Lecture 9. Adjectives; Adverbs and Adverbials; Word Order

Transcription

1 Lecture 9. Adjectives; Adverbs and Adverbials; Word Order 1 Adjectives vs. Adverbs An adjective: o Typically describes: A noun (e.g. The book was really good; Have you seen my purple tie?). A pronoun (e.g. Crowds make me nervous). o Functions: Predicative: the head of a Ps or Po (e.g. The book was really good; Crowds make me nervous). Attributive: modifier in a noun phrase, usually but not always before the head (e.g. my purple tie). (Less often) the head of a noun phrase (see below). o NOTE 1. Adjectives are used in the phrase as as when it means så som (e.g. as soon as possible) and in phrases such as as usual and if possible. This is because such constructions can be expanded to structures where the adjective is predicative (e.g. Go there as soon as [it is] possible [for you to go there]). o NOTE 2. When smell and taste occur in descriptions of smells and tastes, they are linking verbs followed by adjectives; the corresponding Swedish verbs are typically intransitive and followed by adverbs (e.g. The soup smells good vs. Soppan luktar gott). Smell and taste can also be used transitively (e.g. I was smelling the soup; Taste the food before you add salt). An adverb: o Typically describes: A verb (e.g. He shook my hand briefly). An adjective (e.g. The shoes were extremely expensive). Another adverb (e.g. He shook my hand very briefly). A whole clause (e.g. Sadly, he lost the game). o The most frequent functions of adverbs are: The head of an adverbial (e.g. He shook my hand very briefly; Sadly, he lost the game). Modifier of adjectives (e.g. The shoes were extremely expensive; the very cheap shoes). Modifier of adverbs (e.g. He shook my hand very briefly). 1

2 2 Adjectives Most adjectives are central adjectives and can be used both attributively and predicatively (see above). However, a few peripheral adjectives can be used only with attributive function (e.g. utter) or only with predicative function (e.g. alone) see lists in UGE, pp Comparison: o Gradable adjectives can be compared and have three forms: the absolute form, the comparative (-er or more), and the superlative (-est or most). o Four groups: One-syllable adjectives except real, right, wrong (and, in informal speech, fun): -er/-est (e.g. warm warmer warmest). Two-syllable adjectives: show variation depending on their form and their ending (see section in UGE for details). Adjectives with three or more syllables: always more/most (e.g. fantastic more fantastic most fantastic). Note that Swedish sometimes uses -are/-ast with long adjectives! Irregular comparison (see list in UGE) (e.g. good better best). NOTE 1. Except in a few set phrases, participles used as adjectives always take more/most regardless of how many syllables they contain (e.g. spoiled more spoiled most spoiled). NOTE 2. Double comparison (e.g. *more warmer) is not acceptable in Standard English. o Superlatives have to take the definite article (or another definite determiner, such as my) when the adjective premodifies a noun (That is the best news I ve heard in years), and often do so when the adjective is predicative as well: Her presentations are always (the) best. o Spelling changes in comparison: After a consonant, -y in the absolute form > -ier in the comparative and -iest in the superlative: cosy cosier cosiest. One-syllable adjectives ending in one single consonant double the consonant before -er and -est: sad sadder saddest. But this does not happen if the preceding vowel sound is spelt with several letters (this is not mentioned in UGE!): lean leaner leanest. If the absolute form ends in -e, this -e disappears when -er and -est are added: gentle gentler gentlest. o Variation in comparison: Far: far further furthest is more common than far farther farthest, and always works. 2

