SILBURY HILL, WILTSHIRE ROMAN COINS FROM THE SILBURY REGION

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1 RESEARCH DEPARTMENT REPORT SERIES no. ISSN SILBURY HILL, WILTSHIRE ROMAN COINS FROM THE SILBURY REGION ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT Sam Moorhead

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3 Research Department Report Series SILBURY HILL, WILTSHIRE ROMAN COINS FROM THE SILBURY REGION Sam Moorhead NGR: SU English Heritage ISSN The Research Department Report Series incorporates reports from all the specialist teams within the English Heritage Research Department: Archaeological Science; Archaeological Archives; Historic Interiors Research and Conservation; Archaeological Projects; Aerial Survey and Investigation; Archaeological Survey and Investigation; Architectural Investigation; Imaging, Graphics and Survey, and the Survey of London. It replaces the former Centre for Archaeology Reports Series, the Archaeological Investigation Report Series and the Architectural Investigation Report Series. Many of these are interim reports which make available the results of specialist investigations in advance of full publication. They are not usually subject to external refereeing, and their conclusions may sometimes have to be modified in the light of information not available at the time of the investigation. Where no final project report is available, readers are advised to consult the author before citing these reports in any publication. Opinions expressed in Research Department reports are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily those of English Heritage. Requests for further hard copies, after the initial print run, can be made by ing: or by writing to: English Heritage, Fort Cumberland, Fort Cumberland Road, Eastney, Portsmouth PO4 9LD Please note that a charge will be made to cover printing and postage. ENGLISH HERITAGE

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5 SUMMARY Recent research has cast new light on the Romano-British roadside settlement adjacent to Silbury Hill. Work on the coins from the area by Sam Moorhead over a number of years has contributed greatly to this, and this report describes ten groups of coin finds. It makes available the catalogues of several assemblages which have not previously been fully published. Taken as a whole, the assemblages provide an interesting chronological profile for coin use / loss in the Silbury region which informs other research into Roman activity in the region. CONTRIBUTORS Sam Moorhead, British Museum Introduction, editing and note on Silbury Hill ditch stratigraphy by Vicky Crosby ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank David Dawson and the Wiltshire Museum (formerly the Wiltshire Heritage Museum) for permission to reproduce Joshua Brooke's drawing of the well excavated in 1908 (cover and Figure 1). Special thanks are also due to Paul Robinson, former curator in the Wiltshire Museum, for all of his help provided since the early 1980s. We are very grateful to John Casey for providing information about the location of the Silbury Ditch coins, and to Judith Atkinson who subsequently donated them to Avebury Museum. ARCHIVE LOCATION The archive from Richard Atkinson's 1969 excavations is held at the Alexander Keiller Museum, Avebury, Wiltshire. Joshua Brooke's coins and notebooks are held by the Wiltshire Museum, Devizes. The Later Silbury evaluation archive is currently at Fort Cumberland, Portsmouth. It will be deposited at the Alexander Keiller Museum, Avebury, Wiltshire. The digital archive will be deposited with the Archaeology Data Service, except for digital photographs which will be deposited with the English Heritage Archive. DATE OF EXCAVATIONS, RESEARCH AND REPORT Silbury Hill excavations by Richard Atkinson in 1969 Later Silbury evaluation by English Heritage in 2010 Research of Roman coin finds from Wiltshire by Sam Moorhead has been on-going since 1982 (see Moorhead 2001a and b). Report completed November CONTACT DETAILS Sam Moorhead Dept. of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum, London, WC1B 3DG Telephone smoorhead@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk Later Silbury project: Vicky Crosby and Nicola Hembrey, English Heritage, Fort Cumberland, Fort Cumberland Road, Eastney, Portsmouth PO4 9LD. Telephone vicky.crosby@english-heritage.org.uk; nicola.hembrey@english-heritage.org.uk ENGLISH HERITAGE

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7 CONTENTS Introduction... 1 The Material... 3 Listing of the sources of the coins... 3 Coins from Barrow G35a on Avebury Down, c Coins from the excavations of Wiltshire Archaeological Society in the Silbury area, October Coin from a shaft sunk by Alfred Pass, Coins found at Kennet in the 1880s and early 1890s, and recorded by J. W. Brooke... 4 Coins from the excavation of two Roman wells at Silbury by J. W. Brooke in 1896 and Coins from the excavations of the West Kennet Long Barrow, Coins from the excavations of Silbury ditch by R. Atkinson, Coins from West Kennet recorded on the Wiltshire and Swindon Sites and Monument Records, Coin found during watching brief on summit of Silbury Hill, Coins found in the Later Silbury evaluation in Commentary...11 Catalogues...14 Catalogue 1: The Roman coins from the Silbury Ditch excavations by Richard Atkinson in Catalogue 2: Coins recorded as being found at Kennet in the 19 th century by Joshua Brooke...18 Catalogue 3: The Roman coins from the Silbury Wells excavations of J. W. Brooke in 1896 (Well A) and 1908 (Well B)...21 Catalogue 4: The Later Silbury evaluation (2010)...25 Catalogue References...28 References...29 Appendix: The coins from the Silbury Hill ditch (1969)...32 ENGLISH HERITAGE

8 List of Figures Figure 1 Joshua Brooke's drawing of the well excavated in 1908 Figure 2 Silbury sites (Brooke Kennet, Brooke Wells, Atkinson and English Heritage excavations) versus Wiltshire average List of Tables Table 1 Stratigraphy of the Silbury Hill ditch (1969) Table 2 Locations of the coins from the Silbury Hill ditch (1969) Table 3 Summary of Coins from Later Silbury (2010) Table 4 Major coin assemblages from the Silbury region, listed by Reece period Cover Later Silbury SF 3081 Copper alloy nummus of Constantius II as Caesar, from Arles, AD Photographed by Ada-Maria Gravgaard, after conservation by Karla Graham and Ada-Maria Gravgaard. ENGLISH HERITAGE

