grant et a., 2003). The report of the findings from the annua Stress in America survey commissioned by the American Psychoogica Association (2014) stated, Whie the news about American stress eves is not new, what s troubing is the stress outook for teens in the U.S. (p. 4). Findings from the 1,018 youth surveyed (ages 13-17), reveaed: n Youth report experiences with stress that mirror aduts high-stress ives. n Stress eves during schoo months are much higher than what youth beieve is heathy. Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 19

24 n Stress has an impact on youths performance at home, schoo, and work (e.g., causes them to negect their responsibiities). n Youth are ess aware than aduts of the impact that stress can have on their physica and menta heath, athough they report physica and emotiona experiences that are regarded as symptoms of stress (e.g., irritabiity, anger, fatigue). n Youth often do not know what to do to manage their stress. n Youth tend to engage in sedentary activities (e.g., paying video games, going onine, watching teevision, taking a nap) to manage high eves of stress. n More teen girs than boys report symptoms of stress, are more ikey to report their stress impacts their happiness, and report they engage in unheathy behaviors as a resut of stress (e.g., eating too much, too itte, or unheathy foods). n Youth report being open to receiving hep from professionas to earn how to manage stress, yet ony 5% report having seen a menta heath professiona for stress management. very nature and degree of persona impact, traumatic experiences can skew [youths ] expectations about the word.... These expectations... shape concepts of sef and others and ead to forecasts about the future that can have a profound infuence on current and future behavior (Pynoos et a., 2007, p. 332). These effects are exacerbated when youth have compex trauma histories. Compex trauma refers to the dua probem of exposure to mutipe traumatic events and the impact of this exposure on immediate and ong-term deveopment (Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011, p. 13). For exampe, many youth in out-of-home care must endure the trauma that ed to the remova from their home, the trauma of being separated from their famiies, and the potentia trauma of mutipe removas and pacements (Bruskas, 2008; Frerer et a., 2013; Hieger, 2012). Chidren exposed to compex trauma often experience ifeong probems that pace them at risk for additiona trauma exposure and cumuative impairment (e.g., psychiatric and addictive disorders; chronic medica iness; ega, vocationa, and famiy probems) (Cook et a., 2005, p. 390). Adoescence and Trauma Athough a chidren and youth wi have stressfu experiences from time to time, it is estimated that 26% of American chidren wi witness or experience a traumatic event before the age of four (Briggs- Gowan, Ford, Fraeigh, McCarthy, & Carter, 2010). Chidren who suffer from chid traumatic stress are those chidren who have been exposed to one or more traumas over the course of their ives and deveop reactions that persist and affect their daiy ives after the traumatic events have ended (Nationa Chid Traumatic Stress Network, 2003, p. 1). Adoescence is the deveopmenta period during which the effects of earier traumatic experiences become most evident (Lupien, McEwen, Gunnar, & Heim, 2009), such as having difficuty reguating emotions, forming heathy reationships, controing thoughts and actions, managing stressfu situations, and panning for the future (Langford & Badeau, 2013). Pynoos and coeagues (2007) beieved a critica outcome of traumatic experiences is the formation of trauma-reated expectations. By their Faciitating Youth Resiience Exposure to the daiy hasses of youth ife, normative stressors, non-normative stressors, or traumatic stressors are a potentiay harmfu to youth because they can interfere with heathy deveopment and we-being; but this does not mean negative outcomes are inevitabe, even when youth have experienced compex trauma (Cook et a., 2005). Youth are more ikey to achieve heathy, favorabe outcomes and to thrive when they demonstrate resiience. CSSP conceives youth resiience as the process of managing stress and functioning we when faced with stressors, chaenges, or adversity. Youth demonstrate resiience when they are abe to ca forth their inner strength to positivey meet chaenges, manage adversities, hea the effects of trauma, and thrive given their unique characteristics, goas, and circumstances (Seccombe, 2002). Numerous researchers (see, e.g., American Psychoogica Association, 2014; Cook et a., 2005; Dion et a., 2013; Easterbrooks et a., 2013) have suggested youths resiience is faciitated by experiences that 20 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

25 1. Foster a secure attachment to at east one trusting, caring, competent, and supportive adut who provides positive guidance 2. Teach heathy ways to manage currenty stressfu events and identify new patterns of responding to future stressfu situations 3. Promote high, achievabe expectations and sef-improvement 4. Enhance a youth s positive sef-appraisa and sense of sef-worth 5. Encourage a productive future orientation 6. Provide opportunities for productive decision making and constructive engagement in their famiy, community, schoo, and other socia institutions 7. Encourage adoescent voice, choice, and persona responsibiity 8. Promote the deveopment of sef-reguation, sefrefection, sef-confidence, sef-compassion, and character Demonstrating resiience increases youths sefefficacy because they are abe to see evidence of their abiity to face chaenges competenty, take contro over their ives in heathy ways, be accountabe for their actions and the consequences of their actions, and infuence their deveopment and we-being in a positive direction. Furthermore, demonstrating resiience heps youth to internaize the beief that their ives are important and meaningfu. Thus, they can envision and conscientiousy work with purpose and optimism toward future possibiities for themseves. Socia Connections n n n Within the Youth Thrive framework, socia connections are conceived as youths heathy, sustained reationships with peope, institutions, the community, and a force greater than onesef that promote a sense of trust, beonging, and that one matters. The Youth Thrive framework emphasizes that a youth need aduts, inside and outside of their famiy, who care about them; who can be non-judgmenta isteners; who they can turn to for we-informed guidance and advice; who they can ca on in times of stress and for hep in soving probems; who encourage them and promote high expectations; who hep them identify and nurture their interests; and who set deveopmentay appropriate imits, rues, and monitoring. The Youth Thrive framework aso acknowedges the importance of cose, positive peer reationships for heathy deveopment and we-being during adoescence. Positive peer networks provide a critica context for youth in the deveopment of autonomy, intimacy, sexuaity, academic achievement, Key Terms n Adoescent Attachment Security: Vauing and maintaining a strong sense of attachment to one s parents or other significant aduts whie simutaneousy pursuing one s own autonomy n Disconnected Youth: Youth who are disengaged from the words of schoo and work for a engthy period of time n Sense of Connectedness: A sense of beonging, attachment, reciproca positive regard, and that one matters that deveops as a resut of the protective reationship between youth and their socia contexts (peope, institutions, and higher power) n Socia Buffering: A decrease in the intensity of the stress response due to the presence of supporting, caring, and comforting significant others n Stereotype Threat: A situationa predicament in which a person fees at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one s group Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 21

