Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh*

Transcription

1 Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh* Dr. A. I. Mahbub Uddin Ahmed Professor, Department of Sociology University Of Dhaka Dhaka-1000; Bangladesh August 2008 A Report Submitted to the Global Forest Coalition (GFC), the Netherlands. * This is a report on a research work conducted by two teams headed by Dr. A. I. Mahbub Uddin Ahmed. The first team consisting of Dr. A. I. Mahbub Uddin Ahmed, Ms. Farhida Islam, Ms. Tabassum Rahman and Mr. Mehdi Hasan of the Department of Sociology was entrusted the responsibility of Sal and hill forestry. The second team consisting of Dr. M. Nazrul Islam and Md. Nazrul Islam of Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University and A.S.M. Saifullah of Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, MBUST was responsible for Sunderban Mangrove forest.

2 Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements 4 List of Tables 5 List of Map 5 List of Figures 5 List of Photos 5 Executive Summary 6 Introduction 9 Statement of the Problem 9 Objective of the Study 10 Methodology 10 Scope of the Study 11 Chapter 1 Conceptualizing Deforestation and Forest Degradation Definition of Deforestation and Forest Degradation Relationship between Deforestation and Forest Degradation Trend of Global Deforestation and Forest Degradation Causes and Consequences of Deforestation and Forest Degradation 15 Chapter 2 Forest in Bangladesh Forest area and Type of Forestry in Bangladesh Forest Act and Forest Policy in Bangladesh Forest Policy in Bangladesh Forest Management in Bangladesh Forest Management Plans Land Rights, Indigenous Population and Forestry 31 Chapter 3 Research on Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh Forest Management Development Interventions Encroachment Physical and Environmental Factors Ruthless Profit Making 38 Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 2

3 Chapter 4 Underlying Causes of Deforestation in Bangladesh Industrialization Irrational Profit-making Militarization Consumerism Forest Management Agricultural Practice Over population, Poverty and Unemployment Development Interventions 46 Chapter 5 Underlying Causes of Forest Degradation in Bangladesh Physical and Environmental Causes Socio-Economic Causes 51 Conclusion and Recommendations 53 References 54 Annexure Annex 1- Check List for Key Informant: Owner of Furniture Industries 59 Annex 1- Check List for Key Informant: Owner of Furniture Industries 61 Annex 3- Check List for Key Informant: Official of Forest Department 62 Annex 4- Check List for Key Informant: Consumer 64 Annex 5- Check List for Key Informant: Timber Trader 66 Annex 6- Check List for Focus Group Discussions 68 Annex 7- Check List for Community Workshops 69 Annex 8- Some significant chapters regarding deforestation and forest degradation in Forest Act 2000 (Amended) 70 Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 3

4 Acknowledgements This work owes its existence to many people and institutions. In the first place, we are grateful to Global Forest Coalition, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, especially to Ms. Sandy Gauntlett, Oceania Focal Point and Ms. Simone Lovera, Managing Coordinator of Global Forest Coalition for the generous grant to conduct this research and disseminate research findings through publication and national workshop. We are also thankful to the key informants, focus group discussants and participants of the Community Workshops in Greater districts of Mymensingh, Khulna and Chittagong Hill Tracts. They provided us with valuable information for this research. In addition, we would like to extend our gratitude to the local administrations of the aforementioned districts for their all-out efforts to collect valuable data for this study and provide us with hospitality. We would also like to thank our investigator Dr. M. Nazrul Islam of Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University and co-investigators Md. Nazrul Islam, Department of Geography and Environment, Jahangirnagar University and A.S.M. Saifullah, Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Maulana Bhasani University of Science and Technology, Tangail. Special thanks to our research associates Ms. Farhida Islam, Ms. Tabassum Rahman and Mr. Mehdi Hasan of the Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka, who saw through the completion of this research, report writing and workshop. Finally, the support staff of Dhaka Institute of Cultural Affairs, Bangladesh including its Executive Director Mr. Azizur Rahman deserves our thanks. Dated: Dhaka: August 2008 Dr. A. I. Mahbub Uddin Ahmed Professor, Department of Sociology University Of Dhaka Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 4

5 Page List of Tables Table 2.1- Category of Forest Land 19 Table 2.2- Forest Area Managed by Forest Department 20 List of Map Map 2.1- Forest Areas in Bangladesh 21 List of Figures Figure 1.1- Area of Forest Ecosystems 14 Figure 4.1- A Comparative View of Deforestation in Three Forest Areas of Bangladesh 48 Figure 5.1- A Comparative View of Forest Degradation in Three Forest Areas of Bangladesh 52 List of Photos Photo 1- Pile of log beside a highway in Madhupur 40 Photo 2- Unreconstructed decorative wooden furniture in one of the Sal Forest areas 42 Photo 3- A Saw Mill in Sherpur, one of the Sal Forest areas 44 Photo 4- A saw mill in Bandarban, one of the Hill Forest Areas 46 Photo 5- FGD participants at Southkhali, Sarankhola 50 Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 5

6 Executive Summary Objective of Study The main objective of this study is to find the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh. An analytic model is constructed on the assumed relationship between various socioeconomic variables and deforestation. Methodology of the Study For this purpose, mixed qualitative techniques key informant interviews, focus group discussion, community workshop, case studies and content analysis from media reporting-- have been used. Data are collected from three forest types hill, sal and mangrove. For monetary and time constraints, few representative areas have been visited, for examples, for hill forestry, Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban; for sal forestry, Bhaluka, Modhupur and Rangtia; for mangrove, Karamjol and Khurakhali. Two teams composed of sociologists; geographers and an environment specialist have collectively conducted this study. The main findings of underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in three forest areas of Bangladesh are as follows: The Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in three Forest Areas of Bangladesh 1. Sal forest in Greater Mymensingh District From our fieldwork in greater Mymensingh forest area, few underlying causes of deforestation such as industrialization (illegal possession), irrational profit-making (commercial plantation), militarization, and forest policy (social forestry) emerged. Out of 46,000 acres in the Tangail part of the Modhupur forest, 7,800 acres (17%) have been given out for rubber cultivation, 1,000 acres (2%) to the Air Force, 25,000 acres (54%) have gone into illegal possession and the FD controls only 9,000 acres (20%). Thus, plantation of exotics rubber, acacia and eucalyptus, pineapple, banana, cassava and medicinal plants--has caused forest degradation and has adversely affected the livelihood of Garos and Koch. Conversion of forest land into Air force base and training ground also contributed to the deforestation. Illegal possession of forest land for the purposes of agriculture, habitat and industry are taking place. In this respect, social forestry has played a curious role. In Bangladesh social forestry on public forest land means big cash deal with loans coming from international financial institutions. The practice of simple plantation forestry has been passed for social community or participatory forestry. This has caused rapid destruction of native vegetation and its biodiversity assets on public forests. In Modhupur, once abundant with medicinal plants, one can hardly find native species such as Gandhi Gazari, Ajuli, Dud Kuruj, Sonalu (Golden shower), Sesra, Jiga, Jogini Chakra, Kaika, Sidha, Sajna, Amloki. In addition, plundering of forest land through patron-client relationship and power brokerage at the backdrop of weak forest policy and management has exacerbated the incidence of deforestation. 2. Hill Forest in Chittagong Hill Tracts In hill forest area, militarization, profit-making, industrialization and development interventions are the main causes of deforestation and degradation in the hill area. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 6

7 These factors have created the problem of land right of the adivasi, which has become a crucial issue centering of which other direct causes of deforestation and degradation follow. The development intervention in the form of Karnaphuli hydro-electricity project and Kaptai dam is the main underlying cause of hill deforestation. The chain of events ethnic conflict, conversion of forest land for the military use, Bangali encroachment, practice of jhum cultivation by the Bangali settlers, the process of Islamic form of Bangalicization and cash crop like ginger and etc. all contribute to the hill deforestation. In addition, in Sylhet region, gas exploration by the multinational corporation has contributed to the indiscriminate and ruthless destruction of forestry and environment. Above all, consumerism, an index of the rise of standard of living is also no less a factor for the destruction of trees in Bangladesh. 3. Sundarban Mangrove forest in Greater Khulna District There are six major causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Sunderban mangrove forest area: poverty, profit-making, forest management, natural disaster, salinity and sedimentation. It is found that the rate of literacy in the study area is very low. These uneducated people cannot find alternative livelihood approach other than extracting resources from the Sundarbans. Participants of PRA at Karamjal and Khurakhali agreed that the salinity of water in the Sundarbans area is increasing day by day. It is reported that vast degradation of Sundari trees is also caused by high salinity. Different types of disease of the trees are also accountable for the deforestation in the Sunderbans. Illegal logging is also responsible for the deforestation in the Sundarbans. From the field it is also found that lack of alternative livelihood approach push the coastal people to depend on mangrove forest produce. According to them the land is not that much suitable for paddy cultivation so that they are not getting required amount of food grains from their cultivable land. Most of the people don t have agricultural land of their own also. For livelihood, they are mostly depending on the Sundarbans. Natural disasters are also accountable for the deforestation in the Sundarbans every year. Another important reason behind the deforestation in the Sundarbans is the decreasing discharge of fresh water from the upstream river which is fostered by the Farakka Dam. It is also found that volatile forest policy is responsible for deforestation in the Sundarbans. According to them before mid 80s they were allowed to enter into the forest for timber, fire wood and other resources collection with having permit from the government. But in mid 1980s, the permit system has been cancelled. In consequence of this cancellation of permit, illegal logging increased and government losing revenue and in this way deforestation is also enhancing. Conclusion and Recommendations: From the immediate causes we can find the remote and underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh. As pointed out earlier, the modern industrial civilization has created a form of life style, which through consumerism and conspicuous consumption, made the plundering of forest and nature a lucrative enterprise for the industrial capitalism. This variety of non-protestant irrational capitalism of the transnational corporation has created a cage of dependency for the humanity, especially for the underdeveloped one. A conglomerate of corporatization, dependent state, comprador and lumpen class structure, ineffective forest policy and management, all of them stemming from the disembedding process of globalization have collectively contributed for the deforestion of Bangladesh. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 7

8 The immediate task of the nation would be to revert to the policy of reforestation and the formulation and execution of strict environmental protection law. This can be done through honest political will in the form of effective forest policy and reorganizing forest department. We can change our habit of consumerism: use recycled paper, minimize paper wastage by using both sides of paper when writing, drawing, photo-copying, faxing, etc. and buy furniture and wood that is Certified. That means the wood is legally cut-down. This is how we can cope with the antinomy which is presented by modernity. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 8

9 Introduction Statement of the Problem At the outset of this paper it is important to define deforestation to demystify its popular notion. Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land through cutting, clearing, and removal of rainforest or related ecosystems into less bio-diverse ecosystems such as pasture, cropland, or plantations, urban use, logged area, or wasteland (Kricher, 1997). Deforestation results from removal of trees without sufficient reforestration, and results in declines in habitat and biodiversity, wood for fuel and industrial use, and quality of life (Nilsson, 1995). In many countries, massive deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Forest degradation and deforestation are closely related as both can cause each other. Therefore, in many cases, there is a common cause, immediate or final, for both variables. The destruction of forests began from the formation of early civilizations. The Laws of Manu (samhita) is replete with passages refering to the formation of human habitat by clearing the jungle. Thus began the antinomy between men and nature, which took a monstrous proportion in modernity. The 1839 writings of early Engels, Letters from Wuppertal, is a remarkable documentation of the ruthless destruction of environment by early industrialization and the misery that befell on modern mankind, especially the working class (Engels, 1839). The unethical persuasion of profit by industrial capitalism has led to the global annihilation of forests, and the planet has experienced an unprecedented high rate of destruction of forests since 1850s (Wilson, 2002). FAO made a global assessment of 179 countries in1990 and found that forest land constituted slightly over 3,400 million ha or 27 per cent of the land area. Forests of the developed regions represented 42 per cent of the total global forest area compared to 58 per cent of the underdeveloped regions (FAO, 1995). The loss of forest area during was estimated to 163 million ha, of which 154 million ha or 94.5 per cent was in the tropics only (FAO, 1995). The per capita forest area fell globally from an average of nearly 1.2 ha in the 1960 to 0.6 ha in 1990 and it is projected to be less than 0.2 ha by 2020 (FAO, 1995). Thus, between 1960 and 1990, there was a steep rise in the decadal rate of deforestation worldwide with Brazil having the highest annual rate. The global data show that the Atlantic coast of Brazil, the Philippines, Madagascar and Sumatra have lost between 85 per cent and 95 per cent of their forests due to ruthless corporate industrial exploitation, whereas heavy bombing has destroyed per cent rainforest of El Salvador during the civil war in and of Afghanistan during the American invasion in the 1990s. 1 Interestingly enough, 94 per cent of Central Africa s forests are not protected by law. The situation of Bangladesh is apocalyptic one. The country has a population of 140 million with an area of million ha. The data on forestland is a contested one. One estimate puts the total forestland as 2.47 million ha area, whereas the FAO estimates the total natural forest cover as 769,000 ha or 5.9 per cent and the area of plantations as 2.5 per cent of the total land area (FAO, 1993). Bangladesh's natural forests are 1 The effect of landmine on Afghanistan s deforestation is reported in Habibi (n.d.) Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 9

10 controlled by the Forest Department and fall broadly under three main classes: (a) hill forests, (b) inland deciduous Sal forests, and (c) the Sundarbans mangrove forests. The average annual rate of deforestation in the country in 1980 was 8,000 ha or 1 percent, which rose to nearly 5 percent during registering a 400 per cent increase (FAO, 1993). Probably the rate of destruction of forest is more severe than the official statistics. Before we discuss the specific causes of deforestation in three forest areas of Bangladesh, it is pertinent to present an inventory of major global causes. There are thirteen major causes of deforestation: (1) logging, (2) mining, (3) oil and gas extraction, (4) cattle ranching, (5) cash crops agriculture, 2 (6) developmental interventions, (7) dispute over land titles, (8) government subsidies to attract corporations into underdeveloped countries, (9) trade agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA), (10) civil wars, (11) international debt, (12) lack of resources, and (13) lack of law enforcement. Strangely enough, all these causes are relevant for Bangladesh in addition to few specific causes characteristic to Bangladesh polity and society. The environmental and social consequences of deforestation are innumerable. The major environmental consequences are the following: (a) extinction of microbes, plants, insects and animals, (b) habitat fragmentation-- territorial conflicts, homelessness, lack of food availability and migration, (c) soil erosion, (d) changes in watershed geomorphology, (e) desertification, (f) climate change in the form of global warming and (g) pollution. The main social impacts are: (i) loss of culture, (ii) displacement of people, (iii) social conflicts and struggles over land and natural resources, (iv) conflicts over racial and ethnic rights and (v) economic uncertainty. Bangladesh displays, more or less, all these consequences. Objective of the Study At the backdrop of such an apocalyptic situation for Bangladesh, the main objective of this paper is to explore the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh. An analytic model is constructed on the assumed relationship between various socioeconomic variables and deforestation. Methodology For this purpose, mixed qualitative techniques key informant interviews, focus group discussion, community workshop, case studies and content analysis from media reporting-- have been used. Data are collected from three forest types hill, sal and mangrove. For monetary and time constraints, few representative areas have been visited, for examples, for hill forestry, Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban; for sal forestry, Bhaluka, Modhupur and Rangtia; for mangrove, Karamjol and Karuakhali. Two teams composed of sociologists, geographers and an environment specialist have collectively conducted this study. 2 Apart from acid rain, the conversion of forest land into cash crops agricultural land, especially in Siberia after the collapse of the Soviet Union is a striking example. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 10