9 INTRODUCTION The major project to conserve Silbury Hill (Chadburn 2008) resulted in considerable new work on the Roman period activity on and around the Hill, including both new excavation and re-assessment of previous research and finds. The Romano-British material from the 1969 excavations of the external ditch of Silbury Hill by Richard Atkinson is published in the report on the Silbury Hill Conservation Project (Leary et al 2013). The Romano- British settlement in the fields south of the Hill was evaluated by English Heritage in 2010 (the Later Silbury Project) (Crosby and Hembrey 2013a). This Research Report provides fuller publication of the Roman coins assemblages from Silbury Hill and the adjacent roadside settlement. Coin research by Sam Moorhead Research over several years by Sam Moorhead has been a valuable source of information for evaluating the evidence for settlement around the Hill. This work is based upon ten groups of coins (comprising 305 pieces), some from antiquarian reports, some from excavations and others from Historic Environment Record records. Each group is listed and discussed before the overall picture presented by the coins is discussed. Although it is dangerous to write an historical account from coins alone, the numismatic evidence does provide some important information which cannot be ignored when studying the Roman period in the Silbury region. It is intended that this report will enable other scholars to raise more research questions in the future. Excavations by Richard Atkinson in 1969 Atkinson's excavations at Silbury Hill in were sponsored by the British Broadcasting Corporation and televised in the Chronicle programme. Despite some interim accounts by Atkinson, the work remained largely unpublished until Whittle's report in Whittle concentrated on the prehistoric evidence, and the Romano-British and later material from the ditch and the upper part of the mound was treated briefly (1997, 20-24). The evidence for the later activity was re-examined as part of the Silbury Hill Conservation Project and is discussed in Chapter 9 of the monograph (Crosby et al 2013). The Later Silbury Evaluation 2010 Extensive geophysical surveys of the area around Silbury Hill were carried out in as part of the major project to conserve the Hill (Linford et al. 2010). Although the presence of a Roman settlement by the Hill had been known since the 19 th century AD, the extent of the evidence in the field to its south was unexpected. The Later Silbury project was set up to evaluate the new results and to shed light on a poorly understood period of activity around Silbury Hill. Seven evaluation trenches were excavated in the two fields south of the Hill. Part of an extensive Romano-British settlement consisting of large enclosures flanking a trackway was examined, as well as post-medieval water ENGLISH HERITAGE

10 meadow features. Optically stimulated luminescence dates were obtained for a Mesolithic palaeochannel and Saxon and medieval alluvial deposits close to the Winterbourne. The RB settlement on the slope spans the period from the early/mid 2 nd century AD to the later 4 th or beyond. There are slight indications of later first century activity, but no evidence for pre- or post-roman activity in this area. The ditched enclosures and trackways set out in the 2 nd century AD seem to have established the pattern of land use throughout the period. The features investigated within the enclosures included a rectangular timber building represented by a wall trench, a well (only partly excavated) and the burial of an infant. No yard, trackway or floor surfaces survived. Disuse of the building and well dates to the late 4 th century AD. The 2010 archaeological evaluation is now published (Crosby and Hembrey 2013). Research Reports To support the Silbury publications, a series of specialist assessment and analysis reports are being made available as English Heritage Research Reports. Some of these include reexamination of previous work, such the Roman pottery from the Silbury Hill external ditch and the small finds (Timby forthcoming; Hembrey and Mould forthcoming). The Romano-British roadside settlement by Silbury Hill The evidence for the settlement, including the excavations by Brooke as well as more recent work, has been discussed by Crosby and Hembrey (2013, 155-7) and Crosby et al (2013). The reports include a plan of the evidence for Romano-British settlement around the Hill, and show the location of the wells and other features excavated by Joshua Brooke. ENGLISH HERITAGE

11 THE MATERIAL Roman coins from the region come from a variety of sources, mostly unpublished. The author has previously summarised some of these groups (Moorhead 2001a, 114; Moorhead 2001b, 100), but the following list is much more comprehensive, comprising ten groups and totalling around 320 pieces. Some of the coins come from well documented excavations, for example Piggott's excavations at West Kennet Long Barrow in , and the Silbury excavations of Atkinson in 1969 and English Heritage in Some come from antiquarian excavations, for which there are some published records and an archive, for example the excavations of two wells by J. W. Brooke in 1896 and Others come from antiquarian records which are less comprehensive, for example excavations recorded by the Archaeological Institute of Salisbury around 1849, the Wiltshire Archaeological Society in 1867 and by Alfred Pass in Finally, a few coins have been recorded on the Wiltshire and Swindon Sites and Monuments Records. In this report, all of the coins are considered together. Listing of the sources of the coins Coins from Barrow G35a on Avebury Down, c In around 1849, 84 bronze coins of Constantine and Constans were found under the turf of a round barrow on Avebury Down. No further records are known. (Proceedings of the Archaeological Institute, Salisbury 1849, 86f; Robertson 1176) Coins from the excavations of Wiltshire Archaeological Society in the Silbury area, October 1867 In an attempt to determine the precise course of the Roman road which passes Silbury Hill, the Wiltshire Archaeological Society carried out some excavations to the east of the hill, and also to the south, across the Bath Road, where they managed to locate the route of the road (Wilkinson 1869). It is noted that a large number of coins had been found on the course of the road where there was thought to be a building. On the 24 th October, the Rev A. C. Smith found what was called a Kitchen Midden which contained three coins, one a nummus of Constans (AD ), possibly from Lyons 1, one a nummus of Valentinian I from Lyons (cf. LRBC 311), dating to AD , and the other unidentifiable (Wilkinson 1869, 117-8). 1 LO is recorded as a mintmark, suggesting it might be part of a PLG mintmark for Lyon. 2 D N VALENTINIANVS P F AVG; GLORIA ROMANORVM; OF II//LVGPS ENGLISH HERITAGE