26 and an identity differentiated from their famiy (Bagwe, Newcomb, & Bukowski, 1998; Brown & Larson, 2009; Steinberg, 2011). Conversey, studies have shown that negative, rejecting, or the ack of peer networks may pay a roe in the deveopment of a range of probematic outcomes, incuding poor academic engagement and performance, deinquency, substance use, and various menta heath probems (see, e.g., Bagwe et a., 1998; Buhs, Ladd, & Herad, 2006; Eis & Zarbatany, 2007; Woodward & Ferguson, 1999). According to Coins and Steinberg (2006), the nature of youths peer socia connections changes in infuence and compexity during the course of adoescent deveopment. For exampe, athough friendships begin to emerge in eary chidhood, the infuence and importance of peers seems to increase in eary adoescence, peak in midde adoescence, then begins a gradua decine into ater adoescence (Coins & Steinberg, 2006; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). Changes in regard to the infuence of peer networks on identity deveopment have aso been hypothesized in that peer networks hep youth transition from an identity tied to their famiy, to one that is defined by friends, and finay, to an individuaized identity (Coins & Steinberg, 2006). Youth aso need to be constructivey engaged in socia institutions and environments (e.g., schoos, reigious communities, recreationa faciities) that are safe, stabe, and equitabe. Socia institutions provide support for youths inteectua, socia, emotiona, mora, spiritua, and physica deveopment. Socia institutions aso provide opportunities for youth to participate in organized activities and to give back to their community and to the arger society. Researchers in PYD stress the importance of youth becoming agents both in their own heathy deveopment and in the positive enhancement of others and of society (Lerner, 2004). Giving of onesef to famiy, schoo, community, and society impicity assigns vaue to the giver and positivey contributes to one s sense of sef-worth. In addition, the Youth Thrive framework acknowedges the importance of spiritua connectedness or spirituaity in the ives of youth. Spirituaity is operationaized as viewing ife in new and better ways, adopting some conception as A sense of connectedness engenders in youth feeings of trust and beonging and a beief that one matters. transcendent or of great vaue, and defining onesef and one s reation to others in a manner that goes beyond provinciaism [i.e., narrowness of outook] or materiaism to express authentic concerns about others (Reich, Oser, & Scarett, 1999, cited in Lerner, Aberts, Anderson, & Dowing, 2005, p. 60). Spiritua connectedness can promote an optimistic future perspective and hep youth to find meaning and a positive purpose in their ives. Sense of Connectedness Providing opportunities for youth to forge sustainabe, positive socia connections is criticay important, but aone is not sufficient. What is essentia is that socia connections must engender within youth a sense of connectedness that resuts in feeings of trust, beonging, and that one matters (Bernat & Resnick, 2009; Burd-Sharps & Lewis, 2012; Hair, Moore, Ling, McPhee-Baker, & Brown, 2009; Monahan, Oestere, & Hawkins, 2010; Osterman, 2000; Resnick et a., 1997; Whitock, 2004). Connectedness is used in the iterature to describe the protective reationship between individuas and their socia contexts (e.g., between youth and aduts inside and outside of their famiy, peers, schoo, and other institutions) that promotes webeing and decreases vunerabiity to negative outcomes (Bernat & Resnick, 2009; Commission on Chidren at Risk, 2003; Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011; Whitock, 2004). Whie heathy reationships are centra to a sense of connectedness, Whitock (2004) stated: Connectedness... aso encompasses ideas reated to beonging, attachment, and reciproca positive regard for not ony individua aduts but the institutions, poicies, and practices associated with the adut word. It aso impies a sense of pace, respect, and beonging that comes from feeing ike you and others ike you are vaued members of schoo and/or community. (p. 5) 22 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

27 SideBar 1 Research during the past 20 years (see Sidebar 1) has confirmed that youth need to fee connected to someone or something in order to thrive, and that a sense of connectedness is protective against many heath risk behaviors (e.g., vioence, acoho and drug use). For exampe: [Researchers] have demonstrated the protective impact of extra-famiia adut reationships for young peope, incuding other adut reatives, friends parents, teachers, or aduts in heath and socia service settings. This sense of connectedness to aduts is saient as a protective factor against an array of heathjeopardizing behaviors of adoescents (Resnick et a., 1993; Sieving et a., 2001) and has protective effects for both girs and boys across various ethnic, racia, and socia cass groups (Resnick et a., 1997). Such connectedness is enhanced by opportunities for socia ski deveopment and other competencies (such as those deveoped through service-earning and other extracurricuar activities) that provide a substantive basis for the nurturance of sefconfidence and a sense of we-being in young peope (Dinges & Duong-Tran, 1993; Dryfoos, 1990). (Resnick, 2008, p. 140) The components of a sense of connectedness heathy reationships, positive regard, and a sense of beonging and that one matters represent the opposite of socia isoation and disconnection, which is now described as a threat equa to that of tobacco use in terms of contribution to mortaity (Bernat & Resnick, 2009, p. 376). For oder youth and young aduts in foster care, being connected... may be particuary chaenging because they have often experienced disconnections from supportive networks that are readiy avaiabe for their non foster care peers (Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011, p. 7). Disconnected youth tend to have poor outcomes because they often fa through the gaps between the nation s socia systems: education, empoyment, chid wefare, juvenie justice, heath, and menta heath (Hair et a., 2009). Disconnected youth are more ikey to be poor, to have academic difficuties, to suffer from menta heath probems and/or substance abuse, to be invoved in vioence, and to be teen parents. Moreover, youth who are Findings from the Nationa Longitudina Study on Adoescent Heath The Nationa Longitudina Study on Adoescent Heath (caed the Add Heath study) yieded some of the most comprehensive survey data on adoescent heath and we-being in the United States that further highighted the importance of youths socia connections. Findings from the Add Heath study reveaed the importance of feeing a strong sense of connectedness: to parents, to famiy, to other pro-socia, supportive aduts, as we as the protective effects of feeing connected to schoo and experiencing a sense of spirituaity a sense of connectedness to a creative ife force in the universe (Resnick, 2005, p. 398). In reporting these findings, Resnick and coeagues (1997) concuded a sense of connectedness to others and key institutions in [youths ] ives is protective against an array of heath risk behaviors and is associated with better menta heath outcomes (Bernat & Resnick, 2009, p. 376). Severa secondary data anayses using Add Heath data have demonstrated that youths sense of connectedness is a protective factor against various heath-risk behaviors across racia, ethnic, and gender groups (Bernat & Resnick, 2006); however, how youth experience connectedness may vary across these variabes. For exampe, Meo, Maett, Andretta, and Worre (2012) investigated the reationship between stereotype threat and schoo beonging among adoescents from diverse racia and ethnic groups. Osterman (2000) reported that a sense of connectedness to one s schoo or cassroom predicted academic motivation and achievement, positive attitude toward peers and teachers, and invovement in schoo activities. Stereotype threat the fear that one s behavior wi confirm a negative stereotype about one s group (Meo et a., 2012) has been shown to have a negative impact on sense of beonging and academic performance among youth in stigmatized groups. Simpy bringing up one s membership in a group that is marginaized was associated with feeing excuded from one s schoo.... Stereotype threat can have an effect on schoo beonging, an attitudina variabe with a consistent positive reationship to academic outcomes (Meo et a., 2012, p. 12). Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

