METHODS OF GEOREFERENCING OLD MAPS ON THE EXAMPLE OF CZECH EARLY MAPS
|
|
|
- Darcy Wilkinson
- 9 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 CO-314 METHODS OF GEOREFERENCING OLD MAPS ON THE EXAMPLE OF CZECH EARLY MAPS CAJTHAML J. Czech Technical University in Prague, PRAGUE 6, CZECH REPUBLIC BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Old maps are unique source of information about our historical landscape. For comparing maps from different eras there is a need of their spatial overlay using common coordinate system. Thus, the crucial problem is to transform old maps into any well-defined system. This article shows methods of georeferencing old maps on the example of early maps of Bohemia and Moravia. Nowadays old maps are much more accessible than ever before. Digital archives are full of scanned images of old maps. Usually these images are only digital copies of their analog version. Map itself contains two main types of information: relationships of spatial objects (adjacency, neighborhood, distance) and position of these objects in the real world. If we want to capture the information about real position of map objects we have to georeference the map. For doing that properly it is necessary to be familiar with mathematical definition of transformation methods, cartographic projections and coordinate systems, and methods of adjustment. Most people working with old maps are not so well-educated in this background and are not able to choose correct method for georeferencing at all. I would like to explain typical characteristics of old maps and propose the methodology for georeferencing of specific categories of old maps. There are many categories of old maps and any of them requires its own approach. First of all, we have to define these categories. The main characteristics of analyzed old maps are: number of map sheets, knowledge of used coordinate system, and knowledge of original dimensions of map sheets. Number of map sheets is the key parameter. If the map is depicted on the only map sheet, the situation is much easier. All transformation and adjustment parameters are connected just to this only map sheet. Early maps, which are not based on the geodetic networks and measurements, are typical examples of this category. Early maps were created in small scale (usually 1 : and smaller) very often and thus there was no need of many map sheets for the mapped area. Early maps in large scale were usually plans without any ambition of displaying large area (on adjacent map sheets, typically city plans). With development of geodesy and astronomy in 18th century first fundamental geodetic networks were created and adjusted. Based on these networks new map series in middle or large scale were created (such as Cassini map of France in 1 : ; ). These map series are precise enough to place adjoining map sheets together. For Central Europe 2nd Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary (1 : ; ) could be good example. Previous 1st Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary (1 : ; ) was not based on precise geodetic measurement. Knowledge of used coordinate system is essential for georeferencning old maps. The oldest early maps didn t use any real cartographic projection. Position of some features (usually cities and towns) was measured astronomically; some lengths were measured on the ground. Usually the map was depicted with rectangular graticule leading to equidistant cylindrical projection (first used by Eratosthenes and Marinus of Tyre in ancient Greece). In 18th century transverse equidistant cylindrical projection was very popular. Newer maps usually used conformal projections (due to angle-preserving from geodetic measurement). We can find many other projections and coordinate systems used on old maps. In any case, the knowledge of used projection is very beneficial information for later georeferencning. Original dimensions of map sheets can be used for reconstruction of image dimensions. Analog maps suffer from shrinkage of paper. Every map is somehow distorted and original dimensions can help us remove these distortions. Unfortunately, in many cases we don t know exactly the dimensions. Early maps have no standardized size and the only solution is to use numbers found in historical literature. Another solution could be measurement of the original print matrices, but it is very improbable to find them, especially for early maps. APPROACH AND METHODS Previous text divided maps into categories based on the knowledge of number of map sheets, used projection and coordinate system, and original dimensions of map sheets. For any combination of these input parameters the proper method for georeferencing will be proposed.