3 o o Late: late later latest is about time, late latter last is about order (e.g. her latest book her most recent book vs. her last book the book that came before this one or the last book that she ever wrote ). Near: the superlative nearest is usually used about space (e.g. the nearest petrol station den närmaste bensinstationen ) and next about order (e.g. the next petrol station nästa bensinstation ). But: next door. Old: elder and eldest are used almost only in BrE, and only in some contexts and expressions; otherwise, older and oldest always work. In Standard English, the comparative should be used when two things are compared, and the superlative when more than two things are compared (e.g. The older of the two brothers is dating the oldest of the three sisters). In Swedish, the superlative is often used in both cases (e.g. Den äldste av de två bröderna ). Swedish has an absolute comparative, where the comparative is used without any comparison being made, as an alternative to the absolute form (e.g. Vi gick ut och åt på en /bra/bättre/ restaurang). English does not use the comparative in this way (e.g. We had dinner at a good restaurant). Adjectives as heads of noun phrases: o Less frequent than in Swedish; two main types occur in English (see below). o Used (almost) only with generic reference. o Used with the definite article (despite the generic reference) see below. o Cannot take the genitive have to take the of construction even when the adjective refers to people (e.g. the plight of the homeless, not *the homeless s plight). o Type 1: the adjective refers to a group of people in a generic sense (e.g. The rich are getting richer and the poor have become poorer). The adjective takes a plural verb (see above). The generic reference may be limited to an area, a place, etc. (e.g. The homeless in Uppsala have a new shelter). o Type 2: the adjective refers to an abstract phenomenon in a generic sense (e.g. The unknown is often frightening). The adjective takes a singular verb (see above). o English usually cannot use adjectives as heads of noun phrases when the adjective is used in a specific sense, while Swedish can (e.g. Den arbetslöse har fått jobb; Efter kraschen har fem överlevande hittats; Det intressanta var att jag aldrig såg bussen som stals; Det musikaliska i Dylans sånger har underskattats). Some solutions with specific people: Add a suitable head noun (e.g. The unemployed person has got a job). The adjective can sometimes be replaced by a noun (e.g. After the crash, five survivors have been found). 3

4 In a very few cases, the adjective can be used in a specific sense (e.g. The accused shows no sign of remorse). Some such adjectives have become ordinary nouns (e.g. Adults should know better). Some solutions with specific situations: Use a dependent what-clause instead of a noun phrase (e.g. What was interesting was that I never saw the bus that was stolen). Add a suitable head noun (e.g. The interesting thing was that I never saw the bus that was stolen). The adjective can occasionally be replaced by a noun (e.g. The musicality of Dylan s songs has been underestimated). In a few cases, the adjective can be used in a specific sense in fixed phrases (e.g. We can t do the impossible). One is used instead of repeating a singular countable noun after an adjective (e.g. I would always prefer a new bike to an old one). Swedish often has nothing (e.g. Jag skulle alltid föredra en ny cykel framför en gammal). 3 Nationality Words Three words are involved: o 1: the nationality as an adjective (and its language, if any, as a noun). o 2: the people from the nation generically, or people who represent the nation (e.g. a national sports team). o 3: an individual belonging to the nation. Four groups (see Appendix 7 in UGE for a list of nationalities): o Group 1: the same word for (1) and (2), a different word for (3), e.g. Welsh the Welsh a Welshman/Welshwoman. Used about Britain and close geographical neighbours. o Group 2: a different word for (1), the same word for (2) and (3), e.g. Danish the Danes a Dane. o Group 3: the same word for (1), (2), and (3), e.g. German the Germans a German. o Group 4: the same word for (1), (2), and (3), and zero plural for (2), e.g. Portuguese the Portuguese a Portuguese. See also section in UGE. o NOTE. Upper-case initial letters are used for nationalities in English. 4 Adverbs Many adverbs are derived from adjectives by means of adding -ly (e.g. He is careful [adjective] vs. She drives carefully [adverb]). 4

5 o Adjectives that end in -le, as well as due and true, lose their -e when they add -ly and become adverbs (e.g. Lower him down gently; This is truly tragic). o Adjectives ending in [consonant + -y] change the -y to an -i- when they add -ly and become adverbs (e.g. The baby smiled happily). Exception: shyly. o Adjectives ending in -ic end in -ically as adverbs (e.g. She went to work energetically). Exception: publicly. o NOTE 1. Do not forget to add -ly when it is required in Standard English (e.g. *I want this victory bad). o NOTE 2. Do not add -ly where an adjective without -ly should be used (e.g. *Buying fresh fish in Germany was almost impossibly). o NOTE 3. Some other endings are used to turn nouns into adverbs (e.g. clockwise, southwards, sideways, California-style). Adverbs that may look the same as adjectives (see Appendix 8 in UGE): o Both the adverb and the adjective end in -ly (e.g. early: I had an early breakfast since I got up early). NOTE. With most adjectives in -ly, the construction in a(n) X way/manner/fashion is used instead of an identical adverb (e.g. They told us the story in a lovely way). o Neither the adjective nor the adverb ends in -ly (e.g. fast: You have a fast car, but you never drive too fast). o The adverb may either end in -ly or be identical with the adjective (see Appendix 9 in UGE), with slightly different meanings (e.g. I always fly direct vs. I looked directly at the aeroplane). Many frequent adverbs are not related to adjectives through endings, e.g. always, here, quite, however. Pay attention to very and much: o Very is used with the absolute form of adjectives and adverbs (e.g. very nice/quickly). o Much is used with comparatives (e.g. much better; much more interesting). o Very much is used with prepositional phrases (e.g. I m very much into rugby). Comparison: o Gradable adverbs can be compared and have three forms: the absolute form, the comparative (-er or more), and the superlative (-est or most). o Three groups: One-syllable adverbs + early: -er/-est (e.g. I went home earlier than I thought, and walked faster than I usually do). See comparison of adjectives above and section in UGE for spelling changes in comparison. Two or more syllables: more/most (e.g. You have to work more quickly). Irregular comparison (see UGE for a list), e.g. badly worse worst. 5