11 Scope of the Study The study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with the conceptualization of deforestation and forest degradation from the perspective of forestry. In this study, deforestation has been defined as the loss or continual degradation of forest habitat due to either natural or human related causes; and forest degradation has been defined as the changes within the forest, which negatively affect the structure or function of the site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products. The chapter also gives an account of the extent of the problem confronted by the global society. It is found that poverty and low land/man ratio coupled with consumerism trigger off series of events like logging, cash crops, illegal felling and etc., which are directly related to deforestation. Apart from these, mining and bombing due to war, oil and gas extraction due to ruthless motive for profit can be construed as main causes of global deforestation. Chapter two which deals with forest in Bangladesh gives background knowledge of the area and types of forestry; forest laws and forest management. It is found that in Bangladesh there are three forest areas--the sal forest (0.12 million ha), hill forest (0.67 million ha) and mangrove forest (0.6 million ha). Chapter three mentions the status of research on underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh. It is interesting to note that hardly any systematic study has been conducted in this area. Five interrelated causes of deforestation and forest degradation are being found. They are: forest management, development interventions, encroachment on forest land, physical and environmental causes and ruthless profit-making activities. Chapter four deals with the underlying causes of deforestation in Bangladesh as found in the fieldwork in Sal, Hill and Mangrove forestry. In Sal forest, three main underlying causes of deforestation--commercial plantation, militarization and illegal possession, especially through industrialization and social forestry-- are found. Similarly, the hill forest also exhibits the same causes. In addition, the development intervention in the form of Karnaphuli hydro-electricity project and Kaptai dam initiated the chain of events ethnic conflict, conversion of forest land for the military use, Bangali encroachment, practice of jhum cultivation by the Bangali settlers, the process of Islamic form of Bangalicization, and cash crop like ginger and etc. They all contributed to the hill deforestation. 3 In Sunderban mangrove forest area, seven major causes of deforestation are found. They are: poverty, profit motive, natural disaster, salinity, sedimentation and ineffective forest management and international intervention in the form of Farakka Dam constructed by neighboring India. This caused decreasing discharge of fresh water from the upstream river. Chapter five deals with the underlying causes of forest degradation in Bangladesh as found in the fieldwork in Sal, Hill and Mangrove forestry. Two main causes of degradation are found. They are: physical and environmental, and socioeconomic causes. In conclusion and recommendations, industrialization and militarization of the forest land have been identified as the main causes of Bangladesh deforestation. The effective implementation of forest laws and effective forest management are recommended as remedial measures of deforestation and degradation. 3 Moreover, in Sylhet region, gas exploration by the multinational corporation contributed to the indiscriminate and ruthless destruction of forestry and environment. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 11

12 Chapter 1 Conceptualizing Deforestation and Forest Degradation 1.1 Definition of Deforestation and Forest Degradation Deforestation: Deforestation is the loss or continual degradation of forest habitat due to either natural or human related causes. Agriculture, urban sprawl, unsustainable forestry practices, mining, and petroleum exploration all contribute to human caused deforestation. Natural deforestation can be linked to tsunamis, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, glaciation and desertification. Deforestation can be defined broadly to include not only conversion to non-forest, but also degradation that reduces forest quality - the density and structure of the trees, the ecological services supplied, the biomass of plants and animals, the species diversity and the genetic diversity. Narrow definitions of deforestation define deforestation as the removal of forest cover to an extent that allows for alternative land use. The United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) uses a broad definition of deforestation, while the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) uses a narrow definition. The term deforestation has also been used to refer to fuel wood cutting, commercial logging and slash and burn cultivation. It also is used to describe forest clearing for annual crops, for grazing, and establishment of industrial forest plantations (Wikipedia, 2008). Characterizing deforestation at a given time and place involves as a rule determining with some certainty what the more or less long-term future of the deforested area will be. There is no deforestation if the clearfelling is done on an area that is meant to be maintained as a forest (as in the case of "temporarily unstocked" forests); deforestation on the other hand does exist - and this is actually the point of view of forest management - when the forest in question is cleared in order to be cultivated or abandoned for a long time, and if its regeneration cannot take place before several decades have passed (Lanly, 2003). Forest degradation: According to FAO (2006), Forest Degradation is the changes within the forest which negatively affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products and/or services. This Takes different forms particularly in open forest formations deriving mainly from human activities such as overgrazing, overexploitation (for fuelwood or timber), repeated fires, or due to attacks by insects, diseases, plant parasites or other natural sources such as cyclones. In most cases, degradation does not show as a decrease in the area of woody vegetation but rather as a gradual reduction of biomass, changes in species composition and soil degradation. Unsustainable logging practices can contribute to degradation if the extraction of mature trees is not accompanied with their regeneration or if the use of heavy machinery causes soil compaction or loss of productive forest area. 1.2 Relationship between Deforestation and Forest Degradation Very often degradation does not show up so much in decrease of woody vegetation but rather as a gradual reduction in biomass, changes in species composition and soil degradation (FAO, 2000). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 12

13 In Bangladesh one important cause behind changing species composition and soil depletion is the large scale plantation of different exotic species. Often large-scale plantations replace forests and are thus a direct cause of deforestation and loss of forest biological diversity. Such plantations are typically monocultures of trees, bred for rapid growth, uniformity of management and high yield of fiber. Generally, they lead to loss of biodiversity of the land because of their uniform structure and the use of non-native species in monoculture (Primer on Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation, n. d.) Relevant policies of the Asian development Bank (ADB), including on s and Forestry, have acknowledged the growing importance of environmental concerns and the needs of maintaining biological diversity. The ground situation, however, suggests a far stronger emphasis on plantations at the expense of protection of natural forests and natural regeneration of degraded forests. Various projects on community forestry, social forestry and participatory forestry have actually created plantations with narrow genetic bases, including exotic species that are harmful to biodiversity, such as rubber, pine and Eucalyptus (Roy, 2002). 1.3 Trend of Global Deforestation and Forest Degradation It is impossible to overstate the importance of humankind's clearing of the forests. The transformation of forested lands by human actions represents one of the great forces in global environmental change and one of the great drivers of biodiversity loss. The impact of people has been and continues to be profound. Forests are cleared, degraded and fragmented by timber harvest, conversion to agriculture, road-building, human-caused fire, and in myriad other ways. The effort to use and subdue the forest has been a constant theme in the transformation of the earth, in many societies, in many lands, and at most times. Deforestation has important implications for life on this planet. Originally, almost half of the United States, three-quarters of Canada, almost all of Europe, the plains of the Levant, and much of the rest of the world were forested. The forests have been mostly removed for fuel, building materials and to clear land for farming. The clearing of the forests has been one of the most historic and prodigious feats of humanity. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 13

14 Area of Forest Ecosystems (World total:~ 34 million km 2 ) Source: Internet Figure 1.1- Area of Forest Ecosystems About one half of the forests that covered the Earth are gone. Each year, another 16 million hectares disappear. The World Resources Institute estimates that only about 22% of the world's (old growth) original forest cover remains "intact" - most of this is in three large areas: the Canadian and Alaskan boreal forest, the boreal forest of Russia, and the tropical forest of the northwestern Amazon Basin and the Guyana Shield (Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, Columbia, etc.) Today, forests cover more than one quarter of the world's total land area, excluding polar regions. Slightly more than 50% of the forests are found in the tropics and the rest are temperate and boreal (coniferous northern forest) zones. Seven countries (Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) account for more than 60% of the total. For millennia, humankind has influenced the forests, although much of the impact has been relatively minor. Today, the impact is enormous. Deforestation is expanding and accelerating into the remaining areas of undisturbed forest, and the quality of the remaining forests is declining. Today we examine global patterns in deforestation, assess the human and ecological costs of forest loss, and discuss some of the steps that can help to rectify this alarming situation. (Global Deforestation, 2006.) Until quite recently, most of the deforestation occurred in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. By the beginning of this century, these regions had been mostly converted from the original cover. Now, deforestation in these regions has stabilized and regrowth is occurring (though second growth forests have quite different character, see below). In the last few decades, the vast majority of deforestation has occurred in the tropics - and the pace still accelerates. The removal of tropical forests in Latin America is proceeding at a pace of about 2% per year. In Africa, the pace is about 0.8% per year and in Asia it is 2% per year. Since 1600, 90% of the virgin forests that once covered much of the lower 48 states have been cleared away. Most of the remaining old-growth forests in the lower 48 states Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 14

15 and Alaska are on public lands. In the Pacific Northwest about 80% of this forestland is slated for logging. 1.4 Causes and Consequences of Deforestation and Forest Degradation Causes of Deforestation: Prehistory Deforestation has been practiced by humans since the beginnings of civilization. Fire was the first tool that allowed humans to modify the landscape. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic. It was probably used to drive game into more accessible areas. With the advent of agriculture, fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. The Neolithic period saw much more extensive deforestation for farming land. Stone axes were now being made not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. Prehistory In Grear Britain shade tolerant species such as oak and ash are replaced in the pollen record by hazels,brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased transpiration resulting in the formation of upland peat bogs. Widespread decrease in elm pollen across Europe between BC and BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of Neolithic agriculture (Wikipedia, 2008). Pre-industrial history In ancient Greece, Tjeered van Andel summarized three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about years the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BCE saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC. A typical progess trap is that cities were often built in a forested area providing wood for some industry (e.g. construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. The combination of mining and metallurgy often went along this selfdestructive path. Meanwhile most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming; fortunately enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, e.g. to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable, and the hunting privileges of the elite (nobility and higher clergy) often protected significant woodlands. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 15

16 Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the benedictine and cistercian orders) and some feudal lords actively attracting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions even when they did so to launch or encourage cities, there always was an agricultural belt around and even quite some within the walls. When on the other hand demography took a real blow by such causes as the Black Death or devastating warfare (e.g. Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years War in Germany) this could lead to settlements being abandoned, leaving land to be reclaimed by nature, even though the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. From 1100 to 1500 AD significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonization, slave and other trade on the high seas and (often related) naval warfare (the failed invasion of England by the Spanish Armada in 1559 and the battle of Lepanto 1571 are early cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of Nelson's Royal navy war ships at Trafalgar had required 6000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that whole woody regions were over-harvested, as in Spain, where this contributed to the paradoxical weakening of the domestic economy since Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade) predominant (Wikipedia, 2008). Deforestation today Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by shifting cultivators to create short term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly, or without intervening fallow periods, the nutrient poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. Slash-and-burn techniques are used by native populations of over 200 million people worldwide. Short-sighted, market-driven forestry practices are often one of the leading causes of forest degradation. The principal human-related causes of deforestation are agriculture and livestock grazing, urbansprawl, mining, and petroleum extraction. Growing worldwide demand for wood to be used for fire wood or in construction, paper and furniture - as well as clearing land for commercial and industrial development (including road construction) have combined with growing local populations and their demands for agricultural expansion and wood fuel to endanger ever larger forest areas. Agricultural development schemes in Mexico, Brazil, and Indonesia (transmigration program) moved large populations into the rainforest zone, further increasing deforestation rates. One fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and Estimates of deforestation of tropical forest for the 1990s range from about 55,630 to 120,000 square kilometres each year. At this rate, all tropical forests may be gone by the year According to British environmentalist Norman Myers, 5% of deforestation is due to cattle ranching, 19% to over-heavy logging, 22% to the growing sector of palm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash-and-burn farming (Wikipeida, 2008) Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 16

17 1.4.2 Consequences of deforestation: Fiset (2008) says about consequences of deforestation which are as follows: 1. Exposing soil to heat and rain. When forests are cleared, soil cover, which consists mainly of vegetation, is removed as well. This exposes the bare soil to extreme conditions produced by the sun's heat and rainwater. With these activities alternating, the soil quickly compacts. As rainwater flows, it will wash out the nutrients and other organic materials that make the soil rich and fertile. Add to that the frequent activities of tilling, cropping and grazing which gradually results to the degradation of the soil's quality. These practices are specially a concern in areas where forest zones are drier. Agriculture practice on top of deforestation can result to the desertification of many areas. Desertification is also a direct result of the demand for the soil to produce more (as a consequence of the increase in human population), thereby decreasing to a significant degree the land's carrying capacity. 2. Flooding. Deforestation can result to watersheds that are no longer able to sustain and regulate water flows from rivers and streams. Trees are highly effective in absorbing water quantities, keeping the amount of water in watersheds to a manageable level. The forest also serves as a cover against erosion. Once they are gone, too much water can result to downstream flooding, many of which have caused disasters in many parts of the world. As fertile topsoil is eroded and flooded into the lower regions, many coastal fisheries and coral reefs suffer from the sedimentation brought by the flooding. This results to negative effects in the economic viability of many businesses and fatalities in wildlife population. 3. Non-suitability of deforested areas for conversion. Most of the areas that have undergone deforestation are actually unsuitable for long-term agricultural use such as ranching and farming. Once deprived of their forest cover, the lands rapidly degrade in quality, losing their fertility and arability. The soil in many deforested areas is also unsuitable for supporting annual crops. Much of the grassy areas are also not as productive compared to more arable soils and are therefore not fit for long-term cattle grazing. 4. The displacement of indigenous communities and their traditional way of life. When governments decide to offer forests for deforestation mainly to open up areas for 'civilized' communities, access to forest resources by s are ignored. In fact, s are hardly included in economic and political decisions that directly affect their lives. This encroachment ignores their rights as much as it takes away the resources that their ancestors have bestowed upon them. 5. The loss in the number of biodiversity. This is probably the most serious consequence of deforestation. Put simply, it means the destruction and extinction of many plant and animal species, many of whom remain unknown and whose benefits will be left undiscovered. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 17