2 For any transformation method within georeferencing, there is a need of collecting identical points (on the map and in reality). These points for transformation are usually called ground control points (GCPs). There are some important recommendations for GCPs collection: GCPs should be laid out through the whole map image (if possible); GCPs should be represented by stable well-identifiable objects; the more GCPs collected the better input data for georeferencing. The last remark led me to the method of full vector data model of the map, where the map is vectorized at first. Then any vector point from the model identifiable in reality can be used as GCP. Some points can be later omitted (e.g. evident errors made by author of the map). Transformation methods used within georeferencing need brief explanation. There are two main groups of transformations: global, and local. Global transformation methods use two mathematical equations (for two coordinates) for the whole image; local transformation methods use other approach where either the image is cut into areas (e.g. triangles of GCPs) with own equations ( rubber-sheeting method) or any point is transformed with own equations (usually based on interpolation methods such Thin plate spline or Inverse distance weighted ). Local transformations are non-residual where GCPs after transformation fit precisely, but the image can be distorted very ugly. Global transformations use only two equations and are non-residual only for minimal number of GCPs for equation solving. If having more than minimal number of GCPs global transformations are residual. Transformation parameters are then adjusted, usually by Least squares method (LSM). My approach of georeferencing old maps is based on global transformation methods. If georeferencning the map, I am not interested only in overlay the map with other ones, but I am interested in map parameters (precision, mean scale, rotation against graticule, ). These parameters can be computed within the adjustment of enough GCPs using global transformation methods. Local transformation methods deform the original image and are not suitable for such research. Of course, there could be plenty of global transformation methods. For map georeferencing there are suitable only several methods (linear, or low degree polynomials). a) Only map sheet, unknown projection, unknown dimensions This combination is typical for the oldest maps. If we don t know used projection it is proposed to georeference the map in Lat/Long projection (in geographic coordinates). In fact, Lat/Long projection matches equidistant cylindrical projection with undistorted equator (so called Plate Carree). This projection is usually used in GIS software for displaying Lat/Long data (e.g. in ArcGIS). GCPs are collected in Lat/Long (in reality), respectively in pixel coordinates for the image. As the shrinkage of the paper is unknown the used transformation should reduce the distortion. After affine transformation the image can be scaled in both axes and skewed. After second or third order polynomial transformation the image can be bended locally (especially near margins); texts on the map can be damaged. For the whole map sheet transformation I prefer affine transformation. If the aim of transformation is only local area within the map sheet, low order polynomial can be used for better fit of GCPs. Transformations are adjusted by LSM. b) Only map sheet, unknown projection, known dimensions If we know original dimensions of the map (by measurement of print matrices or by other source) the procedure should be little different. Before GCPc collection the image of the map should be reconstructed to its original size. The easiest way is to fit original dimensions to corner points of the map image. As we have four corner points and want to fit these points precisely projective (collinear) transformation is the best solution. It transforms any quadrangle into other quadrangle as non-residual. After having the map image with real size GCPc can be collected. The shrinkage of the map is removed by reconstructing original size. For the whole map sheet transformation here I prefer similarity transformation. Compared to affine transformation, it preserves angles. It consists only of uniform scale, rotation and shift. Different scaling or skew is no longer needed for reconstructed images. c) Only map sheet, known projection, unknown dimensions If we know used projection of the original map georeferencing should be done within this projection. Known projection means known geodetic datum (used ellipsoid or sphere parameters) and cartographic projection with parameters (prime meridian, undistorted parallels, ). GCPs should be collected in this projection either directly in GIS software that can on-the-fly transform the data or it is necessary to transfer coordinates from projection where data were collected into original projection (e.g. using software package PROJ.4). Then affine transformation can be used for adjustment by LSM. d) Only map sheet, known projection, known dimensions
3 Special case of the previous category can occur, when within known projection the corner points of map sheet have defined coordinates. Then the map should be transformed within original projection, but only with four corner points using non-residual projective transformation. This case is usually combined with known dimensions of the map sheet (original dimensions and corner coordinates within known cartographic projection are in fact dependent). e) Several map sheets, unknown projection, unknown dimensions If we have map series with unknown projection and dimensions, it is the most complicated case. This combination is typical for early map series which were not based on the geodetic basis. At first it is necessary to collect GCPs for every map sheet in Lat/Long projection (in geographic coordinates). Then the adjacency of neighboring sheets should be solved. Proposed method is based on the overall adjustment of particular transformations of map sheets (affine or low order polynomial) using LSM with constraints. These constraints are defined as conditions that joint edges of adjacent map sheets will be after transformation identical. After overall adjustment all map sheets are transformed with adjusted parameters and adjacent edges fit precisely. f) Several map sheets, unknown projection, known dimensions This case is very similar to previous one. Before GCPs collection all map sheets are transformed to its original dimensions. Then GCPs can be collected in Lat/Long projection (in geographic coordinates). The adjacency of neighboring sheets is solved as described in previous case. Overall adjustment of particular transformations (now similarity instead of affine) is realized using LSM with constraints (joint edge identity after transformation). g) Several map sheets, known projection, unknown dimensions If we know used projection of the original map series