28 disconnected for three or more years suffer ong-term consequences such as ower incomes, ack of heath insurance, and difficuty getting and keeping a job. (Hair et a., 2009, p. 1) Another body of research regarding the importance of youths socia connections focuses on adoescent attachment security. Researchers conceive adoescent attachment security as vauing and maintaining a strong connectedness to parents and other significant aduts whie pursuing one s own sense of autonomy (Aen, Porter, McFarand, McEhaney, & Marsh, 2007; Laibe, Caro, & Raffaei, 2000; Moretti & Peed, 2004), specificay: n Emotiona autonomy reinquishing primary dependence on parents n Cognitive autonomy deveoping one s own vaues, opinions, and beiefs n Behaviora autonomy making and being responsibe for one s decisions In this regard, parents and other significant aduts are perceived as youths secure base from which they can estabish new socia roes outside of the famiy and form attachment reationships with peers. Thus, in contrast to the commony hed beief that parents and other significant aduts infuence is overshadowed by the adoescent peer group, there is increasing evidence that the successfu transition of adoescence is not achieved through detachment from parents. In fact, heathy transition to autonomy and aduthood is faciitated by secure attachment and emotiona connectedness with parents (Moretti & Peed, 2004, p. 553), or other significant aduts. Importance of a Sense of Connectedness A youth need heathy, sustained reationships with peope and institutions. Socia connections can provide socia buffering for youth in the face of stressors, adversity, or trauma (Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research, 2013). Research on socia buffering has found the presence of supporting and comforting others can hep to decrease the intensity of the stress response and its associated negative feeings. These studies find that socia buffering effects are ampified during adoescence, so that teens more readiy absorb the positive effects of socia support in the face of stress (Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research, 2013, para. 8). When youth are abe to forge a sense of connectedness, they: n fee oved and vaued n have peope who care about them as individuas now and who care what happens to them in the future n fee secure and confident that they can share the joy, pain, and uncertainties that come with being an adoescent and young adut n tend to seek timey assistance and resources from peope and institutions they have earned to count on when faced with chaenges n find meaning, a positive purpose in their ives, and have an optimistic view of the future Knowedge of Adoescent Deveopment n n n Adoescence is a unique deveopmenta period. It is essentia to understand the science of adoescent deveopment and to appy this knowedge when deveoping programs and poicies that are designed to hep youth acquire the competencies that set them on a path toward heathy outcomes in aduthood. The Youth Thrive framework emphasizes the importance of parents and aduts who work with youth to have accurate knowedge about the unique aspects of adoescent deveopment because beiefs about youth infuence how they are perceived and treated. For exampe, some aduts beieve a risk-taking is bad and wi ead to undesirabe, dangerous, or deady outcomes. Aduts who hod this beief may discourage or try to prevent youth from taking any risks. However, some studies distinguish between negative/ unheathy risk-taking such as drinking and driving or having unprotected sex and positive/heathy risktaking such as running for student counci president or paying team sports (American Psychoogica Association, 2002; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). Experiences that are regarded as positive risk-taking are seen as risky because they invove the possibiity of faiure. Research suggests positive risk-taking and earning from one s mistakes are essentia components in becoming a responsibe and productive adut (Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011). 24 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

29 Youth Need Guidance About and Experiences That Enabe Them to: n Adjust to and accept their changing body The Youth Thrive framework aso emphasizes that young peope themseves can benefit from increasing their understanding about adoescent deveopment because this heps to normaize their individua experiences as deveopmentay typica, and even heathy, as they prepare for aduthood. As youth prepare for the transition to aduthood, researchers suggest (see e.g., Bundick et a., 2010; Roth & Brooks- Gunn, 2002) they need guidance about and experiences that enabe them to achieve the deveopmenta tasks of adoescence. Whie it is important to stay abreast of research in a domains of adoescent deveopment, knowedge of recent advances in the fieds of neuroscience and deveopmenta psychoogy are of particuar reevance. Scientists in these fieds have begun to recast od portraits of adoescent behavior in the ight of new knowedge about brain deveopment (Steinberg, 2005, p. 69). An awareness of the unique aspects of adoescent brain deveopment can hep parents and aduts who work with youth to interact more effectivey with them and to provide experiences that promote the deveopment of competencies necessary for heathy deveopment and we-being aong the pathway to becoming responsibe aduts. Aso, an awareness of their own brain deveopment can encourage youth to intentionay engage in activities that contribute to more mature cognitive and sociaemotiona competence. Teens who exercise their brains by earning to order their thoughts, understand abstract concepts, and contro their impuses are aying the neura foundations that wi serve them for the rest of their ives (Giedd, 1999, cited in Act for Youth Upstate Center of Exceence, 2002, p. 1). n Make decisions about sexua behavior n Engage in heathy behaviors such as exercising within one s physica means n Engage in positive risk-taking and avoid negative risk-taking n Buid and sustain heathy reationships with peers and aduts n Deveop abstract thinking and improved probemsoving skis n Forge a personay satisfying identity, incuding what and who one woud ike to become n Gain independence from parents and other aduts whie maintaining strong connections with them n Engage in sociay responsibe behavior such as vounteerism and community service n Identify productive interests, deveop reaistic goas, and seek to exce n Deveop mature vaues and behaviora contros used to assess acceptabe and unacceptabe behaviors n Understand one s persona deveopmenta history and needs n Learn to manage stress, incuding earning from faiure n Deepen cutura knowedge n Expore spirituaity n Learn essentia ife skis such as financia management and confict resoution Adoescent Brain Deveopment New brain imaging technoogies have enabed scientists to state concusivey that (a) brain maturation continues throughout adoescence and into aduthood, in contrast to oder beiefs that the brain was fixed in chidhood, and (b) the adoescent s brain is different in structure and function from both the young chid s brain and the adut s brain (Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research, 2013; Casey, Jones, & Hare, 2008; Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011; Moretti & Peed, 2004; Nationa Institute of Menta Heath, 2011; Nationa Juvenie Justice Network, 2012; Steinberg, 2005, 2010, 2011; Weinberger, Evevåg, & Giedd, 2005). Severa of the key findings about adoescent brain deveopment are summarized in this report, specificay: (a) different deveopmenta timetabes in critica regions of the brain, (b) changes in dopamine eves, (c) decision-making and risk-taking, (d) synaptic connections and pruning, and (e) myeination. Summaries of some of the key findings reated to adoescent brain deveopment are deineated in Sidebar 2. A summary of the findings Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 25