18 Each year, as deforestation continues, much of the wilderness from which we benefit and would have continued to benefit from will be lost forever. With it are the millions of chances in the form of plants and wildlife that could bring us many economic and medical solutions to pressing problems we currently face. While it's true deforestation has brought with it opportunities to improve our lives, we have not mastered the right kind of responsibility that goes with having control over our planet's resources. As a result, we and all the other creatures on this planet suffer greatly from the consequences of our actions. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 18

19 Chapter 2 Forest in Bangladesh 2.1 Forest area and Type of Forestry in Bangladesh Bangladesh is situated in north eastern part of South Asia between 20 34' and 26 38' north latitude and between 88 01' and 92 41' east longitude. It lies in the active delta of three major rivers viz Padma, Meghna and Jamuna and their numerous tributaries. The country covers an area of 1,47,570 sq.km and bounded by India from the west, north and most of east. Myanmar lies on the southeastern edge and Bay of Bengal on the south. The southwestern region consists of a large number of dead and cut-off rivers. The coastal part of Bangladesh includes the famous Sundarbans Mangrove Forest. According to a recent estimate, total forest land in Bangladesh is about 2.5 million hectares or 17% of the land surface of the country (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2002). The forest land of Bangladesh is broadly categorized as state forest land (2.2 million hectares) and private forest land (0.4 million hectares). Of the state forest land 1.3 million hectares of natural forests and plantations are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department (FD) in the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MOFE). Table 2.1- Category of Forest Land Category of forest Area (million ha) Percentage 1 Forest land managed by Forest Department Unclassed state forest Village forest Total Source: Forest Department Classification of Forest Of the 2.52 million hectare Forest Land, Forest Department manages 1.52 million hectare which includes Reserved, Protected and Acquired forest and Mangrove forest on the newly accreted land in estuaries of major rivers. The remaining 0.73 million hectare of land designated as Unclassed State Forest (USF) are under the control of Ministry of Land. Village forests (homestead land) form the most productive tree resource base in the country and accounts for 0.27 million hectare 1. The Hill Forest mainly situated in the district of Chittagong, Cox s Bazar, Rangamati, Khagrachari, Bandarban and Sylhet. The total area of the Hill Forest is 670,000 hectare which accounts for 44% of total area managed by the Forest Department and 4.54% of total area of Bangladesh. 2. Sundarban, the world s largest contiguous natural mangrove forest in Bangladesh covers an area of 6,017 sq. km which accounts for 4.07% of total area of Bangladesh and 40% of total area managed by the Forest Department. The area covered by the three wildlife sanctuaries in the Sundarban is 1,39,700 hectare that was declared as World Heritage site by the UNESCO in Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 19

20 3. The plain land Sal forest is situated mainly in the district of Gazipur, Tangail, Mymensingh, Sherpur, Jamalpur, Netrokona, Naoga, Rangpur, Dinajpur and Panchagar. The total area of Sal Forest is 120,000 hectare which accounts for 0.81% of total area of Bangladesh and 7.89% of total area managed by the Forest Department. Table 2.2- Forest Area Managed by Forest Department Area Category of forest (million ha) Percentage 1 Hill Forests Natural Mangrove Forests Mangrove Plantations Plain Land Sal Forest Total: Source: Forest Department As opposed to 3 types of forest land classified by the type of management, there are 4 types of ecological classification: 1. Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest: These forests usually occur in hills and moist shady areas in Rangamati, Bandarban, Khagrachari, Chittagong, Cox s Bazar and Sylhet. They are rich in floristic composition. The forest is rich in epiphytes, orchids, and woody climbers, particularly in shady moist places. 2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests: These forests occur in Cox s Bazar, Chittagong, Rangamati, Khagrachari, Bandarban, and Sylhet in less dry and hotter localities. 3. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests: These forests occur in Dhaka, Mymensingh, Tangail, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Naogaon and Comilla. The principal species is Sal (Shorea robusta). 4. Mangrove forest (tidal forests): The natural mangrove forest is the Sundarbans in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts. Sundarbans constitutes the world s largest contiguous mangrove forest ecosystem. Besides natural mangroves in Sundarbans, there are a number of manmade mangrove forests along the coast of the Bay of Bengal. These coastal mangrove forests play an important role in the reclamation of land, protection of coastal habitats from cyclones and tidal surges, and to uplift the socio-economic conditions of coastal people. These forests have had been established in Barguna, Patuakhali, Bhola, Laksmipur, Noakhali, Feni, Chittagong and Cox Bazar Districts. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 20

21 Map 2.1- Forest Areas in Bangladesh (Green Colored) Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 21

22 2.2 Forest Act of Bangladesh During the Mughal period ( ), forests were leased out by the local kings. Systematic management of forests started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of Bengal. To regulate activities within forests, rules and regulations have been formulated, amended, modified and improved upon over the years. These rules and regulations are formulated on the basis of long-existing acts and policies. Forest legislation in Bangladesh dates back to 1865, when the first Indian Forest Act was enacted. It provided for protection of tree, prevention of fires, prohibition of cultivation, and grazing in forest areas. Until a comprehensive Indian Forest Act was formulated in 1927, several acts and amendments covering forest administration in British India were enacted and were as follows: (a) Indian Forest Act, 1873; (b) Forest Act, 1890; (c) Amending Act, 1891; (d) Indian Forest (Amendment) Act, 1901; (e) Indian Forest (Amendment) Act, 1911; (f) Repealing and Amending Act, 1914; (g) Indian Forest Amendment Act, 1918; and (h) Devolution Act, The Forest Act of 1927, as amended with its related rules and regulations, is still the basic law governing forests in Bangladesh. The emphasis of the Act is on the protection of reserved forest. Some important features of the Act are: (i) Under the purview of the Forest Act, all rights or claims over forestlands have been settled at the time of the reservation. The Act prohibits the grant of any new rights of any kind to individuals or communities; (ii) Any activity within the forest reserves is prohibited, unless permitted by the Forest Department; (iii) Most of the violations may result in court cases where the minimum fine is Taka 2,000 and/or two month's rigorous imprisonment; and (iv) The Act empowers the Forest Department to regulate the use of water-courses within Reserve Forests. An amendment of the Forest Act of 1927 was drafted in 1987 and approved in 1989, as the Forest (Amendment) Ordinance The Forest Act was further amended in 2000 and renamed as the Forest (Amendment) Act, Under this amendment some major changes have been brought in the Act. For assuming control of private forests and wastelands by the government in the interest of conservation, the Bengal Private Forest Act, 1945 was passed; but partition of India in 1947 intervened and the Act could not be put into effect. After partition, in 1949, East Pakistan reenacted the provisions of the Bengal Private Forest Act. This was passed in 1959 as The East Pakistan Private Forest Ordinance. The private forest and wastelands taken over by the government were to be managed as a distinct legal category, ie, vested forests. The ordinance had 64 clauses and detailed provisions for the management and protection of vested forests. Vested forests were taken over by the government from their private owners for a period of one hundred years for the purpose of conservation and afforestation, since they were not being cultivated properly by their owners (Banglapedia, 2008). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 22

23 2.2.1 Forest Act (Amendment), 1989 The Forest Act of 1927 as amended in 1989 has its roots in Indian Forest Act, The Forest Act grants the government several basic powers, largely for conservation and protection of government forests, and limited powers for private forests. The 1927 version of the act was amended in 1989 for extending authority over "any [Governmentowned] land suitable for afforestation". Forest department is the main agency to implement the provisions of the Forest Act. The Act, however, does not specify any sort of institutional structure for the forest or other land holding agencies. It also does not set out any specific policy direction for managing the forests. Most of the forest lands under the management of forest department are areas declared to be reserved and protected forests under this act. The act empowers the government to regulate the felling, extraction, and transport of forest produce in the country. The process to get permit for felling trees and transporting the material is quite bureaucratic and time consuming. The level of competent authority increases with the number of trees in question. Forest department limits the routes for transportation of forest produce, inspects and marks the material for transportation. The government has made many rules for this purpose including the following: 1. Sylhet Forest Transit Rules, 1951; 2. Dinajpur and Rangpur Forest Transit Rules, Chittagong, Cox's Bazar and Comilla Forest Transit Rules, Control of Transit of timbers and other forest produce for transit in the Sundarbans, Dacca Forest Transit Rules, Mymensingh Forest Transit Rules, East Pakistan General Forest Transit Rules, Chittagong Hill Tracts Forest Transit Rules, 1974 The government has promulgated regulations both for some specific category of forests like Prohibition and Rules affecting Protected Forests in Sundarbans Division (1959), and for some specific purposes like Rules for the Preservation of Trees and Timbers belonging to the Government in the District of Chittagong, Sylhet Forest (Protection from Fire) Rules, 1954, and Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts Reserved Forests Fire Protection Rules, 1958) The Bangladesh Private Forest Act (PFA), 1959 The Private Forest Act of 1959 allows the Government to take over management of improperly managed private forest lands, any private lands that can be afforested, and any land lying fallow for more than three years. The Private Forest Ordinance was originally enacted in 1945, as the Bengal Private Forest Act, and was re-enacted by the Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) in 1949 before being issued as an Act in These government managed lands under this act are called "vested forests". The Forest Department manages approximately 8,500 hectares in the country as "vested forests". This area is relatively small, but the area historically affected by this law is much larger. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 23

24 PFA, 1959 empowers the government to require management plans for private forests and to assume control of private forests as vested forests. Government has broad powers to write rules regarding use and protection of vested forests, and apply rules to "controlled forests," which include all private forests subject to any requirement of the Act. After finalization and approval of the management plans by the government, the private owner becomes bound to implement the plan and in case of the default, the government may take over management of the land as a vested forest. The government can also impose a "cess", a per hectare fee, to cover its administrative costs for implementing the management plan. Private owners of such vested forests are entitled to the net profits from the sale of forest produce from their lands Brick Burning (Control) (Amendment) Act, 1992 Brick making is a major domestic industry in Bangladesh and it uses considerable amount of fuelwood. The Brick Burning (Control) Act, 1989 as amended in 1992 outlaws the use of wood fuels in brick making. It provides for fines, imprisonment, and loss of license to make bricks for breaking its legal provisions. However, fuelwood is being commonly used as fuel for brick making. Currently, there is no substitute either for bricks in construction industry or for fuelwood as a source of energy in brick making. Under such circumstances, the act has become mostly unenforceable Agenda 21 Bangladesh is also implementing Agenda 21, which is a non-binding international statement of goals and principles. It desires countries to take up all activities that are dear to Bangladesh like alleviation of poverty, improved land use, conservation of biodiversity, public participation, empowerment of women, respect of indigenous cultures, working with NGOs, and development of human resources etc. 2.3 Forest Policy of Bangladesh The National Forest Policy of 1894 provides the basic guidelines for the formulation of acts and rules for the management of forests in the country. The earliest attempt to enunciate the need of conserving forest resources was made in 1855 by the government of British India through the promulgation of the Charter of Indian Forests. Prior to this charter there were only scanty regulations regarding the felling of trees for revenue. The first formal Forest Policy that was declared in 1894 included the following features: (1) State forests are to be administered for public benefit at large, through regulations of rights and privileges of the people near the forest. (2) Forests were categorized as (a) Hill forests/protection forests, (b) Economically important/production forests, (c) Minor forests, and (d) Pastureland. (3) Forests situated on hill slopes should be conserved to protect the cultivated plains situated downstream. (4) Valuable forests should be managed to yield state revenue. (5) Land suitable for cultivation within the forest should be made available for cultivation, provided that such conversions did not harm forests and were permanent in nature. (6) Local population should be allowed to exercise grazing rights in low yielding forests (Banglapedia, 2008). After the partition of India in 1947, the policy was not relevant for the new state of Pakistan which inherited forest cover for less than 2% of its territory. The existing policy Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 24

25 neither contemplated the increase of forest area nor emphasized sustained harvest from existing forests. Furthermore, it excluded private forests from its ambit. These deficiencies were recognized in the Pakistan Forestry Conference held in The conference guidelines provided improvement upon the Policy Statement of 1894 and a new Forest Policy was announced in The Forest Policy of 1955 was further revised and the Forest Policy of 1962 was introduced. The Forest Policy of 1955 and 1962 laid emphasis on the exploitation of forest produce, particularly from East Pakistan. The policies did not help the development of forestry in Bangladesh and were not very favourable for all round growth of forestry. The policy statement of 1979 is very general and vague. Most of the crucial aspects such as functional classification and use of forest land, role of forest as the ecological foundation of sustainable biological productivity, community participation in forestry, etc did not get any mention in the policy statement. Consequently, the government decided to amend the Forest Policy of The amended Forest Policy, known as Forest Policy, 1994, was approved by the government on 31 May Following were taken into consideration while revising the forest policy: the clauses of public utility as mentioned in the constitution; the role of forests in the socio-economic development of the country, including the environment; adoption of national policy regarding agriculture, industry, cottage industry and other sectors; and the treaties, protocols and conventions related to environment and forests. In the early 1990s, a 20-year Forestry Sector Master Plan (FSMP, ) was developed, which aims to bring 20% of the country's land area under tree cover. It has three major investment programs: (a) forest production and management; (b) woodbased industries; and (c) participatory forestry. Of the two scenarios in the FSMP, the High Development Scenario envisages an investment of about US $2 billion in the forestry sector. The latest Forest Policy (1994) viewed equitable distribution of benefits among the people, especially those whose livelihood depend on trees and forests; and people's participation in afforestation programmes and incorporation of people's opinions and suggestions in the planning and decision-making process. The people-centred objectives of the policy are: creation of rural employment opportunities and expansion of forest-based rural development sectors; and prevention of illegal occupation of forest lands and other forest offences through people's participation. The policy statements envisage: massive afforestation on marginal public lands through partnerships with local people and NGOs; afforestation of denuded/encroached reserved forests with an agroforestry model through participation of people and NGOs; giving ownership of a certain amount of land to the tribal people through forest settlement processes; strengthening of the Forest Department and creation of a new Department of Social Forestry; strengthening of educational, training and research facilities; and amendment of laws, rules and regulations relating to the forestry sector and if necessary, promulgation of new laws and rules. Thus, over time the policy has shifted somewhat from total state control to a management regime involving local communities in specific categories of forests. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 25