georeferencing should be done within this projection (if it is the same for all map sheets). GCPs should be collected in this projection either directly in GIS software that can on-the-fly transform the data or it is necessary to transfer coordinates from projection where data were collected into original projection (e.g. using software package PROJ.4). Then affine transformation can be used for adjustment by LSM with constraints (joint edge identity after transformation). h) Several map sheets, known projection, known dimensions Special case of the previous category can occur, when within known projection the corner points of map sheets have defined coordinates. Then map series should be transformed within original projection, but only with four corner points using non-residual projective transformation for every map sheet. This case is usually combined with known dimensions of the map sheets (original dimensions and corner coordinates within known cartographic projection are in fact dependent). Now all map sheets are transformed separately but fit precisely on the edges. RESULTS From previous text it is clear that 8 categories of old maps were defined and methods of their georeferencing proposed. Some of presented categories are very rare and it is very difficult to find good example for testing. Nevertheless, other categories were tested on the early maps of Bohemia and Moravia. One sheet maps are represented by Klaudyan s map of Bohemia (1518) and Criginger s map of Bohemia (1568), both without knowledge about projection or original dimensions. Klaudyan s map (1518) is the oldest known map of Czech lands. Its size is approximately 45 by 55 cm. The whole map was vectorized; 273 point features were used as possible GCPs. Lines (rivers and routes) were not used for georeferencning. From the set of 273 GCPs one point was removed after initial testing of transformation key (evident error made by author). The map was georeferenced using affine transformation into Lat/Long projection with RMSE 13.9 km in reality (see Figure 1). The scale of the map and rotation against south-north direction were computed from the adjusted values.
4 Figure 1. Klaudyan's map of Bohemia (1518) georeferenced and superimposed with Czech republic borders Criginger s map (1568) is the second known map of Czech lands. Its size is approximately 51 by 34 cm. The map was vectorized as well; 319 point features were used as GCPs. After removing 5 points (errors by author) the map was georeferenced using affine transformation into Lat/Long projection with RMSE 14.0 km in reality. Other parameters such mean scale or rotation of the map were computed as well. Both maps after georeferencing show similar errors. After deeper study I found out many similarities between both maps. It can be assumed that Criginger s map was based on the older Klaudyan s map. Map series are represented by Müller s map of Moravia (1712, 4 map sheets with unknown projection), Müller s map of Bohemia (1720, 25 map sheets with unknown projection, but known dimensions of map sheets), selection of sheets of 1st Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary ( , with unknown projection and size of map sheets) and selection of sheets of 2nd Military Mapping Survey of Austria- Hungary ( , with known projection and size of map sheets). Müller s map of Moravia and maps of 1st Military Mapping Survey were georeferenced using the same method adjusted affine transformation for each sheet with constraints of edge adjacency. After collecting GCPs for all map sheets the matrix for overall adjustment was filled. For affine transformation the definition of constraints was very simple. Coordinates of corner points from neighboring sheets must have after transformation the same position. These conditions were added to augmented matrix for LSM adjustment with constraints. Results of the adjustment are transformation parameters (6 parameters for every map sheet). After transforming all map sheets they fit precisely. RMSE for Müller s map of Moravia is about 2.1 km in reality, for selected 4 sheets of 1st Military Mapping Survey it is 550 m in reality. Müller s map of Bohemia was firstly transformed to original dimensions of the map sheets. The size of map sheets was determined by measurement of original copperplate print matrices. These are archived in National Technical Museum in Prague. After having right dimensions map sheets were georeferenced using adjusted similarity transformation for each sheet with constraints of edge adjacency. Constraints were defined as in previous case. After transforming all 25 map sheets fit precisely (see Figure 2 and 3). RMSE for Müller s map of Bohemia is about 2.0 km in reality.
5 Figure 2. Müller s map of Bohemia (all 25 georeferenced map sheets) Figure 3. Müller s map of Bohemia (detail of georeferenced map sheets) Maps of 2nd Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary are based on the cadastral mapping and have defined cartographic projection and size of map sheets. It is possible to compute coordinates of corner points in Gusterberg coordinate system (for Bohemia) or St. Stephen coordinate system (for Moravia). Cartographic projection is Cassini-Soldner (transverse cylindrical projection equidistant in cartographic meridians with fundamental points Gusterberg for Bohemia and St. Stephen for Moravia). Thus all corner points of map sheets were computed. After that every map sheet was georeferenced separately using projective transformation with 4 corner points. Precision of these maps was tested by independent control points. RMSE for maps of 2nd Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary was only about 20 m in reality. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PLANS
6 In this article georeferencing methods for old maps were presented and new method for map series (adjustment with constraints of edge adjacency) was introduced. Used georeferencning methods are based on global transformation methods. It is not the only solution. Local transformation methods can be used for local areas. For better GCPs fitting low order polynomials can be used, but maps are then deformed. Nevertheless, even for polynomial transformations can be defined constraints of edge matching. Another approach to map series could be based on the image processing and automated edge matching during creating joint raster data. I left out these methods because of high hardware demands. For example joint raster of Müller s map of Bohemia (composed of 25 map sheets) exceeded 1GB of data. Such raster is very difficult to work with. Proposed method works only with one map sheet, but guarantee edge fitting. My future plans are focused on 1st Military Mapping Survey. All map sheets will be adjusted together and overall seamless map from the area of Bohemia and Moravia will be created. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research has been supported by the GA CR grant No. 205/09/P102.
