Work Engagement: What do we know?
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1 Work Engagement: What do we know? Wilmar Schaufeli Utrecht University The Netherlands Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
2 The Netherlands Utrecht Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
3 Utrecht University Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
4 City of Utrecht Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
5 Topics The positive turn of Occupational Health Psychology Work engagement: what do we know? What is it? How to understand it? How to enhance it? Work engagement: where do we go? Research Practice Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
6 Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
7 Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
8 The Janus-face of work Labor: Animal laborans Effort Strain Sacrifice Blood, sweat & tears Opus: Homo faber Creativity Productivity Challenge Development The traditional view Disease Disorder Damage Disability Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
9 Negative versus Positive 17:1 8,072 Anger 57,800 Anxiety 70,856 Depression 851 Joy 2,958 Happiness 5,701 Satisfaction Myers (2000) 5,361 Burnout 22:1 261 Engagement Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
10 It s time for a change.. Positive Psychology is the scientific study of optimal human functioning. It aims to discover and promote the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive Martin Seligman (1999) Positive Occupational Psychology is the scientific study of optimal employee functioning. It aims to discover and promote the factors that allow employees and organizations to thrive. Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
11 From burnout to engagement A personal history After 10 years of burnout research ( ) Is that all there is? But what about those who thrive? Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
12 The power of the positive Do happy people (nuns) live longer? Sister Cecilia Sister Marguerite 178 other American nuns (Danner et al., 2001) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
13 Happy nuns live longer! happy not happy > 85 years 90% 34% > 94 years 54% 11% Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
14 How our work changes From To Stability Continuous change Monoculture Diversity Individual work Team work Detailed job descriptions Job crafting Vertical hierarchy Horizontal networks External supervision & control Self-control & empowerment Dependence on organization Own responsibility (employability) Fixed schedules & patterns Boundarylessness Physical demands Mental and emotional demands Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
15 Psychologization For modern organizations, mental capital is of increasing importance. Therefore they do not need a merely healthy workforce but a motivated workforce that is engaged. Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
16 What is engagement? Concept and measurement Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
17
18 Employee engagement in business and academia 3,950,000 hits (in 0.24 sec.) All major consultancy firms are involved Fuzzy concept: old wine in new bottles Claim: Engagement drives business performance. Only 261 hits. Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
19 What is work engagement? Work engagement is a positive, affective-motivational state of fulfillment that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption Schaufeli et al. (2001) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
20 Vigor refers to high levels of energy and resilience, the willingness to invest effort in one s job, not being easily fatigued, and persistence in the face of difficulties Dedication refers to a strong involvement in one s work, accompanied by feelings of enthusiasm and significance, and by a sense of pride and inspiration Absorption refers to a pleasant state of total immersion in one s work which is characterized by time passing quickly and being unable to detaching oneself from the job Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
21 Engaged workers.. are active agents.. believe in themselves.. generate their own positive feedback.. have values that match with the organization.. sometimes feel tired, but satisfied.. are also engaged outside work Schaufeli et al. (2000) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
22 Utrecht Work Engagement Scale Vigor At my job I feel strong and vigorous Dedication I am enthusiastic about my work Absorption I get carried away by my work Available in 22 language versions from Schaufeli et al. (2002, 2006) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
23 A taxonomy of employee well-being ACTIVATION WORK ADDICTED ENGAGED DISPLEASURE PLEASURE BURNED-OUT SATISFIED DEACTIVATION Adapted from Russell (2003) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
24 Burnout, engagement and workaholism Dutch managers (N=587) -.39 Exhaustion Cynicism Burnout -.47 Efficacy Vigor Dedication Absortion Work engagement Working excessively Workaholism Working compusively Schaufeli, Taris & Van Rhenen (2008) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