26 Among the objectives of national forest policies emphasis on people oriented programs to manage environment, preserve existing values, conserve plants and animals, and maximize benefits to local people. The NFP specially focuses on protection and management of resources (natural forests, protected areas, and plantations) and accommodation of needs of local people through participatory arrangements. NFP provides a basis for legislation, plans and prescriptions, and a framework to continuously correct institutional inadequacies for maintaining dynamic growth patterns of forests. It provides an important means to achieve goals considered essential and desirable by society. The effectiveness of a policy will however depend on its success in achieving the defined goals. Bangladesh has adopted a three dimensional approach to realize the vision of NFP through development of three major type of programs, (a) People -oriented forestry programs, (b) Forest Production-directed programs, and (c) Institutional strengthening programs including development of appropriate legal framework. Bangladesh has also adopted two other national policies (national policy of economic growth, and national environment policy) related to the forestry sector. The "policy of economic growth" within the broad framework of its Twenty Year Perspective Plan ( ) covers acceleration of economic growth, alleviation of poverty, generation of employment opportunities, and increased self reliance. The "national environmental policy" stresses maintenance of the ecological balance, protection against natural disasters, prevention of pollution and degradation of the environment, environmentally sound development, and sustainable long term and environmentally congenial utilization of all resources. Policy directives from all the three policies favor ecologically sound and biologically sustainable development of forestry, support economic improvement through appropriate measures of expansion, conservation, management and utilization of resources, advocate cross sectoral linkages, and promote people participation at each stage (Banglapedia, 2008). 2.4 Forest Management in Bangladesh The forest management builds and maintains the of forest systems to satisfy social, political and economic needs of the landscape.the history of forestry in Bangladesh is one of continuous depletion of forest resources both in terms of area and quality (FMP 1994). Most deforestation in government forests has occurred due to the inadequacy of the bureaucratic custodian approach to forest management (Khan 1998). Since the early 1980s, forestry in Bangladesh has witnessed a rapid succession of social forestry programmes in an attempt to redress public alienation and to allow for wider participation of local people in forest use and management (Mustafa, 2002). Forest is a very important renewable resource in Bangladesh. It provides materials like timber, pulp, pole, fuel wood, food and medicine, habitat for wildlife and primary base for biodiversity. It also provides oxygen, controls or reduces the intensity of the cyclones and tidal surges in the coastal areas of Bangladesh, influences the rainfall, and sustained water yield in the river systems etc. Besides these, forest is also used for Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 26

27 hunting, and nature based tourism. Now a days, eco-tourism is the preferred type of tourism and it is widely believed that eco-tourism could be an alternative mechanism for environmentally sustainable development without depleting the forest resources and its habitat and biodiversity. Considering all these, forest and consequently forest management is getting importance with the passage of time Past Forest Management Scientific forest management in this sub-continent was started during British rule by the appointment of Sir D. Brandis as the Inspector General of Forest in A separate forest department was created for Bengal in Chittagong Forest Division was the first division created in Bangladesh by British ruler in 1872 and the Sundarban Forest Division was created in In those days, forests were managed primarily for revenue collection under the control of Revenue Department. Only valuable trees were extracted from the forest to get more revenue, Keeping in mind the importance of forest, a forest management plan or work plan is prepared for each forest division. This management plan guides forest manager to manage forest or to perform day to day work in the forest. This plan spells out where to cut trees, how much to cut and what to plant to cover up the cleared up forest etc. on annual basis Present Forest Management The present forest management is almost totally different from the past one in respect of its objectives and philosophy. Present forest management objectives are not only to produce timber only but also to provide clean air, clean water, healthy habitat for wildlife and to act as a major source of biodiversity and nature-based tourism. The present philosophy of forest management is to involve people in the management and create an environment so that people can feel that they have also some stakes on trees growing on the forestland and to improve living standard of the people residing in the vicinity of the forests. Present Management objectives Present forest management is primarily guided by Forestry Master Plan (FMP) completed in 1993 with the assistance from ADB, UNDP and FAO. The objectives of present forest management are adopted following FMP and these are: 1. enhancing environment preservation and conservation 2. introducing rational forest land use 3. increasing public participation and benefit from the forest 4. creating forests on marginal and private lands 5. institutional strengthening 6. improving management practices 7. Improving efficient resource utilization. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 27

28 2.4.3 Recent Improvement in Management Practices: Inventories of all major forest formations in the country except the forests in Chittagong Hill Tracts were carried out. This has provided the necessary database for using quantitative information for writing more comprehensive management plans for different forests. Small units of uniform crop have been identified and information on these units were recorded with the help of computer based Resources Information Management System (RIMS) unit in FD. The inventory and associated activities have made long desired information on the status, growth and yield of forests in the country available. It has been possible to develop volume and yield functions for all major plantation species and volume functions for major species in natural forests. This has made possible to regulate yield for long period of time. A new working plan format has been devised to make it possible for the use of the available information in future management plans. An annual plan of operation is included as part of the management plan. This is basically a detailed plan of operation within the forest division and is prepared by the Divisional Forest Officer. In recent years there has been a substantial shift in emphasis in Forestry and Forest Mnagement from maximizing yield towards maximizing sustainability through increased participation of local population, conserving biodiversity and maintaining forestry services. The present management systems are evolved from the past ones through various modifications in order to incorporate present objectives of forest management. Some new forest management systems are also added to address new concept in forest management such as agroforestry, homestead plantation, strip plantation, participatory forestry on encroached forest, mangrove afforestation on newly accreted land in the coastal area, conservation area management to preserve wildlife habitat and biodiversity. 2.5 Forest Management Plans The forests of Bangladesh have been under planned management for over a hundred years. The forests of Sitapahar and in Sundarbans were the first to be notified as reserved forests in 1875 under the Forest Act, Act VII of The first working plan came into force in the Sundarbans during The Forest Department started plantation activity by planting Teak at Sitapahar in The greater part of the Hill Forests was initially on a care and maintenance basis. In plains, the Sal forests came under management and planning of the forest department during 1950's. The forest department prepared new working plans after independence of Bangladesh in 1971 to meet the new challenges and opportunities. The forest department adopted clear felling followed by artificial regeneration as main system of forest management. The Teak was identified as the main species for plantation with an agroforestry system taungya. The aim was to convert large parts of the high forest to plantations within the rotation period. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 28

29 The forest management planning model of Bangladesh is traditional that considers only technical aspects and plans forest resources that vary over space in type and area (Table 50 at Appendix). The felling moratorium of 1989 covers most of the forest area but its implementation is not effective (FMP, 1992). The productivity of forests is low to due inadequate financial resource for forest development, rigidity in the management system, exponential population growth, and poor enforceability of forest regulations. A large proportion of the hill forests has been planted. The remaining forest area needs conservation and development. The commercial timber extraction levels in Hill Forests are unsustainable. The Sal plains forests have been heavily encroached and the present growing stock has almost lost its capacity to regenerate by itself. The coastal fringe plantations and tree cover on embankments are supplementing the declining natural capacity of coastal forest lands to deal with the cyclones (FAO, 2000) Management of Hill Forests The Hill Forests consists of tropical evergreen and tropical moist-evergreen forests. These forests are most important watershed areas in the country. Scientific forest management of these forests began in the 1870s under a system of selection felling and natural regeneration. In 1930s, the system of management was modified to clear felling supported by artificial regeneration or plantation, while the system of selection-cumimprovement felling also continued. The prescriptions for plantations include establishment of natural regeneration plots of six to tenmeters width around every 40- hectare plantation. Hill forests were heavily exploited during the Second World War. Subsequent management emphasized on raising long and short rotation plantation on a large scale, and abandoned the natural regeneration plots. Delays in revision/reformulation of management plans (working plans) including plantations, and the need for ensuring timber requirements of led to development of "adhoc" treatment. Yield regulation by area was changed to one of predetermined volume. This lead to larger felling areas and consequently a larger plantation program. Better and higher yields motivated for the large scale conversion of Hill forests into plantations. The sustained principles of forest management were not applied in practice and adequate information to establish annual allowable cuts does not exist (FMP, 1992). As regards Bamboo, the contribution of public forests is estimated at about 194 million culms against 528 million culms from village forests (FMP, 1992). The present system of annual auctions and permits does not encourage investment in infrastructure such as roads and cable ways. As a result, part of the bamboo areas remain inaccessible and the prescribed cutting rules are not consistently followed, resulting in high waste and unnecessary damage(fao, 2000) Management of Sal Plains Forests Most of the Sal forests originally belonged to feudal landlords and were not under scientific management for a very long period. The forest department gradually assumed their responsibility for management after nationalization in 1950s. The silvicultural Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 29

30 prescriptions included clear felling with regeneration mostly from coppice; simple coppice and coppice with standards on a rotation of about 20 years. Thinning was prescribed on a 10-year cycle to improve the Sal crop. The plan provided for taungya system to afforest the blanks. Due to immense pressure from growing population, none of these practices could sustain the sustainable development of these forests, which has continued to deplete in size and stocking. Sal forests areas have maximum encroachment and most of the root stock of remnant Sal forests has lost coppicing power suggesting use of plantation for re-afforesting such areas. FMP, 1992 observes that in most cases, the land in the remnant Sal Forests are not suitable for permanent agriculture without irrigation. However, if such Sal stands are provided adequate protection and tending then they can still respond and grow (FAO, 2000) Management of Mangrove Forests The Sundarban forests were declared as a Reserved Forest in 1879, and are managed under a selection system. Early management consisted of a selection system with fixed exploitable girth limit for the main species and a felling cycle of 40 years. Subsequent working plans reduced the felling cycle to 20 years. The forest management intensity was increased after construction Khulna Newsprint Mills Ltd (KNM) in 1959, and other Khulna-based forest industries. All age gradations of trees are not available due to improper marking and inadequate regeneration (FMP, 1992). Ecological changes taking place in the Sundarbans are evident, apparently from extensive changes in river flow and increased salt content. Besides Golpatta palm leaves exploitation takes place on the basis of collection permits. Scarcity of information and inability to enforce regulations are the two main problems in sustainable management of Sunderbans (FAO, 2000) Management of Unclassed State Forests (USF) The USF do not have any forest management plans. The district administration controls the large amount of the 700,000 ha of hill land called Unclassed State Forests (USF). Most of this land is bare, lacks forest cover, and losing topsoil. Its capacity to sustain shifting cultivation, the past major land use, is declining. Social, political, tenurial, and institutional constraints limit the development of such USF lands. Chittagong Hill Tracts contains one of the largest and most concentrated blocks of these unproductive lands in the country that have remained undeveloped for decades. Most of these lands are now only suited for raising forests species. Marketing problem restricts use of some of these lands for horticulture. Ambiguity about land tenure checks new investment in these lands (FAO, 2000) Management of Protected Areas (PAs) Management plans for the PAs have been developed for the first time in 1997 (Rosario, 1997 a, 1997b). Five National Parks, seven Wildlife Sanctuaries and one Game Reserve are within public forests in Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation (Amendment) Act of 1974 provides legal protection to these areas. These 13 PAs occupy an area of 164,660 ha, or about 1.11 percent of the land area of Bangladesh. This is well below the target of 5 percent established by the Wildlife Task force in 1986 Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 30

31 and the target of 12 percent recommended by the World Commission on Environment and Development (FAO, 2000) Management of Private or Village Forest There is no forest management planning for the village forest, which are mostly homestead forests and extend over 270,000 ha in about 10 million households covering over 85,650 villages. The private forests annually supply about 5 million M 3 of wood (about one million m3 of logs and about four million m3 of fuelwood) and 0.53 million Air Dry MT of bamboo. The homestead forests are the most important source of wood, bamboo and other non wood forest products in the villages. A national survey (FMP 1992) shows that the average growing stock has remained almost unchanged since but has much higher proportion of smaller diameter trees. There are no formal plan or management guidelines for these forests (FAO, 2000) Public Management of Forest Industrial Activities Bangladesh government has direct interference in forest based industries sector. For example, Bangladesh Forest Industries Development Corporation (BFIDC), a government undertaking, began in 1960, as a state owned company, for developing timber-based activities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It is now a semi-autonomous agency under the MOEF, owning 16 enterprises (two timber extraction units, 11 woodbased industrial units, and three board manufacturing plants). Many are inoperable or not profitable. BFIDC employs some 4,000 persons. It also has 11,700 hectares of rubber plantations spread over 12 estates of which over 5,000 hectares are in production. Mainly due to raw material shortage and operating inefficiency the BFIDC is incurring losses. Government is considering to resolve this problem through public enterprise reforms encompassing disinvestment, financial restructuring, institutional improvement, and better pricing (FAO, 2000). 2.6 Land Rights, Indigenous Population and Forestry Indigenous people live within and around large expanses of territories in Asia, which are formally classified as forests. However, their role in using, managing and protecting forests are seldom looked at in a positive light. Despite provisions supporting the informed participation of s in ADB-funded interventions (s & Forestry Policies), s have not been consulted, substantively, or at all, before and during the formulation and implementation of policies and programs in the forestry sector in many countries of the Asia-Pacific region, and especially in areas that are categorized as forests. In many instances, s Development Plans as recommended in the ADB Policy on s have not been formulated by the concerned MDC (developing member country) governments. The aforesaid interventions have led to many adverse consequences for Indigenous people including (i) dislocation; (ii) deprivation from means of livelihood; (iii) human Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 31