12 Coin from a shaft sunk by Alfred Pass, 1886 In September 1886, Alfred Pass sunk ten shafts to the west of Silbury Hill (Pass 1887). In shaft 2, 6 feet down, he found a sestertius of Marcus Aurelius (AD ). No further details are furnished (Pass 1887, 252-3). Coins found at Kennet in the 1880s and early 1890s, and recorded by J. W. Brooke In four editions of the Marlborough College Natural History Society Reports (Brooke 1888, 1889, 1890 & 1890), Joshua Brooke notes well over a thousand coins found in the Marlborough region, although only a few are described in detail. Amongst these pieces are many coins from Kennet (sometimes Kennet Hill ) which appears to be the region in the vicinity of Silbury Hill, probably the fields to the south of the Bath Road opposite the hill where geophysical survey has recently found Roman structures (Leary and Field ). The coins are only a sample of what was found and a few are excluded from the catalogue below (Catalogue 2) because their descriptions cannot be matched to known coins. However, the sample does appear to representative of the coins being found. Brooke does state in one of his reports: The list closes with Gallienus, as the local coins obtained from this period to Valentinian II (the latest coin found) are chiefly 3rd Bronze, and have been found at Mildenhall [Cunetio]; with the exception of 3rd Bronze of Victorinus, Carausius and Allectus a follis of Constantius I, - and a denarius (sic actually a siliqua) of Valentinian I, which were found at Kennet. (Brooke 1888, 150) Based on the relative quantities of coins found, he argues elsewhere that the Roman station was at Kennet until the reign of Gallienus (253-68), until it moved to Cunetio. This does support the notion that the majority of the coins from Kennet were early, as reflected in the lists. Therefore, we can use the Kennet listing to gain a general view of the coinage being found in the region, albeit with reservations. Of course, Brooke s excavation of the two wells, and later finds in the region, has turned up many later coins. Also added in the Kennet catalogue below is a probable gold aureus of Nero found on Silbury Hill, and noted by Brooke (1888, 146). Coins from the excavation of two Roman wells at Silbury by J. W. Brooke in 1896 and Well A In 1896, Joshua Brooke excavated a well just south of the Bath Road to the south-east of Silbury (Brooke and Cunnington 1867, 66-71). He reports the finding of two coins, one of Arcadius and one of Theodosius II. The Arcadius coin is probably cat no. 22, ENGLISH HERITAGE

13 (Catalogue 3); it is almost certain that the Theodosius II coin was an earlier coin that was misidentified it is possibly cat. no. 23 or another one of the Theodosian nummi listed as cat. nos Well B In 1908, Brooke excavated another well about 200m south-west-west of the previously excavated well (Brooke ; Brooke 1897, 167, point B on Map). This well had been partially excavated by Messrs W. and H. Cunnington in , but sarsen stones had apparently impeded their progress. In one of his notebooks, Brooke tells us that on April 12 th 1888 he received five coins from a farm labourer who found them in the spoil of Cunnington s abortive excavations of the well in 1882 or thereafter (Brooke undated, 26; Brooke , 373-4). The coins in question were of Lucilla, Carausius, Constantine I and II, and another. It is possible that the Lucilla is listed in the coins found at Kennet, see Kennet no. 34, Catalogue 2 below. During the excavation, Brooke reports in his published account that he found 33 Roman coins (Brooke , 374), but in his notebook he notes 40 (Brooke 1938, 28). It is clear that he found at least 40, but miscalculated for his final publication. The earliest coin was of Trajan (Catalogue 3, no. 1, below), found close to the bottom of the well under a large sarsen (Brooke , 374; Brooke 1938, 28). The latest that he refers to are of Valentinian I, one found just under sarsen blocking stones at the top of the well (Brooke , 374; Brooke 1938,). His published statement that coins of Valentinian were found at the bottom of the well (Brooke , 374) is not borne out by his notebook which suggests that such coins could have been present only down to the sarsen stone, under which the Trajanic coin was found. It is clear that Brooke fails to identify the many Theodosian nummi (AD ) which were amongst the assemblage (see cat. nos ). Their presence suggests that the well was filled in sometime very late in the 4 th century or, more likely, in the early decades of the 5 th. It does appear that the wells were filled in at the end of the Roman period, and can be compared with another well excavated by Brooke at Cunetio (Moorhead 1997a). The coins from the excavations are at the Wiltshire Museum (Reg. nos /21). There is a total of 43 coins 3. In addition, there is one coin missing from the assemblage that Brooke lists in his notebook (cat. no. 4a), presenting a total of 44 coins. This is two more than the combined total for 2 coins from the 1896 excavation and 40 from the 1908 excavation. This anomaly will probably never be explained all the coins are listed in Catalogue 3 below. We can be fairly sure that the Arcadius nummus (no. 22) is from the 1896 excavation, but we will never know which exact coin is the Theodosian nummus from the 1896 excavation. It can be assumed that all the other coins are from 3 The coins in the Wiltshire Museum are divided into three groups: A has 13 coins; B has 22: and C has 8. The significance of these groupings remains unknown. ENGLISH HERITAGE

14 Figure 1: Joshua Brooke's drawing of the well excavated in Photograph by Sam Moorhead, reproduced by kind permission of The Wiltshire Museum. From Brooke's unpublished Finds Diary c to Wiltshire Museum Accession DZSWS:AA , page 26. ENGLISH HERITAGE