30 SideBar 2 Some Key Findings About Adoescent Brain Deveopment The foowing is a synthesis of findings from the foowing reports: Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research, 2013; Casey et a., 2008; Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011; Moretti & Peed, 2004; Nationa Institute of Menta Heath, 2011; Nationa Juvenie Justice Network, 2012; Steinberg, 2005, 2010, 2011; Weinberger et a., Changes in Dopamine Leves Dopamine is a chemica produced by the brain that infuences how humans experience peasure/reward-seeking. During eary adoescence, there are excessive eves of dopamine in the imbic system. As a resut, activities that once were peasurabe and exciting may no onger be so; thus, youth are ikey to engage in increased sensation-seeking and reward-seeking behavior. Decision-Making and Risk-Taking Eary hypotheses about why many adoescents engaged in risky or dangerous activities were based on two assumptions: youth did not have sufficient information about the consequences of the particuar risky activity and/or they had immature or poor cognitive skis. Current research suggests that engaging in sensation-seeking, risky, or reckess behaviors in emotionay charged situations is not simpy due to an underdeveoped prefronta cortex but aso to the more mature imbic system taking precedence over the prefronta cortex contros. Synaptic Connections and Pruning The abiity of the human brain to transmit and process information is a function of neurons (nerve ces) communicating with each other. In this process, neurons do not actuay touch each other but come cose together at tiny gaps caed synapses. A synapse is the critica communication ink between neurons; a key process in brain deveopment is the formation of synaptic connections. Athough some synaptic connections are geneticay programmed, others are formed through experiences. The deveopment of new synapses continues throughout ife as we earn new skis, buid memories, acquire knowedge, and adapt to changing circumstances (Steinberg, 2011, p. 69). It may seem that having a proiferation of synapses is essentia for efficient brain functioning, but this not the case. Synaptic pruning eiminating unused or underused synapses is a norma and necessary process that enhances and refines the brain s functioning. Myeination During the course of deveopment another critica process occurs that contributes to the efficiency and refinement of brain functioning. Occurring in waves beginning in the prenata period and continuing through young aduthood, white fatty tissue caed myein encases the projections (axons) of neurons. Myeination increases the speed and improves the efficiency of information processing between and within regions of the brain. During adoescence and young aduthood, pruning and myeination [work] together to estabish and strengthen the higher-order neura networks that we use for panning and reguating what we do (Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research, 2013, para. 3). reated to different deveopmenta timetabes in critica regions of the adoescent brain foows the Sidebar. Different Brain Regions, Different Deveopmenta Timetabes Research has shown that key regions of the adoescent brain deveop uneveny. The imbic system deveops in eary adoescence. This region pays an important roe in experiencing rewards and punishments, and in processing socia information, motivation, and emotions such as fear, anger, and peasure. In contrast, the prefronta cortex is the ast part of the human brain to deveop and may not be fuy mature unti eary aduthood. Weinberger and coeagues (2005, p. 11) isted 13 executive functions governed by the prefronta cortex: 1. Controing impuses 2. Inhibiting inappropriate behavior 3. Initiating appropriate behavior 4. Stopping an activity upon competion 5. Adjusting behavior when situations change 6. Providing menta space for working memory 7. Organizing things 8. Forming strategies and panning behavior 9. Setting priorities among tasks and goas 10. Making decisions 11. Showing empathy 12. Being sensitive to feedback (reward and punishment) 13. Demonstrating insight Athough the rationa prefronta cortex deveops ater than the

31 emotiona imbic system, this does not mean that adoescents are not abe to make rationa decisions, pan, or understand risks. Rather, an impication of the deveopmenta timing gap between the imbic system and the prefronta cortex is that When faced with an immediate persona decision, adoescents wi rey ess on inteectua capabiities and more on feeings. Nevertheess, when reasoning about a hypothetica, mora diemma, the adoescent wi rey more on ogica information (Steinberg, 2005). In other words, when a poor decision is made in the heat of the moment, the adoescent may know better, but the saience of the emotiona context biases his or her behavior in opposite direction of the optima action. (Casey et a., 2008, p. 122) These circumstances and experiences negativey impact youths innate deveopmenta transitions and, therefore, impede the course of heathy deveopment. But the adoescent brain is adaptabe and shaped by experience, which suggests adoescence is a time of great opportunity to hep youth become responsibe aduts and to ay a foundation for youth that wi hep them make informed decisions (Nationa Juvenie Justice Network, 2012, p. 4). When youth have support and guidance from caring, encouraging aduts these experiences can hep youth to acquire the competencies needed for a heathy transition to aduthood, regardess of their past trauma (Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research, 2013; Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2011; Weinberger et a., 2005). Environments and Experiences Matter Neurobioogica changes do not operate in isoation. The process of brain maturation in adoescence (or during any period) unfods within an environmenta context that infuences the course of neura deveopment and moderates its expression in emotion, behavior, and cognition (Steinberg, 2010, p. 161). Some youth have deveopmenta histories marked by poor reationships, environments that create toxic stress, invovement in institutions that are not aigned with their deveopmenta needs, or persona trauma. Cognitive and Socia- Emotiona Competence n n n Adoescence is a period marked by significant neuroogica, physica, psychoogica, cognitive, socia, and emotiona deveopmenta transitions. Youths preparation for and success at navigating these transitions is infuenced by their earier deveopmenta histories, experiences, and perceptions as we as Key Terms n Dopamine: A chemica produced by the brain that infuences the experience of peasure/rewardseeking n Limbic System: An area of the brain that pays a roe in the processing of emotiona experience, socia information, and reward and punishment n Myeination: The process through which neurons (nerve ces) are insuated, which improves the efficiency of neurona functioning n Prefronta Cortex: The region of the brain most responsibe for executive functions (e.g., panning, thinking ahead, controing impuses) n Synaptic Pruning: The process through which unused or underused connections between neurons (nerve ces) are eiminated, which improves the efficiency of neurona functioning Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 27

32 the nature and impact of their current reationships, contexts, and circumstances. Youth need nurturing adut support, positive peer reationships, and whoesome experiences in order to deveop the cognitive and socia-emotiona competence that wi hep them navigate these transitions. Within the Youth Thrive framework, the focus on cognitive competence does not refer to an emphasis on increasing how much youth know. Rather, the focus is on the interreated components of cognitive and socia-emotiona competence that have been found to be inked to the structura and functiona changes in brain deveopment that occur during adoescence (see, e.g., Choudhury, Bakemore, & Charman, 2006; Crone, 2009; Keating, 2004; Steinberg, 2005). The components of cognitive and sociaemotiona competence highighted in the Youth Thrive framework are (a) sef-reguation and executive functions, (b) socia cognition, (c) possibe seves, and (d) character strengths. Sef-Reguation and Executive Functions Recent investigations into the nature of adoescent cognitive deveopment have resuted in findings about the interconnectedness of the cognitive, socia, and emotiona systems in the brain; the strengthening of metacognition in adoescence; and the centra roe of the sef-reguation and executive functions (Keating, 2004; Wei et a., 2013). Metacognition thinking about thinking begins to deveop in midde chidhood. As the capacity for abstract thinking begins to emerge during adoescence, the abiity to be more sef-aware and to anayze and evauate one s own thoughts, beiefs, and behaviors is strengthened (Wei et a., 2013). Sef-reguation and executive functions two centra competencies of focus within the Youth Thrive framework are considered to be metacognitive processes and are commony defined in the research iterature as foows (see, e.g., Bakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Carson, 2005; Choudhury et a., 2006; Crone, 2009): n Sef-reguation: the effortfu contro and coordination of one s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, as we as the abiity to adapt and ater one s behavior in order to achieve a desired outcome. n Executive functions: a broad number of interreated cognitive processes that contribute to sef-reguation and that infuence both cognitive processes (e.g., earning new subject matter) and socia-emotiona behaviors (e.g., deaying gratification). Athough sef-reguation and some executive functions begin to emerge in eary chidhood, there is Key Terms n Character Strengths: The psychoogica ingredients for dispaying a ife of virtue and success (e.g., sef-contro, curiosity, persistence, conscientiousness, grit, and sef-confidence) n Executive Functions: A broad number of interreated processes that contribute to sef-reguation and infuence both cognitive processes and socia-emotiona behaviors n Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one s own thought processes n Possibe Seves: Near and dista possibiities for onesef; shoud incude both positive images of the seves one desires to become and negative images of the seves one wishes to avoid becoming, as we as specified action pans to achieve the possibe seves n Sef-Reguation: The effortfu contro and coordination of one s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, as we as the abiity to adapt one s behavior in order to achieve a desired outcome n Socia Cognition: The cognitive processes invoved in the perception of others, the norms of the socia word, and the sef 28 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