32 rights violations by foresters and law enforcing agencies; (iv) disruption of local culture and traditions; and (v) loss of biodiversity, among others. A prime factor behind the disadvantaged situation of many s in Asia is the continuing denial of their traditional land and resource rights in various countries of Asia. A huge percentage of land is administered by state Forest Departments across Asia such as in Bangladesh (9%), India (22%), Indonesia (74%), Thailand (40%) and Philippines (55%). Although some rights of s are partially recognised in various laws, the same laws also sometimes limit many such rights, at least in the manner they are interpreted by governments. As in the case of indigenous people, gender issues too have been little more than cosmetic consideration both by the ADB and by DMCs. The nations forest resources and the authority over them have been centralized under the government, superseding traditional rights and communal authority (Mustafa, 2002). Bangladesh Constitution retained The Existing Laws, some of which recognized the existence of indigenous people and their rights over their lands and natural resources. Yet the Government of Bangladesh denies existence of any indigenous people in the country. With such denial, the government can hardly pass any positive policy for protection of IP rights in the country. This is especially true in this nation where majority of the rulers are extreme nationalist and fundamentalist with hostile attitude towards the indigenous people. Naturally, provisions of existing laws have not been executed in the interest of indigenous people. As a consequence, IP rights on land and natural resources have been grossly violated threatening the existence of their ethnic identity. This as well extremely affected their environment and biodiversity. In 1995, The National Forestry Policy of 1994 was announced by the government, the purpose of which is for forestation of the denuded hills in the district/mouza forests, being inhabited by Indigenous people. It also aims at increasing the coverage of protected areas to 10% of the Reserve Forest land by In 2000 The Forest (Amendment) Act of 2000 was passed in the parliament for forestation in CHT and some other parts of the country with the participation of local communities. Eventually, the Government drafted The Social Forestry Rule of All the local government institutions with IP representation and local people of CHT and indigenous people of other parts of the country rejected it because of non-recognition of IP rights and improper processes. (Chakma, n.d.) The Government of Bangladesh framed the first Forest Policy in 1979 with an aim to implement a 20-year master plan. Asian Development Bank and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) funded the plan. In fact, it was purposely made for the deforestation of CHT to combat the armed insurgency of indigenous people/jumma people. The Forest Industrial Development Corporation and the Forest Department, initiated massive logging and extraction of bamboos, canes and creepers from the reserve forests. Simultaneously, the Forest Department in collaboration with the Army authority deployed soldiers to combat the armed insurgency through the implementation of the deforestation program, in the guise of forestation program in other forests of the region. Every year, the army soldiers burned down forests of the hills and mountains in the region. It was accelerated with the settlement of half a million political migrants/nonindigenous people from other districts to CHT between 1979 and 1985 under the government plan to outnumber the indigenous people. The non-indigenous people Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 32

33 were resettled on the lands and villages, owned by Indigenous people either collectively or individually. Both the non-indigenous people and Indigenous people extracted forest products, legally and illegally, as livelihood in collaboration with the Forest Department officials. These activities resulted to extreme pressure and ultimate destruction of the environment. According to The CHT Regulation of 1900 (1 of 1900) and Rangamati/Khagrachari/ Bandarban Hill District Council Act of 1989 the Forest Ministry cannot acquire any land within CHT without prior approval from the HDCs. However, the indigenous people and HDCs were not consulted before the passing of said law. In fact, the regulation is a continuation of the deforestation program and land grabbing by the Forest Department to evict the indigenous people/jumma people from their own lands. The final purpose is gradually to make the political migrants beneficiaries of the programme. (Chakma, n.d.) Modhupur Eco-park Project of Netrakona District (Former Mymensingh) During the British period until 1947, Modhupur Hills and adjacent areas of Netrakona District (the then Mymensingh District) has been safe home for the Garo and the Koch people, indigenous people in the area. A part of the Modhupur hills was declared Reserved Forest for the production of industrial wood. The other forests and lands were under the management of the Garo people and the Koch people. The indigenous people had been living in the Modhupur Forest for centuries as evidenced by individual legal land titles. In 1962, the government established an agricultural farm over 500 acres of lands in Modhupur forests where non-indigenous people from other parts of Bangladesh were gradually resettled. In the same time, the government established a national park over 40 acres of land in the same Forests and resettled non-indigenous people there. In 1982, the government declared the other part of the Modhupur forest as national park without any consultation and consent from the indigenous people. As a result, the Garo and the Koch people did not only lost their territory but also have become absolute minority in their own homeland. The project proposal includes among others the following; 10 picnic spots; 3 cottages; 9 lakes; 6 roads; 2 watch towers; 6 rest houses; several water tanks; 61,000 running feet boundary wall; and 6 staff quarters for the park. The estimated expenditure for the project is Taka 973 million. The national park covers 20, acres of land of Modhupur Forest areas, continuation of which means lost of the villages, homes, and cultivated lands of the Garo people. The government has presently declared 3,000 acres of land as Core area and boundary wall is being made around it. Once this project is implemented, the Garo people will be evicted from their paradise in Modhupur forest areas. Their land rights whether acquired through customs or by virtue of legal documents will be denied by Forest Department. In year 2000, the Forest Department announced the establishment of a new national eco-park over the Modhupur forests inhabited by Garo, which was implemented in It modified the name from eco-park to Modhupur National park Development Project. The Garo people protested against the project and sent representation to the government On January 3, 2004 thousands of Garo people held a peaceful rally against the eco-park project. Reacting violently, the police along with the Forest Department armed guard Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 33

34 raided and fired a Garo village named Jalabada. A Garo named Piren Snal was shot dead on the spot and 25 others including women and children were injured. Among those injured is a ten-class schoolboy named Utpol Nokrek, who became physically crippled due to a gunshot wound on the leg. There are 25,000 Garo people presently living in the Modhupur area. Reacting to this incident and protests, the Minister of Environment and Forest stated in a press conference on 26 January 2004 that the Garo people were unruly mob and the Park project would be implemented. More than 20 false cases were filed against the s in Modhupur forest. Policemen arrested the leaders and placed them in jail for several days (Chakma, n.d.) Eco-Park in Moulavi Bazar of Sylhet In July 2000, the government of Bangladesh declared and established an Ecopark in Sylhet without any consultation and consent from the indigenous people. The Ecopark covers an area of 1,500 acres of land inhabited by 1,000 families of Khasi and Garo people in Kulaura of Moulavi bazar District of Sylhet Division. The Ministry of Environment and Forest created a six- member committee with non-indigenous persons on January 4, The indigenous people rejected both the Ecopark project and the creation of the committee. As a sign of protest, the indigenous people launched a hunger strike in Dhaka on February 22, Despite said protest against the project, it continued until Jyotirindra Bodhipriya Larma, President of the PCJSS, and Chairman of the Bangladesh s Forum, visited the area and held public meetings in He took up the matter with the government.8 The government postponed the project. However, there is no assurance that the government will not continue it (Chakma, n.d.) Alutilla Eco Park of Khagrachari In year 2000, the Minister of CHT Affairs y along with the Minister of Civil Aviation visited Khagrachari town and declared 500 acres of hilly lands of Alutilla as Eco Park. This is near Khagrachari District Hq. and is inhabited by 200 families of indigenous people (Particularly Tripura People). Implementation of the project will mean eviction of the Tripura people. They protested against the project by sending representation to government. The CHT Regional Council and the government-appointed Khagrachari Hill District council joined the opposition. As a result, the government suspended the project but has yet to officially cancel it (Chakma, n.d.) Reingkhyong Reserve Forests of Rangamati More than 300,000 Bengalis co-exist with one million in the three CHT hill districts of Rangamati, Khagrachhari and Bandarban that cover a total area of 5,093 square miles. Reingkhyong Reserve Forests is one of the six forest reserves in CHT. It is situated in the Belaichari and Kaptai Upazillas of Rangamati Hill District. In 1960 a big dam to produce hydro-electricity, affecting 256 sq. miles area was constructed over Karnaphuli, the biggest river of CHT located in Kaptai. The main granary of the region with 40,000 acres of cultivated flat lands was inundated in the Kaptai Lake. 100, 000 indigenous people were affected, and never received compensation nor rehabilitation. A number of families of them took shelter in the adjacent areas of the Reserve Forests. The Forest Department engaged them in growing trees and bamboos. Later many other families of Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 34

35 indigenous people affected during armed conflicts in resettled there. They are considered forest villagers with no rights of land and forests resources. Employees of the Forest Department frequently file cases against them. Under this condition, approximately 40,000 indigenous people living in the area can hardly find any future (Chakma, n.d.). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 35

36 Chapter 3 Research on Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh Forestry Research in Bangladesh has been started during the British rule ( ) from prior to The research was confined mainly to botany, wood anatomy and utilization of timber and minor forest produced. First scientific forest research began in 1878 with the start of forest school of Dehradun. During post-partition period ( ), Pakistan started its forest college and research institute. In Bangladesh period (1971- present), initial forest research was started with the research of forest management. Some initial activities were like nursery techniques, pilot plantation and cash crops. In this phase many research regarding the forest products had also been conducted. Current phase of forest research had been started from The Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) is chiefly responsible for all forestry research in Bangladesh. But these researches are basically conducted on either forest product utilization technologies or forest product utilization information. Apart from BFRI, other disciplines like, botany, agriculture, zoology and geography are also doing the forest research. But these researches are not purely forest researches; they are partly a source of basic information (Lahiry, 2002) Now a days, social sciences like economics, anthropology and sociology are also conducting researches regarding forestry. This is important to note that, these types of research have opened new possibilities and dimensions of forest research in Bangladesh. Now research regarding on the underlying causes of forest degradation and deforestation in Bangladesh has been conducted mainly by the social scientists. Researches regarding the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh are less in number. 3.1 Forest Management Haque (2000) says that the main causes of depletion of hill forest are due to shifting cultivation and over-exploitation. Clear felling followed by artificial regeneration system has been practised in the hill forest for long period. Ironically the fact is that these areas were not replanted with proper management and silvicultural practices. He also shows that the main reasons of the depletion of mangrove forest are due to the corruption and negligence of the some Forest Department staffs, illegal traders, local influential leaders, some government officials concerned, section of police-man, section of local journalists etc. Often the local poor people are used to destroy the forests taking tolls (many times higher than government rate) from them illegally. Other reasons are improper and poor management, over exploitation and also ecological reasons to some extent. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 36

37 Ahmed (2002) also shows that poor protection by guards, inefficient law and order and corruption by the authorities in the form of graft are the most important causes of deforestation in Dhaka, Sylhet, Bandarban, Rajshahi, Mymensingh and Tangail districts. 3.2 Development Interventions Gain (1993) elucidates how various plantation programs undertaken by the governments and sponsored by donor agencies deforested and degraded forests of Bangladesh. Rubber plantation, if practiced as monoculture, is ecologically sensitive. Biological diversity in the Sal forest is unprecedented and unique. Such biological resources have been severely damaged with deliberate and accelerated rate of deforestation for commercial plantation. Since 1985 when rubber plantation began in this area sal coppices which could have regenerated natural forest were clear cut in many places. Not only coppices were cut, the stumps were uprooted to be sent to brickfields. It thus destroyed the possibility of regeneration of sal forest totally. Alienation of the forest peoole and local people from the rubber plantation and destruction of natural patches has jeopardized the intimate relation of the forest people with forest. The local people have been very much antagonized through rubber plantation n the Madhupur forest. According to Haque (2000), the construction of the Farraka barrage over the upstream of the Ganges by India in West Bengal reduced the water flow significantly during dry season which increased the salt intrusion from the sea water and disturbed/changed/altered/modified the ecosystem. In his research, Ahmed (2002) shows that conversion of natural forest into plantations is an important cause of deforestation and forest degradation in Dhaka, Sylhet, Bandarban, Rajshahi, Mymensingh and Tangail district. 3.3 Encroachment Iftekhar and Hoque (2003) say that encroachment is an important cause of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh. The forests are depleting mainly due to illegal logging and conversion to non-forestry uses. In their writing, limited land availability and unemployment have been identified as the major proximate causes of encroachment and, They also predicts that if no measures are adopted within next three decades the existing natural forests might be encroached. Haque (2000) shows that the illicit felling is done by the poor villagers, who usually work for the illegal traders, local influential leaders and forest land encroachers. The main cause of depletion of sal forest was due to the land clearance for agriculture and forest land encroachment. The almost half of the total Sal forest has been already depleted. The remaining patches are in poor condition, degraded and in the process of depletion. Ahmed (2002) also finds that illicit felling, theft and encroachment are very significant causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Dhaka, Sylhet, Bandarban, Rajshahi, Mymensingh and Tangail district. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 37

38 3.4 Physical and Environmental Factors Gain (2003) finds heavy rainfall during rainy season is one of the main causes of severe erosion of topsoil and siltation in the Kaptai Lake. This leads to forest degradation in the hill forest areas of Bangladesh. 3.5 Ruthless Profit-making Ahmed (2002) identifies ruthless profit-making as the main cause for the depletion of forest resources. Due to unethical profit motive, forest cover, timber, fuel wood, forest food, medicinal plants and wildlife are decreasing gradually. He also showed that some specific plant species like blackberry, tamarind, wild apple, sal, gojari, gorjon, boyar etc are becoming rare day by day. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 38

39 Chapter 4 Underlying Causes of Deforestation in Bangladesh 4.1 Industrialization Much of the degradation is reportedly caused by industrialization in the Sal forest areas. Vast land area has taken by industries. Land area is decreasing due to industrialization as it requires vast area of land. Forest land is being cleared for industrial use. Local people are selling their land to outsiders who are taking over. Thus land becomes even more valuable and its demand causes deforestation. Infrastructural development for industrialization like building of industrial plants is another reason for creating demand for land, which leads to destroy forest cover. This phenomenon is absent in Hill and Mangrove forest areas. Thus industrialization has caused deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh through encroachment of land, land grabbing and demand for land, displace of. Demand for land, Encroachment and Land grabbing: This is one core underlying cause behind deforestation in both Sal and Hill forest areas. In Sal forest areas, apart from conversion of forest lands into industries, land is encroached and grabbed by people who are powerful economically and/or politically. Poor people also encroach and grab land to live and to support them. In Hill forest areas this demand for land demands analysis from a different point of view as these areas are inhabited by. To meet the demand are denied of their right over land, forests are encroached by people mostly Bengali settlers, and reserve forest has been de-reserved by the Forest Department to accommodate the settlers. Displacement of in sal and hill forest areas is a significant event which has been occurred for the encroachment and land grabbing also. 4.2 Irrational Profit-making Irrational profit making has caused deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh through encouraging the illegal logging, introducing cash crop, exotic varieties which were unfriendly to the forest ecology and brokerage system. Illegal logging Illegal logging is responsible for deforestation to a significant extent in Sal forest areas. In Hill forest areas, Dr. M. Al-Amin, Professor and Director, Institute of Forestry and Environmental Science, University of Chittagong said that there are certain groups doing business of timber in certain forests. Cash crop: Plantation of cash crops like rubber, banana, arum etc. is held responsible for deforestation in Sal forest areas to a large extent. Plantation is also destroying natural forest in these areas through govt. s Social Forestry Programme where usually fast growing alien species which give a quick harvest and good profit in a short term investment are planned clearing off Sal forest. Thus macro economic policy destroys forest. Similarly, in Hill forest areas pine apple is cultivated, teak is an alien species that Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 39

40 has been planted in Hill forest areas. Alien species possess threat to natural species, biodiversity, and environment as a whole. Photo 1- Pile of log beside a highway in Madhupur Influence of brokers: In Sal forest areas there are people who are brokers. They influence others to cut down trees, matured or not, for their own business. Such cause in absent in other two forest areas. 4.3 Militarization Militarization has also responsible to cause deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh through heartening the military establishment in hill forest areas. Bengali expansionism is another countenance of militarization in hill forest areas. Militarization: This phenomenon is present in Chittagong hill forest areas. The militarization in the hill tracts is also responsible for the deforestation of those areas. Participants from FGDs and interviews reported that, huge amount of forest had been cleared by the military for making of their camp, training centre and infrastructural development. It is found from the filed that, firing range which is built by the military is another reason for deforestation. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 40