15 the 1908 excavation. In the catalogue below, the five coins that Brooke obtained from the labourer, and probably from Well B, are also included (marked with an asterisk). Coins from the excavations of the West Kennet Long Barrow, In the excavations of West Kennet Long Barrow, Stuart Piggott found six late Roman coins, ranging from Claudius II (268-70) to Valentinian II (375-92) (Piggott 1962, 55-6; Robertson 1458): 1. Radiate of Claudius II,?VIRTVS AVG, probably Rome (AD ). Cf. RIC Nummus of Constantius II, GLORIA EXERCITVS (one standard), (335-41), Cohen Nummus of Constans, GLORIA EXERCITVS (one standard), (335-41), Cohen Nummus of Gratian, SECVRITAS REI PVBLICAE, Arles (AD 375-8), RIC 19b 5. Nummus of Valentinian II, VICTORIA AVGGG, Lyon (AD ), RIC 44a 6. Nummus, House of Theodosius, VICTORIA AVGGG, (c. AD ) Coins from the excavations of Silbury ditch by R. Atkinson, 1969 In 1969, Richard Atkinson s excavations at Silbury Hill produced103 coins, one from the top step of the mound and 102 from the ditch on the east side of the hill (see Whittle 1997, 22-24; Moorhead 1997b). Checking the Site Register, it can be ascertained that the coin from the mound and six from the ditch have been lost and are no longer in the archive. 4 The coins from the ditch were found with a large quantity of animal bone. The finds were interpreted as coming from a midden (ibid. 24), a view supported by John Casey (pers. comm., letter ). However, one should not rule out completely the possibility that these were votive deposits, possibly even made at a time of ritual feasting. The author has catalogued these coins which date from the late third to the late fourth / early fifth centuries and an archive listing was made available at The Alexander Keiller Museum, Avebury, where Judith Atkinson has deposited the coins (Moorhead 1997b). A summary catalogue is provided below (Catalogue 1), with the full listing in the Appendix. There is an overwhelming peak in the Valentinianic period (AD ). 4 Silbury Hill 1969 Finds Register (photocopy): SF nos. 125, 153A, 165, 236, 277 (silver coin) and 282 are not present in the archive. SF 329, from the summit, is also no longer in the archive. The author obtained the coins from Judith Atkinson, following the kind advice of John Casey, in the 1990s. Mrs Atkinson then donated the coins to Avebury Museum. ENGLISH HERITAGE

16 A note on the ditch stratigraphy (by Vicky Crosby) The stratigraphy of the Silbury Hill ditch is described in Chapter 9 of the monograph (Crosby et al 2013), based on the section drawing and Atkinson's site diary (both in the Alexander Keiller Museum, Avebury), and is briefly summarised here. The top four layers (layer 2, the midden has subdivisions) contained Romano-British finds, with coins recorded from layers 1, 2 and 2a. Table 1: Stratigraphy of the Silbury hill ditch (1969) Upper fills of the Silbury Hill external ditch (for full list of ditch fills see Leary et al 2013) 1: Topsoil and top of This layer contained more than half the RB coins, most of the RB vessel glass and R-B midden a few of the RB small finds from the ditch. The turf and top 10cm of topsoil also contained medieval pottery and modern finds - it is not noted if post-roman material occurred throughout the layer, which was up to 0.25m deep. 2: Dark earthy midden with sparse chalk 2a: Gravelly chalk, at E. end of side only 2b (or 2L?): [not mentioned in diary] 2c: [not mentioned in diary] 3: Chalk rain wash, fine grained, without chalk gravel' 4: Chalk silt, with high content of fine chalk gravel' Described on section as black soil and Roman midden, this layer was not present on the north side of the ditch, and was up to 1m deep in its centre. Most of the animal bone from the ditch was in this layer (but see 2b). This is probably the layer described as chalk midden on some of the finds bags. It. It is present only on part of the southern edge of the ditch, and contained RB pottery and coins. Several of the small finds are noted as coming from this layer. Described on the section as light grey black, and up to 0.4m deep. It may be the bottom of midden layer which contained a concentration of animal bones. No coins are specifically noted as coming from this layer. Described on the section as stone layer and chalk and flint, this is probably the flint rubble layer referred to on some of the RB pot finds bags. Up to 0.2m deep. No coins are specifically noted as coming from this layer. Described on the section as buff silt, and up to 0.2m deep. The term rainwash is used on finds bags. No coins were recorded from layer 3, which did contain some RB pottery and a few fragments of animal bone. This number appears to have been applied to many interleaved layers in the main body of the ditch fill, below layer 3. No RB finds were noted from this layer except for 2 sherds of C2-C3 AD pottery (Timby forthcoming Table 4). Over half the coins (55%) are from topsoil, with only 31 (32%) definitely from the midden layers. No coins were found in Layer 3 of the ditch, although it contained some Romano- British pottery (122 sherds; Timby forthcoming, Table 4). The coin of unknown location is probably from the ditch, but this is not certain Table 2: Locations of the coins from the Silbury Hill ditch (1969) Period Location Total Ditch Topsoil Midden Chalk midden Unknown or 21(1) (1) 1 1 Uncertain All ENGLISH HERITAGE

17 Coins from West Kennet recorded on the Wiltshire and Swindon Sites and Monument Records, Between the village and the Silbury Roman settlement, on the slopes of Waden Hill, five Roman coins have been recorded, including one of Valentinian I (SU16NW318; Pollard and Reynolds 2002, 155 & 171-2). A further 11 coins have been recorded from Manor Farm, West Kennet, including two barbarous radiates, a nummus of Crispus and five fourth century coins (SU16NW319; Pollard and Reynolds 2002, 155 & 171-2; Powell, Allen and Barnes 1996, 30). Coin found during watching brief on summit of Silbury Hill, 2001 A coin of Constantine I was found during a watching brief at the summit of Silbury Hill in 2001 and identified by Nick Cook (Wessex Archaeology) and Kim Stabler (English Heritage) as 5 : Copper alloy nummus of Constantine I (16/17mm; Die Axis 12) Lyon, 335 Obv. CONSTANTI-NVS [MAX AV]G; rosette diademed, draped and cuirassed right Rev. GLORIA EXERCITVS; two soldiers and one standard Mintmark: -//SLG Ref. LRBC 222; RIC VII - Coins found in the Later Silbury evaluation in coins, ranging from c. 260 to 402, were found in during the Later Silbury evaluation carried out by English Heritage in 2010 (Crosby and Hembrey 2013a; Moorhead 2013). All of the coins are late Roman, falling in the date range AD Of these coins, at least 15 fall between the years 330 and 402. The profile of the finds is not dissimilar from that for the 96 Roman coins found in the excavations of Silbury Ditch by Richard Atkinson in (Moorhead, in Leary et al 2013). In both groups, the House of Constantine coins of are the second largest group (Later Silbury 29.4%; Silbury Ditch 21.3%) with the House of Valentinian coins of providing the largest group (Later Silbury 35.3%; Silbury Ditch 56.4%). The high proportion of coins of the House of Theodosius ( ) in Later Silbury (23.5%) is not matched by Silbury Ditch (1.06%), but a significant number were found in one of the wells at Silbury excavated by Joshua Brooke (see Well B, above). It is notable that there are a large number of contemporary copies. Almost 60% of the coins are copies or possible copies. 30% of the Silbury Ditch coins were copies, but the majority of these were from the period when copies are normally common. 5 Sam Moorhead has slightly refined this identification ENGLISH HERITAGE