Earth Coordinates & Grid Coordinate Systems
Earth Coordinates & Grid Coordinate Systems How do we model the earth? Datums Datums mathematically describe the surface of the Earth. Accounts for mean sea level, topography, and gravity models. Projections
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS CERTIFICATION
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS CERTIFICATION GIS Syllabus - Version 1.2 January 2007 Copyright AICA-CEPIS 2009 1 Version 1 January 2007 GIS Certification Programme 1. Target The GIS certification is aimed
The Process of Changing from Local Systems into SWEREF 99
Tina Kempe, Anders Alfredsson, Bengt Andersson, Lars E. Engberg, Fredrik Dahlström, Géza Lohász, Lantmäteriet, Sweden SUMMARY Lantmäteriet has decided that SWEREF 99, the Swedish realisation of ETRS89,
Lecture 2. Map Projections and GIS Coordinate Systems. Tomislav Sapic GIS Technologist Faculty of Natural Resources Management Lakehead University
Lecture 2 Map Projections and GIS Coordinate Systems Tomislav Sapic GIS Technologist Faculty of Natural Resources Management Lakehead University Map Projections Map projections are mathematical formulas
Finite Element Formulation for Plates - Handout 3 -
Finite Element Formulation for Plates - Handout 3 - Dr Fehmi Cirak (fc286@) Completed Version Definitions A plate is a three dimensional solid body with one of the plate dimensions much smaller than the
PLOTTING SURVEYING DATA IN GOOGLE EARTH
PLOTTING SURVEYING DATA IN GOOGLE EARTH D M STILLMAN Abstract Detail surveys measured with a total station use local coordinate systems. To make the data obtained from such surveys compatible with Google
SESSION 8: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND MAP PROJECTIONS
SESSION 8: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND MAP PROJECTIONS KEY CONCEPTS: In this session we will look at: Geographic information systems and Map projections. Content that needs to be covered for examination
What are map projections?
Page 1 of 155 What are map projections? ArcGIS 10 Within ArcGIS, every dataset has a coordinate system, which is used to integrate it with other geographic data layers within a common coordinate framework
MINE MAP DIGITIZATION & GIS IMPLIMENTATION
MINE MAP DIGITIZATION & GIS IMPLIMENTATION Patrick Jaquay Mining Specialist IMCC Conference 2/16/2012 Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection MINE MAP DIGITIZATION & GIS IMPLIMENTATION Why
1 Review of Least Squares Solutions to Overdetermined Systems
cs4: introduction to numerical analysis /9/0 Lecture 7: Rectangular Systems and Numerical Integration Instructor: Professor Amos Ron Scribes: Mark Cowlishaw, Nathanael Fillmore Review of Least Squares
APPLICATION OF OPEN SOURCE/FREE SOFTWARE (R + GOOGLE EARTH) IN DESIGNING 2D GEODETIC CONTROL NETWORK
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE AND XXIV MEETING OF SERBIAN SURVEYORS PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE AND EDUCATION IN GEODESY AND RELATED FIELDS 24-26, June 2011, Kladovo -,,Djerdap upon Danube, Serbia. APPLICATION
Lecture 3: Models of Spatial Information
Lecture 3: Models of Spatial Information Introduction In the last lecture we discussed issues of cartography, particularly abstraction of real world objects into points, lines, and areas for use in maps.