41 Gain (2003) says that out of 46,000 acres in the Tangail part of the Modhupur forest 1,000 acres to the Air Force. Bengali expansionism: Bengali expansionism is another cause of deforestation in the study areas. This problem is more acute for the Chittagong hill forest areas. It is notified that in many cases, Bengali settlers are responsible for the deforestation and forest degradation. They do not know how to cultivate crop in the hill areas and they follow the same technique of cultivation which they are used to do in the plain lands. As a result, soil of the hills become slack and this is how tress can not grow properly in those areas. Not only that, some informed that, as the Bengali settlers do not know how to jhum, so most of the times they burn many important trees. There is also another dreadful side of Bengali expansionism in the hill forest areas. The forest department dereserved many forest areas to meet the need of the land for the Bengalis. In doing so, level of deforestation becomes high in the particular area. 4.4 Consumerism Consumerism is also accountable for the deforestation in Bangladesh. Illegal logging and growing needs of timber are important causes to understand the depletion of forest resources in Bangladesh. Illegal logging Demand for timber is another cause for deforestation. This demand leads to the illegal logging and cutting down of immature trees in the forest areas. Consumerism Consumerism is found to be responsible for deforestation in both Sal and Hill forest areas. Demand for timber has reportedly been increased especially for furniture making and ornamentation of households. Heavy and decorative wooden furniture, and doors and windows of houses are symbol of status and class. A significant change in life style has also been reported. Consumption of timber and other forest products has increased to a large extent, hence the demand for timber. Essentially this is a part of the global capitalism where the demand for consumer goods is ever increasing. It is reported in the interviews that even people who have limited income wants to have wooden furniture like they see on television or in the catalog of big furniture companies. Govt. policy is also responsible in this regard. Bangladesh Forest Development Industries Corporation clears off a large portion of forest every year have steady supply of raw materials for forest based industries. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 41

42 Photo 2: Unreconstructed decorative wooden furniture in one of the Sal Forest areas 4.5 Forest Management Forest management has caused deforestation through encouraging corruption of local elites, members of political parties and police department, non recognition of land right of, corruption of administration and state, corruption, non co-operation and irresponsibility of FD officials, by not dismissing the false cases quickly, inappropriate forest policy and by sustaining discriminatory social system for the adivasis. Corruption of local elites, members of political parties and police department: In field visits, it is found that a few of the local elites along with some member of the political parties are partially responsible for the deforestation in Sal forest and Chittagong hill forest areas. Not only that, it is also found that the police department has also strong linkage with the influential elites and some member of the political parties of the areas. Some respondents from Sherpur informed that, police has also connection with the timber merchants. It is found that some people who are locally and politically powerful have misused their power and are responsible for the deforestation in the Sal forest and Chittagong hill forest areas. Non recognition of land right of : In the field investigation, it is found that land right of the of both Sal and Hill forest areas have not been recognized. Many participants informed that, could be more aware of aforestation, but as they have been discriminated in many forms, regarding their land right, as a result they can not take part in aforestation or to prevent deforestation. It is believed that, are the main possessor of the forests. But where they have no right on Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 42

43 the forest and not only that, they have been excluded from the forest by and for the Bengali settlers, they become more agitated. They are now more or less apathetic about reforestation. Corruption of Administration/State: Some respondents from Sal forest areas notified that they experienced the corruption of the administration there. It is reported that, most of the DCs and ADCs have forest areas in their name illegally. Corruption, non co-operation and irresponsibility of FD officials: It is assumed that forest department should be mostly responsible for the protection of the forests. But ironically, forest department becomes one of the destroyers of the forests. Respondents from FGDs, Community Workshops and interviews informed that, the officials of the forest department are corrupted as well as apathetic. They do not know the value of the trees and they are not aware to protect the deforestation. It is also informed that, forest guards are also very much corrupted in the study areas. They help in smuggling of the trees and not only that, they are used to take bribe from the corrupted timber merchants and saw mill owners. False cases: It is found that, poor people of the study areas (Sal and Ctg) are being convicted by the forest officials or the local elites for the thievery of the trees. There are lots of false cases regarding the thievery. It is informed by one of the respondents of Rangamati that, approximately there are around 2000 forest cases there and most of them are against the poor people who are not responsible for the thievery. People then sometimes are being impelled to pilfer the trees for the maintenance of the cases. Inappropriate government policy/forest policy: The first national forest policy of Bangladesh was redefined in In this policy there was a clause which contains statement like tree and timber wealth of the country shall be increased by large scale plantations conducted with mass participation and optimum extraction of forest produce shall be undertaken to meet National Requirement (Farooque,1997). Powerful people exploited this clause in the name of social forestry. This is an example of fickle forest policy. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 43

44 Photo 3- A Saw Mill in Sherpur, one of the Sal Forest areas Insufficient law: Forest laws are still not updated. It is evident from the field that, many participants think that forest laws are obsolete. They also informed that, the proper land demarcation is absent in the study areas. That is why, they become confused which forest is state forest and which is not. They have vague perception about the forest areas. As a result, sometimes, some people cut down trees and then victimize by the forest department, because if the forest department has any intention to charge false case against local people they may say that, the trees which have been cut down, were from the state forest areas. Discriminatory social system: An eminent politician of Rangamati says that discrimination causes deforestation in Hill forest areas. There are discriminations economically, politically, socially and culturally on the basis of ethnicity in Hill forest areas that are fundamentally inhabited by various indigenous communities. He maintains that such bigoted attitude towards the indigenous communities and the strategy of the State to dominate them politically originated the destruction of forests in Chittagong Hill Tract with the construction of the dam on across the river Karnafuli in 1956 as part of the development plans of the then government. More than 250 sq mile land area went under water with all its forest resources. Thousands of people lost their land without any compensation. Thus, the policy and programme of the State alienated the indigenous communities from their land and forest on which they were dependent for their lives. Such discriminations can also be found in Sal forest areas where s right over land are not recognized. Social Forestry Programme of the government was seriously criticized by the participants from ethnic communities in the community workshop in Madhupur, Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 44

45 Tangail as it denies the right of the ethnic communities on their land. They maintain that the right of the indigenous community over forest land has been historically refuted through forest acts at different times since the British period. They lost their right over land after the abolition of the Zamindari system. Those who were Rayats of the Zamindars got land. But were not Rayats, rather were subject of the Zamindars for which they didn t get land. Now land is either recorded as of the government or of the Forest Department. The indigenous communities demand right over their land and forest on which they depend for their survival. 4.6 Agricultural Practice Inappropriate agricultural practice by Bengali settlers is another reason for deforestation in Bangladesh. Inappropriate Jhumming: This is one of the most frequently, purposefully, and politically referred causes of deforestation in Hill forest areas. are almost always held responsible destroying forest as they jhum (which is their own process of cultivation). It is argued that the slash and burn required for jhumming prevents the trees to grow again on hills where jhum in done. One of the respondents from Rangamati, says that jhumming done by the is does not do harm to forests; rather the jhumming adapted by the settlers which they do with spade makes the soil loose. This eventually cause land slide and soil erosion. 4.7 Over population, Poverty and Unemployment Growing population, poverty and unemployment are also accountable for the quick depletion of forest resources in the three forest areas of Bangladesh. Population Growth According to the population census in 2001, there are about 6.85 million households in the coastal zone which represent about 28 percent of total population of Bangladesh. Mangrove area is believed to more productive area of coastal region and for this reason density of population is high here. It is revealed from the literature that about half a million people are directly depending on the Sundarbans mangrove forest for their livelihood and more than a million of people are indirectly depending on the Sundarbans mangrove forest for various purposes. Most of the participants of FGD opined that in the last two decades the population of the forest adjacent areas has been doubled and majority of the population of that area depend on forest for their livelihood as fishing, honey collection, fuel wood collection. In sal and hill forest areas, some respondents reported that, population growth is one of the causes of deforestation. Poverty and unemployment: Poverty and unemployment are considered as underlying causes of deforestation in all the three forest areas under the study. It is argued that poor people living adjacent to forest areas fall back on forest resources for their livelihood. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 45

46 The people of coastal zone are relatively poor compared to the rest of the country. Average per capita GDP in the coastal zone was Tk. 21,379 in , compared to Tk. 22,684 outside the coastal zone. Most of the people of the coastal area live under the poverty line and majority of them are landless agricultural laborers and landless farmers. The coastal people believe that poverty and lack of sufficient educational institutions leading them towards the illiteracy. These uneducated people cannot find alternative livelihood approach other than extracting resources from the Sundarbans. So, this is making pressure on the Sundarbans, which is ultimately causing degradation of forest. Lack of Alternative Livelihood Approach Due to lack of alternative livelihood possibility, coastal people are dependant on mangrove forest produce. According to them the land is not that much suitable for paddy cultivation and for this reason they are not getting required amount of food grains from their cultivable land. Most of the people do not have agricultural land of their own also. So, for livelihood, they are mostly depending on the Sundarbans. As the Sundarbans is declared as reserved forest and no one is allowed to go inside the forest for extraction, however, for their livelihood they have to take out forest resource illegally. Photo 4- A saw mill in Bandarban, one of the Hill Forest Areas 4.8 Development Intervention Two main development interventions are very significant to understand the underlying causes of deforestation in hill and mangrove forest of Bangladesh. One is the Karnaphuli Hydro-electric project which is responsible for the critical impacts on the hill forest area and other is the Farakka Barrage which is accountable for incresead salinity in mangrove forest areas and thus creating deforestation in those areas. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 46

47 Karnaphuli Hydro-electric project: Karnaphuli Hydro-electricity is another reason behind the huge destrucition of forest in Rangamati. Kaptai Lake was created as a result of building the Kaptai Dam on the Karnaphuli River, as part of the Karnaphuli Hydro-electric project. Construction of the reservoir for the hydro-electric plant began in As a result, 54,000 acres (220 km 2 ) of farmland in the Rangamati District went under water and created the lake. The land that went under water as a result of the dam construction, was 40% of the total arable land in the area. Along with that, 29 square miles (75 km 2 ) of the Government-owned forest, and 234 square miles (610 km 2 ) of other forest land went under water. One political leader of Rangamati informed that this project is one of the main causes behind the forest degradation and deforestation in Rangamati. Farakka Dam The Farakka Barrage is a dam on the Ganges River located in the Indian state ofwest Bengal, roughly 10 kilometeres (km) from the border with Bangladesh. It is completed in The dam was built to divert the Ganges River water into the Hooghly River during the dry season, from January to June, in order to flush out the accumulating silt which in the 1950s and 1960s was a problem at the major port of Kolkata on the Hooghly River. Bangladesh and India have had many debates about how the Farakka Barrage cuts off Bangladesh's water supply. In Bangladesh, the diversion has raised salinity levels, contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to water quality and public health. Farakka baraage is one of the important reason behind the forest degradation and deforeation in Sunderban mangrove forest areas. Figure 4.1, which gives a comparative view of deforestation in three forest areas of Bangladesh, shows that there are few common factors in all three areas and few specific factors related to type of forestry. In the sal forest, six factors industrialization, profit motive, consumerism, ineffective forest management, militarization and overpopulation, poverty and unemployment are found to be major underlying causes of deforestation. All these causes are also found in the hill forest. In addition two specific factors like jhum cultivation and development interventions are also found. No additional cause is found in mangrove forestry, where three major factors like ineffective forest management, overpopulation, poverty and unemployment, and development interventions are held to be responsible for deforestation. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 47

48 Underlying Causes of Deforestation in Sal, Hill and Mangrove Forest Sal Forest 1. Industrialization 2. Irrational Profit-making 3. Consumerism 4. Forest Management 5. Militarization 6. Overpopulation, Poverty and Unemployment Hill Forest 1. Militarization 2. Industrialization 3. Irrational Profit-making 4. Consumerism 5. Forest Management 6. Development Intervention 7. Inappropriate Jhumming 8. Overpopulation, Poverty and Unemployment Mangrove Forest 1. Forest management 2. Overpopulation, Poverty and Unemployment 3. Development Intervention Figure 4.1- A Comparative View of Deforestation in Three Forest Areas of Bangladesh. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 48

49 Chapter 5 Underlying Causes of Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 5.1 Physical and Environmental Causes Physical and environmental causes consists of increased salinity, sedimentation, erosion and accretion, oil spills, problem in ecological succession, climate change impact, natural calamities, wild elephants, heavy rainfall and hail-storm are responsible for the forest degradation of three forest areas which have been studied in this research. Increased Salinity Water salinity in Sundarbans varies between 5 ppt in the east and 30ppt in the west during the dry season (Siddiqi, 2001). But it is reported from the people s perception that salinity of water in the Sundarbans area is increasing. Motia Howlader (60) at Southkhali who has been collecting Golpata (Nypa fruticans) for 15 years said that water of the rivers inside Sundarbans is becoming Koda (Bitter, saline). Discharge of fresh water from the upstream river is decreasing. Fresh water flow has been diverged upstream in the Indian Bengal since early 1970s, where dam was built at Farakka to impound Ganges river water. It is well reported that this resulted increase in salinity level of the waters of the Sundarbans forest. Naturally, any change in the level of salinity affects the standing vegetation, the distribution and productivity of the forest and the entire ecosystem. Participants of PRA at Karamjal and Khurakhali also agreed that the salinity of water in the Sundarbans area is increasing gradually. Mangroves grow well in low and moderate saline zone. As salinity is increasing, the low tolerant and moderate tolerant mangrove species cannot survive the changed condition and becoming destroyed. According to an expert forest conservator at Karamjal, top dying disease which is causing vast degradation of Sundari trees is also caused by high salinity. Sedimentation Since prehistoric times Bangladesh has been one of the areas of most active sedimentation in the world. Denudation of the Himalayas resulted the formation of world s largest delta, which is still active. A huge amount of sediments is being carried down to the sea each year by the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system. The forest species is under stressed condition due to sedimentation. Mr. Abdur Rab, Deputy Ranger, wildlife breeding center at Karamjal said that huge amount of sediments coming from the upstream of the rivers cover pneumatophores of mangroves which hindrance the growth and regeneration process of the mangroves. Motia Howlader (60), a Golpata ( N. fruticans) collector at Southkhali, said that new chars (islands) are forming at the mouth of the rivers. This causes hindrance to the growth of seedlings. Erosion and Accretion Erosion and compensatory accretion are quite common phenomena in the Sundarbans. Many stable lands supporting rich, healthy, valuable matured stands disappear due to erosion of river banks. An 80 years old man in Southkhali who has been depending on forest for livelihood, said that erosion in Baleswar River has grabbed a vast portion of the forest. On new accreted areas, it takes time for the establishment and development of forest. It is found from the field that soil erosion has become one of the important causes of forest degradation in sal and hill forest areas. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 49