18 However, the large number of copies of Valentinianic pieces in both assemblages is unusual and merits further consideration. Table 3: Summary of Coins from Later Silbury (2010) Period Total % Contemporary or possibly Contemporary copies Radiates, c House of Constantine, House of Valentinian, House of Theodosius, Uncertain, c Totals There is a full list in Catalogue 4. ENGLISH HERITAGE

19 COMMENTARY The Roman coins recorded span the entire range of Roman coin production from the late Republican period (1 st century BC) to the Theodosian era (AD ). Table 4 shows all the coins from the major assemblages, listed by period. When one considers the different assemblages, however, it becomes clear that they have very different chronological profiles. Brooke s coins from Kennet, most likely to be mostly from the fields to the south of Silbury, are dominated by coins up until the 3 rd century, there being very few 4 th century pieces. It does seem that Roman occupation, or contact with Roman authority, occurred early at Silbury. Apart from the Kennet group, there is only a handful of early coins from the region, notably the Trajanic sestertius from Brooke s Well B and the Marcus Aurelius sestertius from Pass s Shaft 2. The fact that Pass s coin was 6 feet below ground does warn us that many remains are buried deeply in the soil around Silbury Hill and this might account for the lack of objects recorded as stray finds immediately adjacent to the Hill. In the 3 rd century, there is not the large peak in coin-loss for (Periods 13-14) when base metal radiates abound. This is clearly visible in Figure 2 that shows that the Silbury area does not have the proportion of radiates (58.6 per mill) that Wiltshire has ( per mill). This was one reason why Brooke suggested that Kennet went out of use at this time, radiates being very common at Cunetio, to the east of Marlborough. This lack of radiates is significant and it is tempting to suggest that there was a hiatus at the site to the south of the road in the 3 rd century, from which it apparently did not recover significantly. However, to right-off continued settlement near Silbury on numismatic grounds is mistaken. The evidence from Brooke s two wells, from Atkinson s excavation of the ditch, and even from Piggott s work at West Kennet Long Barrow, does suggest much activity in the 4 th century, especially the latter decades. This is supported by the coins recorded with the Wiltshire SMR from the slopes of Waden Hill and West Kennet. Why there was this apparent renewed activity is hard to ascertain, but it could be related to a growth in agricultural output or even to veneration of ancient monuments in the dying years of paganism. Although some interpret Atkinson s coins from the ditch as being part of a midden with animal bones, it could be suggested that the coins are part of ritual activity which might have involved feasting. The peak of coin-loss in the Valentinianic period (AD ; per mill) is a noted phenomenon in Wiltshire (218 per mill) and surrounding counties. The author has argued that regions where these coins are found in large numbers coincides with areas where the Roman authorities were extracting a large amount of tax in kind, much of it for export to the Rhineland (Moorhead 2001b, & 2009, 156-8). However, Valentinianic coins are also commonly found on temple sites, notably in the West Country and Norfolk (Moorhead 2001b, 93). What is also interesting is the large proportion of copies amongst the Valentinianic coins. These pieces were not often ENGLISH HERITAGE

20 copied and the high proportion of copies in the Atkinson ditch and EH excavations might suggest local production of these coins. There is scope for further research into these pieces. It is hard to explain why the wells should have been filled at this time, as was a well at Cunetio (Moorhead 1997a). The filling of these wells might have been to do with the expunging of pagan rites, the latest coins of the Theodosian era ( ) showing that the events occurred in the very late 4 th or early 5 th centuries. This would then support the notion that Silbury and its neighbouring monuments might have been a focal point for pagan worship in the late Roman period. Table 4: Major coin assemblages from the Silbury region, listed by Reece period Reece Period Dates Brooke Kennet Wells A & B Atkinson 1969 EH 2010 Total Per Mill Wilts. Per Mill 6 1 Pre AD ? ? ? ? c Total Unc Wiltshire per mill totals are taken from Moorhead 2001a, 109 and Moorhead 2001b, 88 ENGLISH HERITAGE

21 Figure 2: Silbury sites (Brooke Kennet, Brooke Wells, Atkinson and English Heritage excavations) versus Wiltshire average (Moorhead 2001a, 109) One cannot write the history of a site or region from coins alone. However, in a region such as Silbury where little excavation of Roman material has occurred, the coins provide an indicator of activity over time. In the case of the area around Silbury, there was occupation throughout the Roman period, but the coin record suggests strongest activity in the 1 st and 2 nd centuries and in the second half of the 4 th century. The evidence of the wells does suggest that there was a major hiatus at the end of the Roman period. ENGLISH HERITAGE

22 CATALOGUES Catalogue 1: The Roman coins from the Silbury Ditch excavations by Richard Atkinson in No. Emperor Dates Reverse References Site Find No 1 Barbarous Radiate Victorinus c Unclear type Barbarous Radiate Tetricus I c C V C C; Salus standing left at altar cf. Cunetio 2653; cf. Normanby Barbarous Radiate Gallic Empire c ?[INVICTVS],?Sol Carausius (possibly Barbarous) c VIC-T-RIA;?Pax standing left cf. RIC No Reverse Type Dates Mint Emperor References Site Find No 5 Barbarous?[CAESARVM c. 320 Siscia House of Constantine cf. RIC 145/6; cf. Boon pl. VII, NOSTRORVM], TOV/V 6 GLORIA EXERCITVS, 2 soldiers?332-3 Trier Constantius II (c) cf. RIC and 2 standards 7 As above Lyons Constantine I RIC As above 330-5? Constantius II (c) GLORIA EXERCITVS, 2 soldiers ?Trier?Constantius II (a) cf. RIC 82/ and 1 standard 10 As above ?Lyons or House of Constantine cf. RIC VIII Lyons 4ff; RIC VII Arles 381ff 153B Arles 11 Victory on Prow left?330 Trier CONSTANTINOPOLIS cf, RIC As above probably barbarous Arles CONSTANTINOPOLIS Type as RIC As no ?Rome CONSTANTINOPOLIS cf. RIC As above probably barbarous ? CONSTANTINOPOLIS As above barbarous ? Trier VEBS ROMA cf. Bancroft As above barbarous ? Trier Constantine I PAX PVBLICA; Pax standing left ? Helena Moorhead 1997b provides a more detailed catalogue of these coins: it is reproduced as Appendix 1 of this report. ENGLISH HERITAGE 14