33 Tabe 6. Executive Functions Executive Function Behaviora sef-reguation Cognitive fexibiity Cognitive sef-reguation Consequentia thinking Emotiona contro Inhibition Initiation Panning and organization Probem soving Prospective memory Seective attention Sef-monitoring Sef-tak Socia-emotiona sef-reguation Visua imagery Working memory Definition Staying on task even in the face of distractions Seeing aternate soutions to probems; shifting perspective; moving from one situation to another Exercising contro over thinking; panning and thinking ahead; making adjustments as necessary; identifying and chaenging unheathy thinking Considering the outcomes of one s thoughts, feeings, and actions before acting Moduating emotiona responses by bringing rationa thought to bear on feeings Stopping one s own behavior at the appropriate time, incuding stopping actions and thoughts Beginning a task or activity and independenty generating ideas, responses, or probem-soving strategies Having a goa and using reasoning to achieve it; the abiity to manage current and future-oriented task demands; imposing order Understanding what is needed to sove the probem; deveoping and executing a pan; evauating the adequacy of the attempted soution Hoding in mind an intention to carry out an action at a future time Focusing on a particuar object, whie simutaneousy ignoring irreevant information that is aso occurring Monitoring one s own performance and measuring it against some standard of what is needed or expected refecting; instructing onesef; sef-questioning Exercising contro over reactions to positive and negative situations; deaying gratification; abeing one s and others emotions accuratey; expressing emotions in heathy ways; taking ownership of emotions imagining the image of attaining one s goa Foowing instructions sequentiay and hoding information in mind whie engaging in another activity growing evidence (see, e.g., Bakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Choudhury et a., 2006; Keating, 2004; Steinberg, 2005) that these processes (a) continue to deveop through adoescence and into aduthood, (b) are a function of the maturation of the prefronta cortex and other regions of the brain, and (c) are reated to the refinement of brain functioning due to synaptic pruning and the rapid connectivity between neurons caused by myeination. For exampe, athough pruning takes pace throughout infancy, chidhood and adoescence, different regions of the brain are pruned at different points in deveopment. As a rue, the brain regions in which pruning is taking pace... are the regions associated with the greatest changes in cognitive functioning during that stage (Steinberg, 2011, p. 70). Tabe 6 provides a ist and definitions of executive functions extrapoated from numerous sources. Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 29

34 Tabe 7. Cognitive Processes in Socia Cognition Cognitive Process Persona agency Perspective taking Sef-awareness Sef-compassion Sef-concept Sef-efficacy Sef-esteem Sef-improvement and mastery Theory of mind Definition Taking responsibiity for one s sef and one s decisions and having confidence to overcome obstaces Taking the viewpoint thoughts, beiefs, or feeings of another person Understanding one s deveopmenta history and current needs Being kind to onesef when confronted with persona faiings and suffering having stabe ideas about onesef having reaistic beiefs about one s capabiities Feeings about onesef Committing to and preparing to achieve productive goas Thinking about the minds and menta states of others; that is, their beiefs, desires, and intentions Socia Cognition A third important competence of focus is socia cognition, broady defined as the cognitive processes invoved in the perception of others, the norms of the socia word, and the sef (Beer & Ochsner, 2006; Bakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Choudhury et a., 2006). The perception of sef is considered an important component of socia cognition because adoescents sef-beiefs are infuenced by socia feedback from peers, parents, other aduts, and the media (Oyserman, Bybee, Terry, & Hart-Johnson, 2004). In addition, the sef may serve as a cognitive fiter through which other peope are perceived... [or] as a reference to organize representations of other peope (Beer & Ochsner, 2006, p. 99). The cognitive processes invoved in socia cognition are described in Tabe 7. Possibe Seves The sense of sef begins to deveop during eary chidhood. During chidhood, sef-beiefs tend to be present-oriented, representing the chid s current sense of sef, sef-worth, and capabiities. As abstract reasoning begins to unfod during adoescence, youth are abe to envision near and more dista future possibiities for themseves ( possibe seves ) in addition to their current sense of who they are (Frazier & Hooker, 2006; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Oyserman et a., 2004; Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006); see Sidebar 3. Having a cear sense of a possibe sef is regarded as an essentia competence within the Youth Thrive framework. Possibe seves represent individuas ideas of what they might become, what they woud ike to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptua ink between cognition and motivation [affect]. Possibe seves are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goas, and threats (Markus & Nurius, 1986, p. 954). Oyserman and Fryberg (2006) identified two ideas that are centra to possibe seves theory and research. First, an expication of youths positive seves shoud incude both positive images of the seves they desire to become and negative images of the seves they wish to avoid becoming. For exampe, a youth with baanced possibe seves may have a goa of becoming a coege professor and is aware of how becoming an adoescent parent coud impede that goa. If the seves that youth want to strive for are not baanced by seves they are afraid of becoming, this may mean that youth are more ikey to act without taking into account possibe negative consequences 30 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