50 Photo 5- FGD participants at Southkhali, Sarankhola Oil Spills Oil spill is another important physical cause of the deforestation and degradation in Sundarbans. The Mongla is the second largest sea port of Bangladesh. The port is capable of handling shindigenous people at a time. Moreover, numerous mechanized boats ply inside the mangrove forests for different purposes. Discharge of crude oil from water vessels is continuously polluting river water, and ultimately, causing forest degradation. Problem in Ecological Succession Ecological/plant succession of mangroves faces some problems as well. After H. fomes, Excoecaria agallocha is the next abundant species in the Sundarbans. The species has been widely used as raw material for newsprint, matchsticks and boxes. Latif et al. (1992) reported that the rate of growth for H. fomes was 15 trees per hectare per year, while the natural deaths and removals were 27 trees. The corresponding value for E. agallocha accounted for 22 and 8 respectively. The data suggest that the proportion of E. agallocha is increasing and H. fomes is decreasing. Climate Change Impact Impact of climate change is becoming severe in coastal region of Bangladesh. It is well reported that with 1m sea-level change, the entire 401,600 hectares of mangrove forest (Sundarbans) as well as 36,000 hectares of newly established mangrove forests along the coast of Bangladesh will be gradually destroyed. Already the western part of the Sundarbans, which have been subjected to progressive decline of fresh water supply, has resulted in increasing salinity, which in turn reduced the regeneration rate of Sundari. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 50

51 Natural calamities Mangrove forests are believed to be the shield of the coasts as all the natural storms originated from the Bay of Bengal first hit the mangrove forest. It is noted from the secondary literature that all the cyclones those have hit Khulna coast caused a devastating damage to the Sundarbans mangrove forest. Recent cyclonic storms in 1991 and SIDR in 2007 caused a great damage to flora and fauna of the Sundarbans. Due to the global warming there is a change in spatial and temporal distribution of temperature and precipitation in Bangladesh. Mizanur Rahman (42), a boat man at Khurakhali, Bogi, said from his own experience that temperature is increasing day by day and frequency of cyclone has also increased within a decade. So, each and every year, the Sundarbans is affected by cyclonic storms which cause damage to the trees of the Sundarbans. It is revealed from the literature that about 11 percent of the strongest cyclones of the world are originated from the Indian Ocean and they have impact on Coast of Bangladesh. It is found that natural calamities are the causes for forest degradation in sal and hill forest areas. Heavy rainfall and hail-storm Respondents of sal forest areas identified that heavy rainfall and hail-storm are important reasons behind the forest degradation in those areas. Wild Elephants In sal forest areas, respondents informed that, wild elephants often destroy many trees. They identified this as an important cause of forest degradation in the sal forest areas. 5.2 Socio-Economic Causes Socio-Economic causes like the establishment of brick fields and stone extraction are significantly responsible for the forest degradation in sal forest areas. In sal forest and hill forest areas, brick field has been identified as one of the important causes of forest degradation. It is notified by the respondents that, brick field is harmful for the environment. Many trees can not grow properly or die for the degradation caused by the brick fields. Many people are engaged in irrational profit-making here that is why they are used to clear the forest and set up the brick fields. In doing this they are clearing the forest cover as well as affecting the tender trees. It is found that stone extraction is another reason behind the forest degradation in sal forest areas. Many people of sal forest areas are engaged in stone extraction and doing this, the soil has become loose. It causes soil erosion on one hand and on the other hand sand sedimentation during flash flood. For this reason, many trees can not grow properly. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 51

52 Figure 5.1 gives a comparative analysis of forest degradation in three forest areas and shows that as far as physical and environmental factors are concern, two factors-- soil erosion and natural calamity are common to all forest areas. In sal forest additional two factors are also found. They are wild elephants and heavy rainfall and hail-storm, where as in mangrove forest, five additional factors are observed- increased salinity, sedimentation, accretion, oil spill and problems in ecological succession. However, concerning socio-economic factors, the only one dominant factor i.e. ruthless profit making activities, are responsible for forest degradation. Though specific causes vary according to forest types, for example, brick field is common to both sal and hill forest whereas, stone extraction, is also important for sal forest. For mangrove forest, other profit making enterprises like, sundari logging, api-culture, golpata collection, shrimp fry catching, deer and crocodile hunting account for forest degradation. Underlying Causes of Forest Degradation in Sal, Hill and Mangrove Forest Physical and Environmental Causes Socio- Economic Causes Sal Forest 1. Soil Erosion 2. Natural Calamity 3. Wild Elephant 4. Heavy Rainfall and Hail Storm Hill Forest 1. Soil Erosion 2. Natural Calamity Mangrove Forest 1. Increased Salinity 2.Sedimentation 3. Erosion 4. Accretion 5. Oil Spill 6. Problems in Ecological Succession 7. Natural Calamity Sal Forest Profit-making motive a. Brick Field b. Stone Extraction Hill Forest Profit-making motive a. Brick Field Mangrove Forest Profit-making motive a. Sundari (Heritiera fomes) logging b. Api-culture c. Golpata (Nypa fruticans) collection d. Shrimp fry catching e. Deer and crocodile hunting Figure 5.1- A Comparative view of Forest Degradation in Three Forest Areas of Bangladesh Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 52

53 Conclusion and Recommendations From the above discussions on the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Bangladesh, we find that the modern industrial civilization has created a form of life style, which through consumerism and conspicuous consumption, made the plundering of forest and nature a lucrative enterprise for the industrial capitalism. We have also noticed the adverse impacts of deforestation and forest degradation on environment. From the FGDs, Community Workshops and the National Workshop the major recommendations that followed are the followings: 1. Forest management should be modernized through forest master plans, acts, policies to include local participation, granting land rights to the adivasis (), preventing the extensive consumption of forest products and taking stringent measures for violating the forest laws. 2. Research and training in deforestation and forest degradation and the dissemination of research knowledge through raising popular awareness. 3. In order to mitigate the adverse effect of industrialization on forest, a policy of planned industrialization should be adopted that would avoid encroachment on forest land, prevent displacement of local people from their own land and prevent pollution of the environment. This would have far reaching effect on nonuse of forest woods in the brick fields. Therefore, gas/coal could be used in the brick fields instead of forest woods. 4. The process of militarization in an around forest areas would be prohibited. Thus all kinds of military establishments, construction of roads and highways for military purposes and military perambulation should be avoided. 5. Certain developmental and commercial interventions that are destructive of forest areas should be strictly prohibited. For example, introduction of exotic varieties, mining and blasting for gas explorations by multinational corporations and ruthless consumerism of forest products should be forbidden. Thus it can be concluded that industrialization and militarization of the forest land have been identified as the main causes of Bangladesh deforestation. The effective implementation of forest laws and effective forest management are recommended as remedial measures of deforestation and degradation. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 53

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59 Annexure Annex 1- Check List for Key Informant: Owner of Furniture Industries 1. Stakeholder ID 2. Background Information Age Occupation Education Income (monthly) Marital Status 3. What are the sources of the trees? 4. Where the trees are coming from? (Are the trees coming from the adjacent areas? Or Any other place?) 5. What are the types of the trees which come to the furniture company? (Ex. sal, segun, gamari, etc) 6. What types of trees are more important for the furniture industry? (Ex. chair, table, sofa, bed, etc) 7. Which types of trees are suitable for specific furniture, like chair, bed, bookshelf, table and others? Types of trees Types of Furniture 8. Who are the sellers of the trees? 9. What is the profit level of the furniture owner? 10. Is there any alternative of wood existing in the furniture market? (Ex, synthetic wood, plywood etc) 11. Who are consumers of the wooden furniture? 12. Who are the suppliers of the trees? 13. His idea about deforestation and forest degradation. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 59

60 14. Do they know the officials of the forest department? 15. Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 60

61 Annex 2- Check List for Key Informant: Owner of Saw Mills 1. Stakeholder ID 2. Background Information Age Occupation Education Income (monthly) Marital Status 3. What are the sources of the timbers? 4. What CFT timber has been sawed per day? 5. What is the price of the timber which he saws per day? 6. What is the profit level of his business? 7. Does he buy timber from the Bit officer or any official of the FD? 8. Present situation of his business 9. His Idea about deforestation 10. Do they know the officials of the forest department? 11. Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 61

62 Annex 3- Check List for Key Informant: Official of Forest Department 1. Stakeholder ID 2. Background Information Age Occupation Education Income (monthly) Marital Status 3. Designation 4. Duration of the job (in forest sector) 5. Knowledge about the forest of the specific area 6. Present statistics about the deforestation and degradation 7. Past statistics about the deforestation and degradation 8. What types of tree are more prone to be cut? 9. What are the purposes of the cutting of the trees here? 10. Does he know anything about the appropriation of the trees? 11. Is there any political pressure existing regarding the cutting of the trees? 12. Does he know about any development project of GO/NGO/INGO which has fostered the deforestation in this area? 13. What CFT wood has been sawed per day? 14. Which types of trees are suitable for specific furniture, like chair, bed, bookshelf, table and others? 15. His idea about deforestation and degradation. 16. Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 62

63 Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 63

64 1. Stakeholder ID Annex 4- Check List for Key Informant: Consumer 2. Background Information Age Sex Occupation Education Income (monthly) Marital Status 3. Which furniture of his house is made of woods? 4. What are the reasons behind using of wooden furniture? 5. Does he/she think that wooden furniture is the symbol of aristocracy? 6. Is the wooden furniture more desirable for decorating the house? 7. Which types of trees are suitable for specific furniture, like chair, bed, bookshelf, table and others? Types of trees Types of Furniture 8. Does he/she think that wooden furniture could be the gift for wedding or any other occasion? 9. His/Her idea about deforestation. 10. Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 64

65 Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 65

66 Annex 5- Check List for Key Informant: Timber Trader 1. Stakeholder ID 2. Background Information Age Occupation Education Income (monthly) Marital Status 3. Which type of timber is more important? 4. What CFT wood has been traded per day? 5. From where does he procure the timber? 6. What is his profit level? 7. What are the sources of the timbers? 8 Who are the sellers of the timbers? 9. Who are the buyers of the timbers? 10. Which timbers have the higher value? 11. Which timbers are being used for furniture? 12. Which timbers are being used for fuel wood? 13. Do they know the officials of the forest department? 14. Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 66

67 Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 67

68 Annex 6- Check List for Focus Group Discussions Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 68

69 Annex 7- Check List for Community Workshops Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Industrialization (number of industries, type of industries, environment unfriendly industries, encroachment on forest land eviction of local land owners from land). Militarization (type of military establishments, amount of forest land encroached upon, displacement of and impacts of military activities). Development Interventions (forest land loss due to infrastructural and institutional developmental activities, eviction from land and impacts on environment). Consumerism (demand for forest wood products- furniture, building materials and constructural materials, illegal felling). Management (graft taking, ineffective forest management, non implementations of forest laws, inappropriate polices, legal proceedings against innocent people, the conflict between indigenous population and the forest department). Agricultural Practice (Jhumming and crop diversification conducive to forest degradation). Population, Poverty and Unemployment (standard of living and of alternative livelihood approach). Environment unfriendly profit making enterprises (Illegal felling, gas and oil exploration through mine blasting). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 69

70 Annex 8- Some significant chapters regarding deforestation and forest degradation in Forest Act 2000 (Amended). THE FOREST ACT, 1927 (Act XVI of 1927) [21st September 1927] An Act to consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest-produce. CHAPTER II OF RESERVED FORESTS 3. Power to reserve forests.-the [Government] may constitute any forest-land or waste-land [or any land suitable for afforestation] which is the property of Government, or over which the Government has proprietary rights, or to the whole or any part of the forest-produce of which the Government is entitled, a reserved forest in the manner hereinafter provided. 4. Notification by Government. -(l) Whenever it has been decided to constitute any land a reserved forest, the 1[Government] shall issue" notification in the [official Gazette] (a) declaring that it has been decided to constitute such land a reserved forest; (b) specifying, as nearly as possible, the situation and limits of such land; and (c) appointing an officer (hereinafter called "the Forest Settlementofficer") to inquire into and determine the existence, nature and extent of any rights alleged to exist in favor of any person in or over any land comprised within such limits, or in or over any forest-produce, and to deal with the same as provided in this Chapter. Explanation. - For the purpose of clause (b), it shall be sufficient to describe the limits of the forest by roads, rivers, ridges or other well known or readily intelligible boundaries. (2) The officer appointed under clause"(c) 'of sub-section (J) shall ordinarily be a person not holding any forest-office except that of Forest Settlement-officer. (3) Nothing in this section shall prevent the [Government] from appointing any number of officers not exceeding three, not more than one of when shall be a person holding any forest-office except as aforesaid, to perform the duties of a Forest Settlement- officer under this Act. 5. Bar of accrual of forest-rights. -After the issue of a notification under section 4, no right shall be acquired in or over the land comprised in such notification, except by succession or under a grant or contract in writing made or entered into by or [on behalf of the Government] or some person in whom such right was vested when the notification was issued; and no fresh clearings for cultivation or for any other purpose shall be made in such land except in accordance with such rules as may be made by the [Government] in this behalf. 6. Proclamation by Forest Settlement-officer. -When a notification has been issued under section 4, the Forest Settlement-officer shall publish in [Bengali] in every town and village in the neighborhood of the land comprised therein, a proclamation -(a) specifying, Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 70