23 No Reverse Type Dates Mint Emperor References Site Find No 18 PIETAS ROMANA; Pietas standing, ? Theodora holding infant 19 VICTORIAE DD AVGGQ NN; Trier Constantius II RIC Two Victories 20 As above Trier Constans RIC As above Trier Constans RIC As above possibly barbarous Trier Constans cf. RIC pp As no Lyons Constantius II RIC As above 347-8??Constans As above barbarous Trier Constans RIC pp , cf. 182ff Barbarous: FEL TEMP c ? House of Constantine REPARATIO; Emperor on galley, steered by Victory 27 Barbarous: FELICITAS PVBLICE; c ? Trier Magnentius cf. Shipman Emperor standing 28 Barbarous: Illegible (12/13mm) c ??Magnentius cf. Boon pl. VIII, no. 150; Colchester pl , nos. 5, 9 & FEL TEMP REPARATIO; Soldier c ?Heraclea Constantius II cf RIC spearing fallen horseman (c. 17mm) 30 As above (c. 15mm) ??Constantius II As above possibly barbarous (c ? Constantius II mm) 32 Barbarous: FEL TEMP c ? Trier Constantius II cf. RIC 350; cf. Shipham REPARATIO; Soldier spearing fallen horseman (c. 16mm) 33 As above (c. 19mm) c Lyons Constatius II cf. RIC 189; cf. Shipham As above (c. 15mm) c ? Constantius II As above (c. 14mm) c ? Constantius II As above (c. 13mm) c ? Constantius II Mintmark B//TRP not published in RIC, so probably a contemporary copy See also: Colchester, cf. pl 11, 18ff and Coleshill cf ENGLISH HERITAGE 15

24 No Reverse Type Dates Mint Emperor References Site Find No 37 As above (c. 10mm) c ? Constantius II Possibly of the above type (c.?c ??Constantius II mm) 39 Barbarous: silver siliqua: VOTIS / V Arles Julian Type as RIC 295; cf. Bishops Cannings 148 / MVLTIS / X in wreath 40 GLORIA ROMANORVM; Emperor advancing right, dragging captive and holding standard 195(S)?364-7 Lyons Valentinian I cf LRBC As above Lyons Valentinan I LRBC As above Lyons Valentinian I LRBC As above Lyons?Valentinia I or Gratian cf. LRBC As above Lyons House of Valentinian cf. LRBC As above Lyons Valentinian I LRBC 325/ As above Lyons Gratian LRBC 331/ As above Lyons Gratian LRBC As above Lyons Valentinian I LRBC 279ff As above Lyons?Valens cf. LRBC 282ff As above Lyons?Valens cf. LRBC As above Lyons Valentinian I cf. LRBC 284ff As above Lyons Valens cf. LRBC 288ff As above possibly barbarous Lyons Valens cf. LRBC 288ff As no. 40? Lyons House of Valentinian As above? Lyons House of Valentinian cf. LRBC 302ff As above Arles Valens LRBC As above Arles Valens LRBC As above Arles?Valens LRBC 526/ As above Arles Valens LRBC 526/ As above ?Arles Valens As above ?Arles?Valentinian I As above Aquileia Valentinian I LRBC As above Aquileia Valens LRBC As above Aquileia Valentinian I LRBC As above Siscia Valentinian I LRBC As above Siscia Valentinian I LRBC ENGLISH HERITAGE 16

25 No Reverse Type Dates Mint Emperor References Site Find No 67 As above Siscia?Valentinian II cf. LRBC SECVRITAS REI PVBLICAE; Victory Lyons Valens RIC 12/21a 287 advancing left 69 As above Arles?Valens cf. LRBC As above Arles Valentinian I LRBC As above Arles Valentinian I LRBC 514/ As above possibly barbarous Arles Valentinian I cf. LRBC 514/ As above possibly barbarous? Arles Valens cf. LRBC As no. 68? Arles Valens cf. LRBC 528/ As above Arles Gratian LRBC As above ?Arles Valentinian I LRBC 481ff As above possibly barbarous ?Arles Valentinian I cf. LRBC 481ff As above possibly barbarous ?Arles Valens cf. LRBC 483ff As above possibly barbarous ?Arles?Valens cf. LRBC 483ff As no ?Arles?Valens cf. LRBC 483ff As above ?Arles House of Valentinian As above Aquileia Valentinian I cf. LRBC As above ??Arles Valentinian I As above ?Lyons or?valens Arles 85 As above ? Gratian GLORIA NOVI SAECVLI; Emperor Arles Gratian LRBC standing with shield and astandard 87 As above Arles Gratian LRBC As above Arles Gratian LRBC 523a As above Arles Gratian LRBC As above Arles Gratian LRBC As above Arles Gratian LRBC 517/523a As above Arles Gratian LRBC 505ff VOT / XV / MVLT / XX in wreath Lyons Gratian LRBC VICTORIA AVGGG ? House of Theodosius Unclear type 4 th Cent? ?Coin?3 rd / 4 th Cent? ENGLISH HERITAGE 17