6 5 Adverbials Differences between adverbs and adverbials: o Not all adverbs are adverbials; not all adverbials are adverbs. o An adverb is a word that belongs to the word class adverb (see Lecture 2). The lecture was really good (really is an adverb, but not an adverbial it is a modifier in the adjective phrase really good, which is a subject predicative). The student solved the problem quickly (quickly is an adverb and an adverbial). o An adverbial is a clause element that may consist of constructions such as: An adverb phrase (adverb + modifiers, if any, e.g. Do the assignment quickly, but answer the questions really thoroughly). A prepositional phrase (e.g. People were disappointed after the election). A noun phrase (e.g. Next Tuesday, we will travel to India). A dependent clause (e.g. I missed the bus although I woke up in time). Adverbials can express a wide range of meanings see lists in UGE (pp ) for examples: o Specific meanings such as place, time, manner, instrument and agency, cause and purpose, condition and concession, and degree. o Modal adverbials comment on an entire clause, and express probability or speaker attitude (e.g. Unfortunately, I missed the interview). o Linking adverbials link clauses, sentences, and paragraphs together and are usually placed at the start of a sentence (e.g. It is a pity that you lost the game. However, you will get a new chance tomorrow). 6 Word Order Adverbials and word order: o Three positions: Initial position especially modal and linking adverbials (e.g. Furthermore, we have to finish the assignment). Mid-position especially some short, frequent adverbials (e.g. He always takes the last piece of cake). Final position especially long adverbials and manner adverbials (e.g. I did my homework when I came home). o Problems: Initial adverbials generally do not cause inverted word order in English (e.g. Yesterday we played rugby). 6

7 EXCEPTION 1. If the subject is stressed and longer than the verb, and the main verb is intransitive, the word order is inverted (e.g. Here comes the sun). But: Here it comes. EXCEPTION 2. Negating or restricting adverbials in initial position cause word order change (one auxiliary + subject + rest of verb phrase, i.e. the same as in questions) (e.g. Only recently did I realize the truth). The auxiliary do is used if there is no other auxiliary. A number of one-word adverbials are placed before the finite verb form of a verb phrase in English (e.g. I never have enough time). EXCEPTION 1. If the verb phrase consists only of a form of to be, it comes before the adverbial (e.g. I am never awake before 7 a.m.) EXCEPTION 2. Finite auxiliaries (e.g. I have never seen a total eclipse) come before the adverbial. Old versions of UGE (bottom of p. 274) claim that this applies only to modal auxiliaries. This is an error: the rule applies to all finite auxiliaries, not just modal auxiliaries. In English dependent clauses, complex adverbials do not occur between the subject and the finite verb form (e.g. When/, after several years,/ I passed the test /after several years/, I was destitute; not *When I after several years passed the test, I was destitute). In written Standard English, to and the infinitive verb form should not be split by not, never, or only (e.g. Remember never to split an infinitive). Some other comments on English word order: o Reporting clauses can, but do not have to, have verb subject order (e.g. You owe me ten pounds, said the police officer) instead of subject verb order (e.g. You owe me ten pounds, the police officer said) if three conditions are met: The subject is a noun phrase headed by a noun (the police officer above). The verb phrase has only one verb form (said above). There is nothing specifying who is spoken to following the subject and verb (e.g. You owe me ten pounds, the police officer said to Mary). o See Adverbials and word order above for other exceptions to subject verb word order in English. o See section in UGE for cases where attributive adjectives follow the head of a noun phrase instead of preceding it (e.g. the people present at the meeting; something important). o See section in UGE for the relative order of adjectives in a noun phrase. Pay special attention to old and little (e.g. the good old days vs. den gamla goda tiden). o See section in UGE and the handout to Lecture 4 for information on word order problems within noun phrases involving the indefinite article. 7