35 SideBar 3 Factors That Infuence Possibe Seves for a possibe sef. This oversight is ikey to resut in surprise and bewiderment when attempts to attain a positive possibe sef resuts in unforeseen negative consequences for the sef (Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006, p. 4). Second, it is important for youths envisioned possibe seves to be accompanied by specified action pans to achieve their expected seves and avoid becoming ike their feared seves (Frazier & Hooker, 2006; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Oyserman et a., 2004; Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006). In this regard, possibe seves can serve youths abiity to sef-reguate by focusing on goas, inking future aspirations with responsibe present behaviors, and essening the infuence of distractions that coud prevent reaching one s goas (Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006). Aso, by focusing on the future, possibe seves contribute to we-being and optimism about the future (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Barton (2005) noted, the ink to resiience is apparent opportunities for individuas to imagine positive end states, with or without the presence of risk or adversity, can eicit motivation to behave in ways that make achievement of these end states more ikey (p. 144). Character Strengths Character strengths are a famiy of positive traits that are regarded as essentia competencies within the Youth Thrive framework. Character strengths can be cutivated; they manifest in an individua s thoughts, feeings, and behaviors (Park, Peterson, & Seigman, 2004). Concerns that many bright, weeducated youth may be acking the inner strength to face chaenges, succeed in the ong term, and experience ife satisfaction have resuted in a growing body of schoars in diverse fieds re-visiting onghed ideas that success in ife is dependent on how much one knows (Peterson & Seigman, 2004; Tough, 2011). Researchers are producing new evidence that what matters, instead, is whether we are abe to hep [chidren and youth] deveop a very different set of quaities, a ist that incudes persistence, sef-contro, curiosity, conscientiousness, grit, and sef-confidence. Economists refer to these as non-cognitive skis, psychoogists ca them personaity traits, and the rest of us think of them as character (Tough, 2011, p. xv). Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being Positive and negative possibe seves are infuenced by both individua and contextua factors (Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006). Individua factors incude youths own vaues and aspirations, as we as their perceived strengths, weaknesses, faiures, successes, and sense of contro over their future. Possibe seves are aso shaped by socia contexts and experiences, such as: (a) famiy environment, incuding privieged or adverse circumstances; (b) what significant others beieve one shoud be; (c) whether a possibe sef is positivey or negativey vaued by significant others; (d) peer group norms and expectations; (e) educationa and training experiences; (f) roe modes; (g) media images; (h) cuture; (i) socioeconomic circumstances; (j) consensua stereotypes (i.e., attributes beieved by many to be characteristic of a particuar group) and messages about what it means to be a member of a particuar group (e.g., racia, ethnic, gender, socioeconomic status, sexua orientation, or famiy status); and (k) socio-poitica ideoogies (e.g., racism, sexism, heterosexism). For exampe, in studying possibe seves among diverse popuations, Oyserman and Fryberg (2006) concuded, for racia and ethnic minority youth, what they hope to become, what they perceive is possibe for themseves, and what is not, is infuenced by the arger society. They asserted, What it means to be American Indian, African American, Asian American, or Mexican American is particuarized by cuture of origin, and its interface with both mainstream American cuture, and mainstream America s views of one s group (p. 8). In regard to youth in care, the work of Cabrera, Ausande, and Pogar (2009) indicated that whie some foster youth in their study did not have a strong future orientation, a high number articuated future possibiities for themseves despite their histories of abuse and negect. Whie teens in care have aspirations, too often they do not have reaistic or concrete pans for achieving those aspirations. We ask young peope... what they wi be doing after foster care, and they say vaguey, I m going to coege, or I get an apartment. When we ask foow-up questions, they don t know where, they haven t appied, they don t know the difference between a two-year and four-year coege, how much rent might be, or how they wi pay it.... We have found that teens in care have itte concrete information about careers, education, housing, and budgeting whether or not they have participated in independent iving programs. (Youth Advocacy Center, 2001, p. 15)

36 Character strengths do not prevent chaenges or trauma but support the abiity to demonstrate resiience and thrive in the midst of adversity. Severa studies have focused on identifying and measuring important character strengths (see, e.g., Bromey, Johnson, & Cohen, 2006; Park, 2004; Park & Peterson, 2009; Park et a., 2004; Peterson & Seigman, 2004; Proctor, Liney, & Matby, 2010; Tough, 2011). For exampe, Peterson and Seigman (2004) examined characteristics vaued by cuturay diverse mora phiosophers and reigious thinkers from different eras. This resuted in a comprehensive typoogy that deineated six virtues and 24 character strengths regarded as pathways to achieving the virtues (Bromey et a., 2006; Park & Peterson. 2009; Peterson & Seigman, 2004; Proctor et a., 2010; Tough, 2011). From this ist, Peterson identified a set of [seven] strengths that were, according to his research, especiay ikey to predict ife satisfaction and high achievement (Tough, 2012, pp ) (see Tabe 8). Character strengths, when exercised, not ony prevent undesirabe ife outcomes (Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Botvin, & Diaz, 1995) but are important in their own right as markers and indeed causes of heathy ife-ong deveopment (Coby & Damon, 1992; Weissberg & Greenberg, 1997). Growing evidence shows that specific strengths of character for exampe, hope, kindness, socia inteigence, sefcontro, and perspective buffer against the negative effects of stress and trauma, preventing or imiting probems in their wake. In addition, character strengths hep young peope to thrive and are associated with desired outcomes ike schoo success, eadership, toerance and vauing of diversity, abiity to deay gratification, kindness, and atruism (Park & Peterson, 2009, pp. 1-2). In addition, severa researchers have investigated the reationship between character strengths and youth ife satisfaction (see, e.g., Bromey et a., 2006; Park, 2004; Proctor et a., 2010). These studies focused on youth ife satisfaction because it is regarded as an indicator of positive youth deveopment and as a mitigating factor for the effects of stress and negative experiences (Park, 2004). These studies demonstrated that character strengths are (a) reated to both a current sense of we-being and a future orientation, (b) infuenced by socia contexts and experiences, (c) maeabe, (d) can be cutivated over time during chidhood and adoescence, and (e) emerge as a resut of deveopmenta processes (e.g., brain maturation) and interactions with the environment not through merey being tod how to behave (Park, 2004; Park & Peterson, 2009). Faciitating Cognitive and Socia-Emotiona Competence Within the Youth Thrive framework, deveopment of sef-reguation and executive functions, socia cognition, possibe seves, and character strengths are viewed as the essentia components of cognitive and socia-emotiona competence that ay the foundation for more mature earning and probem soving, forming an independent identity, and having a productive, responsibe, and satisfying aduthood. Ideay, within nurturing and responsive famiy, schoo, and community contexts youth are afforded opportunities to tap into their interests; expore and come to grips with their persona, gender, and cutura identity; seek more independence and responsibiity; think more about vaues and moras; try new experiences; and strive to reach their fu potentia. However, when youth have a history of eary trauma or are in famiies, communities, or schoos that are unstabe, dangerous, or persistenty under-resourced they may not have these opportunities and may be at greater risk for poor schoo performance; impaired or negative socia reations; anger, acting-out, and aggressive behaviors; and menta heath probems. But, experiencing chaenges and adversity does not necessariy predict poor outcomes for youth. Having experiences that promote cognitive and socia-emotiona competence heps to reduce the ikeihood of youth deveoping probems and increases the ikeihood of good outcomes despite threats to heathy deveopment. 32 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

37 Tabe 8. Seven Character Strengths (Tough, 2012) Character Strength Curiosity Gratitude Grit Optimism Sef-contro Socia inteigence Zest Definition Taking an interest in ongoing experience for its own sake; exporing and discovering Being aware of and thankfu for the good things that happen; taking time to express thanks a passionate commitment to a singe mission and dedication to achieve it expecting the best in the future and working to achieve it restraint of one s thoughts, feeings, and actions Being aware of the motives and feeings of other peope and onesef approaching ife with excitement and energy; feeing aive and activated Concrete Support in Times of Need n n n A youth need hep sometimes, whether they are working on chaenging homework, trying to figure out the dynamics of interpersona reationships, considering their next steps after high schoo, or facing trying circumstances over and above those faced by young peope generay. Even those adoescents who have no significant persona probems or acute heathcare needs have normative stresses and needs for hep, support, and orientation associated with making the transition from chidhood to aduthood (Barker, 2007, p. 1). Within the Youth Thrive framework, concrete support in times of need focuses on two interactive components: youths positive hep-seeking behavior and high-quaity service deivery. Hep-Seeking Given both the normative experiences (e.g., concerns about body image, increasing demands of schoo work) and non-normative experiences (e.g., homeessness, death of a parent) that may occur during adoescence, youth wi need informa or forma sources of hep (Srebnik, Cauce, & Baydar, 1996; Unrau, Conrady-Brown, Zosky, & Grinne, 2006). Informa sources incude friends, famiy members, and other significant aduts outside of the famiy. Forma sources incude youth program eaders, teachers, schoo counseors, psychoogists, socia workers, psychiatrists, cinic service providers, medica staff, reigious eaders, and traditiona heaers. But needing hep does not automaticay resut in seeking hep. Barker (2007) provided a comprehensive definition of adoescent hep-seeking. Any action or activity carried out by an adoescent who perceives hersef/himsef as needing persona, psychoogica, affective assistance, or heath or socia services, with the purpose of meeting this need in a positive way. This incudes seeking hep from forma services... as we as informa sources.... We emphasize addressing the need in a positive way to distinguish hep-seeking behavior from behaviors such as association with antisocia peers, or substance use in a group setting, which a young person might define as hep-seeking or coping, but which woud not be considered positive from a heath and we-being perspective (Barker, 2007, p. 2). Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 33