26 Catalogue 2: Coins recorded as being found at Kennet in the 19 th century by Joshua Brooke This catalogue is extracted from lists of coins in Brooke s reports in the Marlborough College Natural History Society Reports (Brooke 1888, 1889, 1890 & 1892). There are further specimens in his undated Illustrated List of Curiosities (Brooke undated, 25-8). In many cases the coins can be attributed with confidence to a recorded specimen in modern works. Other coins can be given a general description. A few, however, can only be given a very general attribution. An aureus of Nero from Silbury Hill, noted by Brooke, is added to the list. No. Emperor /Denom Mint Dates Reverse References Source 1 Moneyer Cn. Domitius Rome BC CN. DOMI; Jupiter in Quadriga RRC 285/1 Brooke 1888, Julius Caesar denarius - c BC - - Brooke undated 25 3 Julius Caesar sestertius - c.?38bc - - Brooke undated 25 4 Augustus denarius Lyon BC ACT; Apollo RIC I, 171a Brooke 1890, Tiberius under Augustus? -?c. AD Brooke 1889, Dupondius/As 6 Caligula as Rome VESTA RIC I, 38/47/54 Brooke 1888, Nero aureus Rome Brooke 1888, Nero denarius Rome 66-7 Prob. IVPPITER CVSTOS; Jupiter seated RIC I, cf. 964 Brooke 1889, 111 left 9 Nero sestertius Possibly ANNONA CERES AVGVSTA RIC I, cf. 98 for Brooke 1892, 55 type 10 Nero as Prob. Lyon VICTORIA AVGVSTI, S C RIC I, cf. 410 Brooke 1888, Otho denarius Rome 69 SECVRITAS P R; Security standing left RIC I, 10 Brooke 1890, Vitellius denarius Rome 69 CONCORDIA P R; Concordia seated RIC I, 66 Brooke 1892, 55 left 13 Vespasian denarius Rome 76 Prob. COS VII, Eagle with head left RIC II, cf. 847 Brooke 1889, Vespasian denarius Rome 71 TRI POT COS III P P; Pax RIC II, 41 Brooke 1888, Vespasian denarius Rome 77-8 ANNONA AVG; Annona seated left RIC II, 964/966 Brooke 1892, Vespasian sestertius Brooke 1888, This coin is recorded with the obverse CAESAR AVGVST F IMPERAT V, head left, and the reverse PONTIF TRBVN POTESTATE, seated figure left. Such a piece does not exist, but it appears to be a piece for Tiberius struck under Augustus. ENGLISH HERITAGE 18

27 No. Emperor /Denom Mint Dates Reverse References Source 17 Titus for Germanicus as Rome IMP T CAES DIVI VESP F AVG REST; S RIC II, 442 Brooke 1890, 106 C 18 Domitian as Rome FORTVN AVGVSTI, S C; Fortuna RIC II, cf. 380 for Brooke 1889, 112 standing left type 19 Trajan denarius Rome COS V S P Q R OPTIMO PRINCIPI; - Brooke 1888, 147-8?seated emperor 20 Trajan sestertius Rome S P Q R OPTIMO PRINCIPI S C; Pax RIC II, cf. 503ff. Brooke 1889, 112 standing left 21 Trajan sestertius Rome S P Q R OPTIMO PRINCIPI S C; RIC II, 534ff Brooke 1888, 148 Emperor riding down Dacian 22 Trajan sestertius Rome S P Q R OPTIMO PRINCIPI; RIC II, 492ff Brooke 1888, 148 Abundantia 23 Hadrian denarius Rome P M TR P COS III; Mars advancing right RIC II, 67 Brooke 1892, Hadrian denarius Rome COS III; Concordia seated left RIC II, 172 Brooke 1890, Hadrian as Rome 119 PONT MAX TR POT COS III, S C; RIC II, 577a-b Brooke 1892, 56 BRITANNIA 26 Hadrian as Rome [DACIA] S C; Dacia seated left RIC II, 580 Brooke 1888, Antoninus Pius as Rome 139 P M TR P COS II; Pax standing left RIC II, cf. 532 Brooke 1889, Antoninus Pius sestertius Rome 140-4?[SALVS AVG], S C;?Salus standing left RIC II, cf. 635 Brooke 1888, Antoninus Pius sestertius Rome S C or COS IIII S C; Probably Antoninus RIC III, cf. 720 & Brooke 1892, 56 in quadriga Antoninus Pius sestertius Rome (COSIII?) Mars advancing left with spear and RIC III, cf. 779 (but Brooke 1889, 112 trophy COS IIII and Mars right) 31 Faustina I sestertius Rome AETERNITAS S C; Aeternitas seated RIC II, cf. 1103A Brooke 1888, 148 left 32 Marcus Aurelius sestertius Rome Illegible - Brooke 1888, Faustina II sestertius Rome Illegible - Brooke 1888, Lucilla sestertius Rome Prob. [VENVS S C]; Venus seated left RIC III, cf. 1171ff Brooke 1888, 149; Brooke undated Lucilla dupondius/as Rome Uncertain - Brooke 1888, Julia Domna denarius Rome MATER DEVM; Cybele seated left RIC IV, pt 1, Brooke 1892, In his notebook, Brooke notes a sestertius of Lucilla from Silbury Hill. Is it this coin? Is it also the coin from Well B that Brooke received from a labourer? (Brooke undated, 26). ENGLISH HERITAGE 19