25 Engagement differs from workaholism Engagement No obsession with work Autonomous regulation (intrinsic) Approach motivation (work is fun) Secure attachment Job satisfaction Good health Good quality social relations Workaholism Compulsive inner drive Controlled regulation (introjected/identified) Avoidance motivation (not working is stressful) Insecure attachment Job dissatisfaction Poor health Poor quality social relations Van Beek et al., (2011, submitted); Schaufeli et al (2008) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
26 Engagement goes beyond mere job satisfaction Correlation between engagement and satisfaction:.53 (k=4, N=9712) k N Satisfaction Engagement Task performance Contextual performance Engagement adds 19% unique variance in task performance Engagement adds 21% unique variance in contextual performance Christian, Garza & Slaughter (2011) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
27 Demographics of engagement (N = 4,000 representative Dutch national sample) Weak positive relationship with age (r =.10) No systematic gender differences Differences between professions: High in engagement: entrepreneurs teachers managers artists farmers sales persons nurses Low in engagement: blue-collar workers food processing printers police officers ICT-workers home care staff retail workers Smulders (2006) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
28 Engagement across the globe (Total sample N = 76,437) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
29 How to understand Work engagement? Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
30 Job resources Engagement is caused by job autonomy social support and coaching performance feedback opportunities to learn and to develop task variety responsibility transformational leadership value fit organizational justice Challenging jobs produce engagement Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
31 Personal resources Engagement is related to emotional stability extraversion conscientiousness optimism self-esteem (organization based) achievement striving self-efficacy flexibility, adaptability adaptive perfectionism (e.g. personal standards) Engaged workers can draw upon various personal resources Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
32 Health outcomes Engagement is related to very low levels anxiety and depression excellent perceived physical health low levels of burnout positive emotions reactivity of the HPA (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal) axis quick recovery after yesterday s effort Engaged workers enjoy good health Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
33 Performance [1] Motivational performance indicators contextual performance intrinsic rather than extrinsic work motivation personal initiative, proactive behavior HR performance indicators frequency of sickness absenteeism turnover Economical performance indicators financial turnover business unit performance (profitability, productivity, turnover, customer loyalty) Engaged workers are motivated, present, and they pay off Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
34 Performance [2] Behavioral performance indicators academic performance (GPA) quality of service as perceived by customers self-reported medical errors occupational injuries manager s rated effectiveness and job performance innovativeness (personal and work-unit) Engaged workers perform well Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
35 Why engaged workers perform better Because they are proactive; they take initiative set higher goals; they feel competent are intrinsically motivated; for them work is fun show pro-social behavior; they are friendly and cooperative experience positive emotions; they process information better are healthy; they are present, not absent Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
36 The Job Demands-Resources Model Overload Work-life bal. Conflict Ect. Support Job demands Personal resources Burnout - Personal and organizational outcomes Job control Feedback Job resources + Engagement + Ect. Schaufeli & Bakker (2004; 2009); Hakanen et.al. (2006, 2008); Korunka et al. (2009); Llorens et al (2006) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
37 An upward gain spiral? Job resources Self-efficacy Work engagement Job performance Salanova et al. (2006, 2010); Llorens et al. (2007); Hakanen et al. (2008); Ouweneel et al. (in press) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
38 Emotional contagion - Social comparison - Empathy - Proximity - Contact frequency Other s engagement Emotional contagion Own engagement Bakker et al.(2005, 2006); Bakker & Demerouti (2009) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
39 Conclusion Work engagement is related to job resources, personal resources, health, and outcomes in ways as predicted by the Job-Demands Resources model. Moreover, an upward gain spiral seems to exist, and work engagement seems to be contagious. Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
40 How to enhance work engagement? Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
41 Interventions Treatment Prevention Amplition Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
42 Largest Occupational Health Service in Holland Private business Serves 70,000 employers with 1.3 million employees 1,400 staff 50 group practices 380 occupational physicians 450 other health professionals Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
43 Sickness absence Lifestyle Engagement Three pillars Treatment Prevention Amplition Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
44