38 Hep-seeking is a form of sef-advocacy. A frequenty cited definition of sef-advocacy is the abiity of an individua to effectivey communicate, convey, negotiate, or assert one s own interests, desires, needs, and rights. [The term] assumes the abiity to make informed decisions. It aso means taking responsibiity for those decisions (Van Reusen, Bos, Schumaker, & Desher, 2002, p. 1). When youth earn sef-advocacy skis they are abe to appropriatey and reaisticay assess and describe their strengths and needs, as we as the desired supports and accommodations that address their needs (Youth Advocacy Center, 2001). Some youth are reuctant to seek hep because they perceive it as a sign of persona inadequacy or find it embarrassing because the services needed have a stigma associated with them, such as specia education programs, domestic vioence sheters, homeess sheters, or menta heath cinics (Barker, 2007). Some studies (see, e.g., Goud, Munkfah, Lube, Keinman, & Parker, 2003; Schonert-Reich, 2003) examined adoescent hep-seeking from a deveopmenta perspective and found severa reasons for youths reuctance to seek hep that reate to characteristics of this period: n The need to maintain a sense of independence and autonomy n Feeing that they coud hande the probem on their own n Limited emotiona sef-reguation that eads to emotionfocused rather than probem-focused strategies when faced with chaenges n A deep concern for what others may think of them n Beieving that no person or heping service coud actuay hep n The need for privacy and concerns about confidentiaity In response to concerns about privacy when seeking hep, Goud and coeagues (2003) found that many youth turned to the Internet as a source of hep because it provides anonymity. Teenagers were as ikey to access the Internet for hep as they were to see a schoo counseor or menta heath professiona (p. 15). Unrau and coeagues (2006) examined the reationship between demographics and hep-seeking behavior and found: n Femae adoescents are more ikey than maes to seek hep and to rey on a wider range of resources for acquiring information n Being a member of an ethnic minority group tends to suppress the effect of seeking hep from professiona sources (Unrau et a., 2006, p. 97) n The network of heping sources broadens as youth become oder n When seeking hep from parents, youth tend to prefer the same-gender parent It is important for aduts and youth-serving programs to communicate to youth that hepseeking behavior is a necessary ife ski for a adoescents to earn so that they may become sefsufficient at acquiring necessary information to access appropriate services to get hep when needed (Unrau et a., 2006, p. 96). When youth ask for hep and receive guidance about navigating the compex web of medica, menta heath, and socia service systems, these are steps toward buiding resiience. Key Terms n Forma Hep: Hep provided by individuas in their professiona roe (e.g., teachers, schoo counseors, psychoogists, socia workers, psychiatrists, reigious eaders, traditiona heaers) n Hep-Seeking: Actions that are intended to meet one s needs in a positive way n Informa Hep: Hep provided by famiy members, friends, and other significant peope who are not acting in a professiona roe n Sef-Advocacy: Effectivey communicating, conveying, negotiating, or asserting one s own interests, desires, needs, and rights n Sef-Determination: Acting as the primary causa agent in one s ife and making choices regarding one s actions 34 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

39 Seeking hep and advice is one probemfocused coping strategy that has been associated with better adjustment. Indeed, one of the factors that may be critica in distinguishing between those individuas who successfuy navigate adoescence from those who do not may be the extent to which the former are abe to utiize different sources of informa... and forma... support. Such support networks have been shown to buffer the effects of stress and ead adoescents aong a path toward positive deveopment (Schonert-Reich, 2003, p. 3). The Nature of Service Deivery The manner in which concrete support in times of need is provided is a critica factor in infuencing whether youth wi seek hep in the first pace or benefit from hep when it is provided. The Youth Thrive framework emphasizes that it is essentia to provide concrete supports that are strengths-based and traumainformed. Strengths-Based Practice with Youth. The principes of strengths-based practice with youth can be summarized as foows (Dion et a., 2013; Grant & Cade, 2009; Nissen, 2009; Saint-Jacques, Turcotte, & Pouiot, 2009): 1. It is essentia to forge a trusting reationship between youth and service providers. 2. Strengths-based practice must focus on youths unique strengths and needs. 3. Youth have unreaized resources and competencies that must be identified, mobiized, and appreciated, regardess of the number or eve of adverse conditions they are experiencing. 4. Youth aso have resources within their famiy or community that can be caed upon to hep mitigate the impact of stressfu conditions and to create needed change. 5. In addition to addressing each youth s individua difficuties, strengths-based practitioners must understand the structura inequities and conditions within the community and arger society that contribute to the young person s difficuties. 6. Youth must be active participants in the change process and not passive recipients of services; they must be aowed to engage in sef-determination. Whie a of the components of strengths-based practice with youth are essentia, the Youth Thrive framework emphasizes the importance of the often overooked component of sef-determination in youth work. Wehmeyer (1992) defined sef-determination as the attitudes and abiities required to act as the primary causa agent in one s ife and to make choices regarding one s actions (p. 305). Ski deveopment aone is not sufficient to achieve sef-determination; it is aso important that key peope and institutions in youths ives provide a context conducive to sef-determination (Bremer, Kachga, & Schoeer, 2003, p. 1). Even when youth have exceent sef-determination skis, they can be thwarted in their efforts to become sef-determined by peope and institutions that present barriers or fai to provide needed supports (Bremer et a., 2003, p. 1). For exampe, in a study about the experiences of youth transitioning out of foster care into aduthood, Geenen and Powers (2007) reported: Foster youth and aumni described a frustrating paradox where they have itte or no opportunity to practice skis of sef-determination whie in care, but are expected to suddeny be abe to contro and direct their own ives once they are emancipated.... The need to et young peope have some say about choices that impact their ives was a common theme among the youth participants (p. 1090). Trauma-Informed Care with Youth. Given the recent advances in the fieds of neuroscience and deveopmenta psychoogy, service providers must be knowedgeabe about and take into account the neuroogica, bioogica, socia, emotiona, and psychoogica transitions that take pace during adoescence, as we as the deveopmenta impacts of trauma. Thus, another important aspect regarding the manner in which concrete support in times of need is provided is whether the workforce is providing hep through a trauma-informed ens. That is, is the workforce cognizant of the youth s trauma history, the connection between that history and the youth s current functioning and behavior, and knowedgeabe about and skied in evidence-based, trauma-informed Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 35