28 No. Emperor /Denom Mint Dates Reverse References Source 37 Caracalla sestertius Rome PROVIDENTIAE DEORVM S C; RIC IV, pt 1, 511 Brooke 1888, 149 Providentia standing left 38 Caracalla as Rome VICTORIAE BRITANNICAE S C; RIC IV, pt 1, 522 Brooke 1888, 149 Victory and palm tree 39 Severus Alexander Rome IOVI PROPUGNATORI S C RIC IV, pt 2, cf. Brooke 1888, 149 dupondius/as & Julia Mamaea denarius Rome IVNO CONSERVATRIX; Juno standing RIC IV, pt 2, cf. Brooke 1888, 150 with patera, sceptre and peacock Gordian III sestertius Rome Brooke 1888, Gordian III dupondius/as Rome Brooke 1888, Philip I sestertius Rome Brooke 1888, Trajan Decius radiate Brooke, undated Gallienus sestertius Rome Brooke 1888, Gallienus, base metal Berytus, Phoenicia COL IVL AVG FEL, BERV; Lion right BMC 271 check Brooke 1890, 108 Roman Provincial 47 Gallienus radiate Brooke 1888, Victorinus radiate Brooke 1888, Carausius radiate Brooke 1888, 150; Brooke undated Allectus radiate Brooke 1888, Valentinian I siliqua Brooke 1888, 150; Brooke undated Valentinian I nummus Brooke undated Valens nummus Brooke undated Valentinian II nummus Brooke undated In his notebook, Brooke notes a 3 rd bronze of Carausius from Silbury Hill. Is it this coin? Is it also the coin from Well B that Brooke received from a labourer? (Brooke undated, 26). ENGLISH HERITAGE 20

29 Catalogue 3: The Roman coins from the Silbury Wells excavations of J. W. Brooke in 1896 (Well A) and 1908 (Well B) The following catalogue contains the 43 coins which are in the Wiltshire Museum that are labelled from Silbury Wells (nos. 1-43), an entry for one coin from Well B which is recorded in Brooke s Finds Diary but has not survived in the archive (no. 4a) and five coins which appear to have come from the earlier excavation of Well B by H. Cunnington and which do not survive (marked with an asterisk). The significance of the Groupings (A, B and C) used in the Wiltshire Museum archive is not known, but these groupings are noted here. Coin no. 4a from Well B (1908) is not present in the archive; it is recorded in Brooke s notebook. No. 22 is probably from the Well A (1896) excavation, as is one of the other Theodosian nummi (nos ). The remainder of the coins are probably all from the 1908 excavation. No. Emperor /Denom. Mint Dates Reverse References Well provenance Site/Museum code 1 Trajan sestertius Rome S P Q R OPTIMO PRINCIPI S C; Emperor riding down captive RIC III, cf. 534/543 Well B Group B / * Lucilla Possibly from the 1882 excavation of Well B (Brooke undated 26) 13 2 Victorinus Radiate Gaul Mint I VIRTVS AVG; Virtus standing right Cunetio cf Well B Group C / Barbarous Radiate - c Possibly PAX AVG as for Tetricus I Cunetio cf Well B Group A / * Carausius Possibly from the 1882 excavation of Well B (Brooke undated 26) 13 This coin is possibly in the list of coins from Kennet recorded by Brooke. ENGLISH HERITAGE 21

30 4 th century No Reverse Type Dates Mint Emperor References Well Provenance Site / Museum code 4 VICTORIAE LAETAE PRINC PERP; 2 Victories 319 London Constantine I RIC VII, cf. 156 Well B Group C / a SARMATIA DEVICTA Constantine I - Well B; not in archive Brooke 1938, 26 & 28 5 SALVS REI PVBLICAE; Salus Antioch Fausta RIC VII, 68(I) Well B Group C / GLORIA EXERCITVS, 2 standards Trier Constantine I RIC VII, 538(P) Well B Group B / * Constantine I - Possibly from the 1882 excavation of Well B (Brooke undated 26) * Constantine II - Possibly from the 1882 excavation of Well B (Brooke undated 26) 7?GLORIA EXERCITVS,?2 standards?c, or later -?House of Constantine;?Contemporary copy - Well B Group A / GLORIA EXERCITVS; 1 standard c or later Trier House of Constantine; Contemporary copy - Well B Group B; Wolf and twins c or later - House of Constantine: VRBS ROMA; Contemporary copy - Well B Group B; ; Group B; Victory on prow Trier House of Constantine: RIC VII, cf. 530(P) Well B Group B; 12 Victory on prow c or later 13 VICTORIAE DD AVGGQ NN; 2 Victories 14 VICTORIAE DD NN AVG ET CAE; 2 Victories 15 VICTORIAE DD NN AVG ET CAE; 2 Victories CONSTANTINOPOLIS - House of Constantine: CONSTANTINOPOLIS; Contemporary copy Well B Group B; Probably Constantius II - Well B Group B; Amiens Magnentius RIC VIII, 25 Well B Group C; Probably Magnentius RIC VIII, cf. 307 Well B Group C; Trier ENGLISH HERITAGE 22

31 No Reverse Type Dates Mint Emperor References Well Provenance Site / Museum code 16 FEL TEMP REPARATIO; Fallen horseman type Trier Constantius II RIC VIII, cf. 360 Well B Group C; a 17?FEL TEMP REPARATIO;?Fallen horseman type c or later - Constantius II - Well B Group C; b 18 GLORIA ROMANORVM; Emperor and captive Lyon House of Valentinian - Well B Group B; As above?364-7 Aquileia House of Valentinian LRBC, cf. 965ff Well B Group B; As above House of Valentinian - Well B Group B; SECVRITAS REI PVBLICAEAs above Arles House of Valentinian; probably contemporary - Well B Group B; copy 22 VICTORIA AVGGG Arles Probably Arcadius LRBC cf. 566/569 Probably Well A Group B; ; probably from the 1896 excavation of Well A 23 As above Arles House of Theodosius LRBC cf. 562ff Prob. Well B, but poss. the Theodosian in Well A Group B; As above House of Theodosius - Prob. Well B, but poss. the Theodosian in Well A Group B; ?As above ?House of Theodosius - Prob. Well B, but poss. the Group B; 26?As above? Probably House of Theodosius; possibly Contemporary copy 27 SALVS REI PVBLICAE; Victory advancing left with trophy and captive Theodosian in Well A - Prob. Well B, but poss. the Theodosian in Well A Valentinian II - Prob. Well B, but poss. the Theodosian in Well A 28 As above Honorius; possibly a contemporary copy - Prob. Well B, but poss. the Theodosian in Well A 29 As above House of Theodosius - Prob. Well B, but poss. the Theodosian in Well A Group A; Group C; c Group A; Group B; ENGLISH HERITAGE 23