71 as nearly as possible, the situation and limits of the proposed forest; (b) explaining the consequences which, as hereinafter provided, will ensue on the reservation of such forest; and (c) fixing a period of not less than three months [and not more than four months] from the date of such proclamation, and requiring every person claiming any right mentioned in section 4 or section 5, within such period either to resent to the Forest Settlement-officer a written notice specifying or to appear before him and state, the nature of such right and the amount and particulars of the compensation (if any) claimed in respect thereof. 7. Inquiry by Forest Settlement-officer. - The' Forest Settlement-officer shall take own in writing all statements made under section 6, an shall at some convenient place inquire into all claims duly preferred under that section, and the existence of any rights mentioned in section 4 or section 5 and not claimed under section 6 so far as the same may be ascertainable from the records of Government and the evidence of any persons likely to be acquainted with the same. 8. Powers of Forest Settlement-officer. -For the purpose of such inquiry, the Forest Settlement-officer may exercise the following powers, that is to say: - (a) power to enter, by himself or any officer authorized by him for the purpose, upon any land and to survey, demarcate and make a map of the same; and (b) the powers of a Civil Court in the trial of suit. 9. Extinction of rights. -Rights in respect of which no claim has been preferred under section 6, and of the existence of which no knowledge has been acquired by inquiry under section 7, shall be extinguished, unless, before the notification under section 20 is published, the person claiming them satisfies the Forest Settlement-officer that he had sufficient cause for not preferring such claim within the period fixed under section Treatment of claims relating to practice of shifting cultivation.- (1) In the case of a claim relating to the practice of shifting cultivation, the Forest Settlement-officer shall record a statement setting forth the particulars of the claim and of any local rule or order under which the practice is allowed or regulated, and submit the statement to the I [Government], together with his opinion as to whether the practice should be permitted or prohibited wholly or in part. (2) If such claim is admitted in whole or in part, the Forest Settlementofficer shall either- (i) exclude such land from the limits of the proposed forest; or, (ii) come to an agreement with the owner thereof for the surrender of his rights; or (iii) proceed to acquire such land in the manner provided by the I [Acquisition and Requisition or Immovable Property Ordinance, 1982 (II of 1982). (3) For the purpose of so acquiring such land- (a) the Forest Settlement-officer shall be deemed to be a Collector proceeding under the 2[Acquisition and Requisition of Immovable Property Ordinance 1982 (II of 1982). (b) the claimant shall be deemed to be a person interested and appearing before him in pursuance of a notice given under section 9 of that Act; (c) the provisions of the preceding sections of that Act shall be deemed to have been complied with; and (d) the Collector, with the consent of the claimant, or the Court, with the consent of both parties, may award compensation in land, or partly in land and partly in money [, or wholly in money). Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 71

72 12. Order on claims to rights of pasture or to forest produce.-ln the case of a claim to rights of pasture or to forest- produce, the Forest Settlement-officer shall pass an order admitting or rejecting the same in whole or in part. 13. Record to be made by Forest Settlement-officer. -The Forest Settlement-officer, when passing any order under section 12, shall record, so far as may be practicable,- (a) the name, father's name, caste, residence and occupation of the person claiming the right; and (b) the designation, position and area of all fields or groups of fields (if any), and the designation and position of all buildings (if any) in respect of which the exercise of such right is claimed. 14. Record where he admits claim. -If the Forest Settlement-officer admits in whole or in part any claim under section 12, he shall also record the extent to which the claim is so admitted, specifying the number and description of the cattle which the claimant is from time to time entitled to graze in the forest, the season during which such pasture is permitted, the quantity of timber and other forest-produce which he is from time to time authorized to take or receive, and such other particulars as the case may require. He shall also record whether timber or other forest-produce obtained by the exercise of the rights claimed may be sold or bartered. 15. Exercise of rights admitted. - (J) After making such record the Forest Settlementofficer shall, to the best of his ability, and having due regard to the maintenance of the reserved forest in respect of which the claim is made, pass such orders as will ensure the continued exercise of rights so admitted. (2) For this purpose the Forest Settlementofficer may- (a) set out some other forest-tract of sufficient extent and in a locality reasonably convenient, for the purposes of such claimants, and record an order conferring upon them a right of pasture or to forest-produce (as the case may be) to the extent so admitted; or 15 (b) so alter the limits of the proposed forest as to exclude forest-land of sufficient extent, and a locality reasonably convenient, for the purposes of the claimants; or (c) record an order, continuing to such claimants a right of pasture or to forest-produce, as the case may be, to the extent so admitted, at such seasons, within such portions of the proposed forest, and under such rules, as may be made in this behalf by the 1 [Government]. 16. Commutation of rights. - In case the Forest Settlement- officer finds it impossible, having due regard to the maintenance of the reserved forest, to make such settlement under section 15 as shall ensure the continued exercise of the said rights to the extent so admitted, he shall, subject to such rules as the [Government] may make in this behalf, commute such rights, by the payment to such persons of a sum of money in lieu thereof, or by the grant of land, or in such other manner as he thinks fit. 16A. Time limit for resolution of claims. - (1) Within 12 months after the period fixed under section 6 has elapsed, or within 12 months after the enactment of this section, whichever is later, the Forest Settlement Officer shall do one of the following: - (i) dispose of all claims made under sections 6 and 9; or (ii) obtain an extension of this 12 months deadline under sub-section (2). (2) Upon application of a Forest Settlement Officer, the Deputy Commissioner may grant a single 2 months extension of the deadline in sub-section (1), making the deadline 14 months, Commissioner may grant additional 4 months extensions.] Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 72

73 17. Appeal from order passed under section 11, section 12, section 15 or section Any person who has made a claim under this Act, or any Forest-Officer or other person generally or specially empowered by the Government in this behalf may, within three months from the date of the order passed on such claim by the Forest Settlement- Officer under section 11, section 12, section 15 or section 16, present an appeal, from such order to the Divisional Commissioner concerned. 18. Appeal under section 17. -[(2) (a) An appeal shall be heard by the Divisional Commissioner in the manner prescribed for the time being for the, hearing of appeals in matters relating to land-development tax and the appeal shall be disposed of within 6 months from the date of presenting it under section 17. (b) The Divisional Commissioner shall report to the Government the particulars of the cases which could not be disposed of by him within the time prescribed in clause (a), whereupon the Government may extend time as deemed necessary.] (3) The order passed on the appeal by the Divisional Commissioner shall, subject only to revision by the Government, be final]. 19. Pleaders. -The 4[Government], or any person who has made a claim under this Act, may appoint any person to appear, plead and act on its or his behalf before the Forest Settlementofficer, or '[the Divisional Commissioner] in the course of any inquiry or appeal under this Act. 20. Notification declaring forest reserved. - (1) When the following events have occurred, namely: - (a) the period fixed under section 6 for preferring claims has elapsed and all claims, if any, made under that section or section 9 have been disposed of by the Forest Settlement- officer; (b) It any Such claims have been made, the period limited by section 17 for appealing from the orders passed on such claims has elapsed, and all appeals (if any) presented within such period have been disposed of by 2[the Divisional Commissioner]; and (c) all lands (if any) to be included in the proposed forest, which the Forest Settlement-officer has, under section 11, elected to acquire under the 3[Acquisition and Requisition of Immovable Property Ordinance, 1982 (II of 1982), have become vested in the Government under section 11 of that Ordinance], the 4[Government] shall publish a notification in the 5[official Gazette], specifying definitely, according to boundary-marks erected or otherwise, the limits of the forest which is to be reserved, and declaring the same to be reserved from a date fixed by the notification. (2) From the date so fixed such forest shall be deemed to be a reserved forest Publication of translation of such notification in neighborhood of forest. -The Forest Settlement-officer shall, before the date fixed by such notification, I [cause it] to be published in every town and village in the neighborhood of the forest. 22. Power to revise arrangement under section 15 or section I8.-The 2[Government] may, within five years from the publication of any notification under section 20, revise any arrangement made under section 15 or section 18, and may for this purpose rescind or modify any order made under section 15 or section 18, and direct that anyone of the proceedings specified in section 15 be taken in lieu of any other of such proceedings, or that the rights admitted under section 12 be commuted under section 16 Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 73

74 23. No right acquired over reserved forest except, as here provided.- No right of any description shall be acquired in or over a reserved forest except by succession or under a grant or contract in writing made by or [on behalf of the Government] or some person in whom such right was vested when the notification under section 20 was issued. 24. Rights not to be alienated without sanction. - (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in section 23, no right continued under clause (c) of sub-section (2) of section 15 shall be alienated by way of grant, sale, lease, mortgage or otherwise, without the sal1ction of the 1 [Government]: Provided that, when any such right is appendant to any land or house, it may be sold or otherwise alienated with such land or house. (2) No timber or other forest-produce obtained in exercise of any such right shall be sold or bartered except to such extent as may have been admitted in the order recorded under section Power to stop ways and water-courses in reserved forests. The Forest-officer may, with the previous sanction of the [Government] or of any officer duly authorised by it in this behalf, stop.. public or private way or water-course in a reserved forest, provided that a substitute for the way or water- course so stopped, which the 3 [Government] deems to be reasonably convenient already exits, or has been provided or constructed by the Forest-officer in lieu thereof. 26. Acts prohibited in such forests. - (1) Any person who, in a reserved forest- (a) kindles, keeps or carries any fire except at such seasons as the Forest- Officer may notify in this behalf; (b) trespasses or pastures cattle, or permits cattle to trespass; (c) causes any damage by negligence in felling any tree or cutting or dragging any timber; (d) quarries stone, burns lime or charcoal, or collects, subjects to any manufacturing process, or removes any forest produce other than timber; or who enters a reserved forest with firearms without prior permission from the Divisional Forest Officer concerned, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months and shall also be liable to fine which may extend to two thousand taka, in addition to such compensation for damage done to the forest as the convicting Court may direct to be paid. (1 A) Any person who-- (a) makes any fresh clearing prohibited by section 5 ; or (b) removes any timber from a reserved forest; or (c) sets fire to a reserved forest, or, in contravention of any rules made by the Government in this behalf, kindles any fire, or leaves any fire burning, in such manner as to endanger such a forest; or who, in a reserved forest (d) fells, girdles, lops, taps or burns any tree or strindigenous people off the bark or leaves from, or otherwise damages the same; (e) clears or breaks up any land for cultivation or any other purpose [or cultivates or attempts to cultivate any land in any other manner] ; (f) in contravention of any rules made in this behalf by the Government, hunts, shoots, fishes, poisons water or sets traps or snares; or (g) establishes saw-pits or saw-benches or converts trees into timber without lawful authority, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years and shall not be less than six months, and shall also be liable to fine which may extend to fifty thousand taka and shall not be less than five thousand taka, in addition to such compensation for damage done to the forest as the convicting Court may direct to be paid.] (2) Nothing in this section shall be deemed to prohibit- (a) any act done by permission in writing of the Forest- officer, or under any rule made by the I [Government] ; or (b) the exercise of any Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 74

75 right continued under clause (c) or sub-section (2) of section 15, or created by grant or contract in writing made by or 2[ on behalf of the Government] under section 23. (3) Whenever fire is caused willfully or by gross negligence in a reserved forest, the 3[Government] may (notwithstanding that any penalty has been inflicted under this section) direct that in such forest or any portion thereof the exercise of all rights of pasture or to forest-produce shall be suspended for such period as it thinks fit. 27. Power to declare forest no longer reserved. - (1) The [Government] may, by notification in the 6[official Gazette], direct that, from a date fixed by such notification, any forest or any portion thereof reserved under this Act shall cease to be a reserved forest. (2) From the date so fixed, such forest or portion shall cease to be reserved; but the rights (if any) which have been extinguished therein shall not revive in consequence of such cessation. CHAPTER V OF THE CONTROL OVER FORESTS AND LAND NOT BEING THE PROPERTY OF GOVERNMENT 35. [Protection of forests for special purposes] Repealed by the Private Forest Ordinance. /959 (E.P. Ord. No. XXXIV of /959), s [Power to assume management of forests] Repealed by the Private Forest Ordinance. /959 (E.P. Ord. No. XXXIV l?f /959), s [Expropriation of forests in certain cases] Repealed by the Private Forest Ordinance. /959 (E.P. Ord. No. XXXIV of /959), s [Protection of forests at request of owners] Repealed by the Private Forest s Ordinance. /959 (E.P. Ord. No. XXXIV of /959), s.63 38A. Operation of :private Forest Ordinance. - (1) After commencement of this section, the Government may no longer exercise authority to vest control of forest land under sub-section (2) of section 6, section 7 or section 11 of the Private Forest Ordinance, 1959 (E.P. Ordinance No. XXXIV of 1959): Provided that the forest land already vested shall remain vested. (2) After commencement of this section, the Government may no longer exercise authority under section 3 of the Private Forests Ordinance, 1959 (E.P. Ordinance No. XXXIV of 1959) to require private forests to have working plans. 38B. Notice of forest management activities. - (1) The Government may make rules for the purpose of issuing notice to owners or occupiers of neighboring lands at least 30 days before undertaking specified forest management activities that may pose a threat of harm to the environment or private or Government property, or that the Government may wish to track for statistical purposes. (2) Within 20 days after receiving notice of a proposed activity under this section, upon finding that the proposed activity is likely to cause unreasonable damage to the environment or private or Government property, the Government may issue a written order to the owner or occupier of a land to alter or refrain from the proposed activity to prevent or minimise such damage. 38C. Restricted activities. - (1) The Government may make rules to prohibit, restrict or require a permit for land clearing, use of pesticides, harvest on steep slopes, or other Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 75

76 forest management activities on private land that may pose a threat to property, renewable natural resources or the productivity of land. (2) The Government shall empower Forest-officers to issue such permits required under sub-section (1). 38D. Abatement of forest nuisances. - (1) Upon a finding that conditions on a land pose a risk of disease, insect outbreak, fire or other harm to nearby renewable natural resources, the Government may issue a written order to the owner or occupier of the land to abate such a nuisance within 30 days, or sooner as may be specified in the notice, if the protection of renewable natural resources demands. (2) To be effective, an order under sub-section (1) must be delivered personally to the owner or occupier of the land c;>r sent to him by registered post with acknowledgement receipt due, or if the address of the person is unknown, affixed conspicuously at least two locations on the property. (3) If the owner or occupier fails to comply with an order under this section, the Government may enter the land, remove the nuisance and realise compensation as a public demand.] CHAPTER VI OF THE DUTY ON TIMBER AND OTHER FOREST-PRODUCE 39. Power to impose duty on timber and other forest- produce.- (1) The [Government] may levy a duty in such manner, at such places and at such rates as it may declare by notification in the [official Gazette] on all timber or other forest- produce - (a) which is produced in J[Bangladesh], and in respect of which I [ the Government] has any right; (b) which is brought from any place outside 3[Bangladesh] [or is transported from or to any place within 3[Bangladesh] : 3 (2) In every case in which such duty is directed to levied ad valorem, the I [Government] may fix by like notification the value on which such duty shall be assessed. 40. Limit not to apply to purchase money or royalty. - Nothing in this Chapter shall be deemed to limit the amount, if any, chargeable as purchase-money or royalty or any timber or other forest-produce, although the same is levied on such timber or produce while in transit, in the same manner as duty is levied. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh 76