45 Three levels of interventions Individual-based interventions Behavioral (e.g. acts of kindness, gratitude, share positive news) Cognitive (e.g. count one s blessings, savoring, cultivate optimism) Motivational (e.g. set and pursue meaningful goals, find flow) Team-based interventions Participative, strengths-based action approach Foster transformational leadership Increase collective/team-efficacy Organization-based interventions Job (re)design: increase job resources Leadership training: use contagiousness principle Career development: keep the jobs challenging Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
46 Two examples of individual interventions Online e-coaching to enhance engagement among employees Behavioral intervention to increase engagement and positive emotions among students Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
47 The E-coaching intervention Content: 12 assignment and 10 brief behavioral experiments Time: minutes per assignment; experiments are shorter Duration: 4 weeks Support: Coaches are available via internet for support Short instruction movies Keep personal blog and read that of others Pre-test and follow-up after three months Self-enhancement group (N = 86) Self-monitoring group (N = 225) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
48 Examples of assignments Do-good day: commit acts of kindness at work Know your saboteur: write all undermining thoughts in a black box and analyze these later Seek social support: ask for compliments and tips from a buddy I can have impact: what can you control at your work and what not? Drafting an action plan: what goals, what actions, what obstacles, what time? Look through pink glasses: write down what s fun during the day Be curious and nosy: ask others what they (dis)like at work, etc. Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
49 Theoretical background Assignments and exercises at work Mastery Experiences Positive emotions Time Selfefficacy Work engagement Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
50 Self-efficacy Positive emotions Intervention effect: efficacy & emotions Self-efficacy Positive emotions 4 3,7 3,9 3,8 3,7 self-enhancement self-monitoring 3,6 3,5 self-enhancement self-monitoring 3,6 3,5 Pre Post 3,4 Pre Post Time Time Ouweneel, Schaufeli & Le Blanc (in press) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
51 Work engagement Intervention effect: engagement Work engagement 3,4 3,3 3,2 self-enhancement self-monitoring 3,1 3 Pre Time Post Ouweneel, Schaufeli & Le Blanc (in press) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
52 Work engagement Group-specific effects Work engagement 5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 self-enhancement - high T0 self-monitoring - high T0 self-enhancement - medium T0 self-monitoring - medium T0 self-enhancement - low T0 self-monitoring - low T0 2 1,5 Pre Time Post Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
53 Conclusions Self-enhancement via an online intervention seems to increase self-efficacy Self-enhancement via an online intervention seems to increase engagement, but only for those with low initial levels It is likely that self-selection seems to operate in online positive interventions Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
54 Increasing student s positive emotions and engagement (using an online tool) Participants Condition 1: Thoughts of gratitude (N = 25 experimental; N = 25 control) Condition 2: Acts of kindness (N = 25 experimental; N = 24 control) Design Pre-, post; and 4-week follow-up assessments 5-day intervention; in the morning instruction, in te evening assessment Ouweneel, Schaufeli & Le Blanc (submitted a) Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
55 Positive emotions Positive emotions Thoughts of gratitude: positive emotions 4 3,9 3,8 3,7 3,6 3,5 experimental condition control condition 3,4 3,3 3,2 T0 (week 0) day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 T1 (week 1) T2 (week 5) Time Acts of kindness: positive emotions 3,9 3,8 3,7 3,6 3,5 3,4 3,3 3,2 3,1 3 2,9 T0 (week 0) day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 T1 (week 1) T2 (week 5) Time experimental condition control condition Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
56 Study engagement Study engagement Thoughts of gratitude: study engagement 3,6 3,5 3,4 3,3 3,2 3,1 experimental condition control condition 3 2,9 2,8 T0 (week 0) T1 (week 1) T2 (week 5) Time Acts of kindness: study engagement 3,5 3,4 3,3 3,2 3,1 experimental condition control condition 3 2,9 2,8 T0 (week 0) T1 (week 1) T2 (week 5) Time Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
57 Conclusions Inducing thoughts of gratitude and committing acts of kindness increases positive emotions However, this effect is temporary No effect on negative emotions was observed Temporary increase in engagement, only for acts of kindness Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
58 Positive interventions Positive interventions seem to increase positive emotions and engagement These increases are temporarily, rather than permanent Beware of a selection-effect! Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
59 Final conclusion It seems that work engagement is a promising concept for establishing a truly occupational health psychology Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
60 Thank you for your attention! More information Int. OHP workshop, Timisoara, December
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