40 care and trauma-focused services (Chaffin & Friedrich, 2004; Kain & White, 2013; Tayor & Siegfried, 2005). Based on a recommendation of the Nationa Center for Trauma-Informed Care (2012), a trauma aware and trauma-informed workforce changes the paradigm from one that asks, What s wrong with you? to one that asks, What has happened to you? Traumainformed care is an approach to engaging individuas with histories of trauma that recognizes the presence of trauma symptoms and acknowedges the roe that trauma has payed in their ives (Nationa Center for Trauma-Informed Care, 2012, para. 10). Youth who receive chid wefare services can certainy benefit from trauma-informed care and services because having experienced traumatic experiences most often is what caused them to be in care. Trauma-informed services for young peope in foster care can enabe young peope to move beyond functioning that is argey the resut of unconscious processes focused on basic surviva. In addition, trauma-informed services free young peope to earn, deveop, and buid reationships with supportive and caring aduts. These reationships serve as conduits for heaing and growth and buid a foundation for young peope s socia capita that supports them throughout their adut ives. (Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative, 2012, p. 6). Buiding on recommendations from the Nationa Chid Traumatic Stress Network, Jim Casey Youth Opportunities Initiative (2012, pp. 6-7) proposed five essentia eements of trauma-informed chid wefare services: 1. An understanding of trauma that incudes an appreciation of its prevaence among young peope in foster care and its common consequences. 2. Individuaizing the young person. A trauma-aware and trauma-informed workforce changes the paradigm from one that asks, What s wrong with you? to one that asks, What has happened to you? (Nationa Center for Trauma-Informed Care, 2012) 3. Maximizing the young person s sense of trust and safety. 4. Assisting the young person in reducing overwheming emotion. 5. Strengths-based services. Providing Appropriate Concrete Support Overa, the provision of concrete support in times of need must be designed to ensure youth receive the basic necessities everyone deserves in order to grow and thrive (e.g., heathy food, a safe and protective environment), as we as speciaized academic, psychoeducationa, heath, menta heath, socia, ega, or empoyment services. These services must be provided in a manner that preserves youths dignity; provides opportunities for ski deveopment; promotes heathy deveopment, resiience, and the abiity to advocate for and receive strengths-based, traumainformed services and resources; and heps to minimize the stress caused by chaenges, adversity, and traumatic experiences. Being abe to seek and find hep from forma or informa sources is a protective factor for adoescent heath and deveopment and overa satisfaction with ife (Barker, 2007, p. 3). Integrating the Youth Thrive Framework in Poicy and Practice n n n Interest in the Youth Thrive framework has fourished in the three years since its introduction. Most notaby, two jurisdictions New Jersey and Brevard County, Forida have integrated the Youth Thrive framework in their work. In 2012, the New Jersey Department of Chidren and Famiies (DCF) convened a Task Force on Heping Youth Thrive in Pacement. The Task Force introduced CSSP s Youth Thrive framework as the foundationa underpinning to hep define, change, and improve the areas of work where systemic and cutura change was needed. The beief was that the Youth Thrive Framework woud 36 advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being

41 offer the necessary research, knowedge, and toos for creating such change (New Jersey Department of Chidren and Famiies, 2012, p. 2). Through the ens of the Youth Thrive framework, the Task Force recommended strategies for statewide change regarding, ways to enhance and ensure that the webeing of youth in an out of home care pacement are supported so they have the most norma chidhood and adoescence possibe, thrive as individuas, and successfuy transition into aduthood (New Jersey Department of Chidren and Famiies, 2012, p. 2). Simiary, in 2013, the Brevard Famiy Partnership began integrating the Youth Thrive framework into its Trauma Informed Care Positive Youth Deveopment Program, a recenty deveoped, cross-system initiative designed to ensure foster youth exiting Brevard s system of care are afforded every opportunity to succeed as young aduts (Brevard Famiy Partnership, 2013, para. 2). The Brevard Famiy Partnership is a non-profit organization that manages the chid wefare system in Brevard County, Forida. The primary resuts Brevard Youth Thrive seeks to achieve are that youth wi fee supported, vaued, nurtured, and protected and youth who age out of care wi be prepared for independence. Aso, in fa 2013, CSSP initiated a nationa search to identify programs whose guiding principes, approach, and practices were judged to exempify the Youth Thrive protective and promotive factors framework. CSSP recognized 15 oca, state, and nationa youth and famiy serving programs that are making a critica difference in the ives of youth who are in foster care or invoved with chid wefare systems (Center for the Study of Socia Poicy, 2014, para. 1; see Koberdanz, 2014, for an artice about one of the exempary programs). Using a wide range of impementation strategies, these programs are engaging and supporting youth in schoo and jobs, providing experiences that promote socia and emotiona deveopment, and creating opportunities for youth to form and sustain positive, dependabe reationships with caring aduts and peers. The Youth Thrive protective and promotive factors framework provides the exempary programs with a common anguage and supporting body of research with which to evauate processes and outcomes, make program improvements, and advocate for poicy and practice change within systems. Over the next five years, CSSP wi be working with new jurisdictions and engaging key stakehoders judges, foster parents, and youth themseves in impementing the Youth Thrive framework. Concusion n n n The Center for the Study of Socia Poicy works to create new ideas and promote pubic poicies that produce equa opportunities and better futures for a chidren, youth, and famiies, especiay those most often eft behind. The foundation of a of CSSP s work is a chid, famiy, and community we-being framework that incudes a focus on protective and promotive factors. The Youth Thrive framework exempifies CSSP s commitment to identify, communicate, and appy research-informed ideas that contribute to improved outcomes for chidren, youth, and famiies. Parents, system administrators, program deveopers, service providers, and poicy makers can each benefit from earning about and using the Youth Thrive framework in their efforts to ensure youth are on a path that eads to heathy deveopment and we-being. References n n n Abrams, L., & Cebaos, P. L. (2012). Exporing cassism and internaized cassism. In D. C. Sturm & D. M. Gibson (Eds.), Socia cass and the heping professions: A cinician s guide to navigating the andscape of cass in America (pp ). New York, NY: Tayor & Francis Group. Act for Youth Center of Exceence. (2014). Positive youth deveopment outcomes. Retrieved from Corne University Bronfenbrenner Center for Transationa Research: www. actforyouth.net/youth_deveopment/deveopment/ outcomes.cfm Act for Youth Upstate Center of Exceence. (2002, May). Adoescent brain deveopment. Retrieved from Author: www. actforyouth.net/resources/rf/rf_brain_0502.pdf Administration for Chidren and Famiies, Administration on Chidren, Youth and Famiies, U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services. (2012, Apri). Information memorandum: Promoting socia and emotiona we-being for chidren and youth receiving chid wefare services. (ACYF- Advancing Heathy Adoescent Deveopment and We-Being 37

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