MOSAICKING OF THE 1:75 000 SHEETS OF THE THIRD MILITARY SURVEY OF THE HABSBURG EMPIRE
Acta Geod. Geoph. Hung., Vol. 44(1), pp. 115 120 (2009) DOI: 10.1556/AGeod.44.2009.1.11 MOSAICKING OF THE 1:75 000 SHEETS OF THE THIRD MILITARY SURVEY OF THE HABSBURG EMPIRE GMolnár 1,2 and GTimár 2 1
MAP PROJECTIONS AND VISUALIZATION OF NAVIGATIONAL PATHS IN ELECTRONIC CHART SYSTEMS
MAP PROJECTIONS AND VISUALIZATION OF NAVIGATIONAL PATHS IN ELECTRONIC CHART SYSTEMS Athanasios PALLIKARIS [1] and Lysandros TSOULOS [2] [1] Associate Professor. Hellenic Naval Academy, Sea Sciences and
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
GIS GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR CADASTRAL MAPPING Chapter 7 2015 Cadastral Mapping Manual 7-0 GIS - GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS What is GIS For a long time people have sketched, drawn and studied
Chapter 5: Working with contours
Introduction Contoured topographic maps contain a vast amount of information about the three-dimensional geometry of the land surface and the purpose of this chapter is to consider some of the ways in
Title 10 DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Division 35 Land Survey Chapter 1 Cadastral Mapping Standards
Title 10 DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Division 35 Land Survey Chapter 1 Cadastral Mapping Standards 10 CSR 35-1.010 Application of Standards PURPOSE: These minimum standards provide the digital mapper
Introduction to GIS (Basics, Data, Analysis) & Case Studies. 13 th May 2004. Content. What is GIS?
Introduction to GIS (Basics, Data, Analysis) & Case Studies 13 th May 2004 Content Introduction to GIS Data concepts Data input Analysis Applications selected examples What is GIS? Geographic Information
EECS 556 Image Processing W 09. Interpolation. Interpolation techniques B splines
EECS 556 Image Processing W 09 Interpolation Interpolation techniques B splines What is image processing? Image processing is the application of 2D signal processing methods to images Image representation
Copyright 2011 Casa Software Ltd. www.casaxps.com. Centre of Mass
Centre of Mass A central theme in mathematical modelling is that of reducing complex problems to simpler, and hopefully, equivalent problems for which mathematical analysis is possible. The concept of
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
GIS GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR CADASTRAL MAPPING Chapter 6 2015 Cadastral Mapping Manual 6-0 GIS - GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS What is GIS For a long time people have sketched, drawn and studied
LAB 11: MATRICES, SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS and POLYNOMIAL MODELING
LAB 11: MATRICS, SYSTMS OF QUATIONS and POLYNOMIAL MODLING Objectives: 1. Solve systems of linear equations using augmented matrices. 2. Solve systems of linear equations using matrix equations and inverse
Using Geocoded TIFF & JPEG Files in ER Mapper 6.3 with SP1. Eric Augenstein Earthstar Geographics Web: www.es-geo.com
Using Geocoded TIFF & JPEG Files in ER Mapper 6.3 with SP1 Eric Augenstein Earthstar Geographics Web: www.es-geo.com 1 Table of Contents WHAT IS NEW IN 6.3 SP1 REGARDING WORLD FILES?...3 WHAT IS GEOTIFF
Geometric Camera Parameters
Geometric Camera Parameters What assumptions have we made so far? -All equations we have derived for far are written in the camera reference frames. -These equations are valid only when: () all distances
Subdivision Mapping: Making the Pieces Fit David P. Thaler, GIS Analyst A geographit White Paper, June 2009
Subdivision Mapping: Making the Pieces Fit P David P. Thaler, GIS Analyst A geographit White Paper, June 2009 1525 Oregon Pike, Suite 202 Lancaster, PA USA 17601-7300 Phone: 717-399-7007 Fax: 717-399-7015
SURVEYING WITH GPS. GPS has become a standard surveying technique in most surveying practices
SURVEYING WITH GPS Key Words: Static, Fast-static, Kinematic, Pseudo- Kinematic, Real-time kinematic, Receiver Initialization, On The Fly (OTF), Baselines, Redundant baselines, Base Receiver, Rover GPS
MAT 1341: REVIEW II SANGHOON BAEK
MAT 1341: REVIEW II SANGHOON BAEK 1. Projections and Cross Product 1.1. Projections. Definition 1.1. Given a vector u, the rectangular (or perpendicular or orthogonal) components are two vectors u 1 and
EPSG. Coordinate Reference System Definition - Recommended Practice. Guidance Note Number 5
European Petroleum Survey Group EPSG Guidance Note Number 5 Coordinate Reference System Definition - Recommended Practice Revision history: Version Date Amendments 1.0 April 1997 First release. 1.1 June
A System for Capturing High Resolution Images
A System for Capturing High Resolution Images G.Voyatzis, G.Angelopoulos, A.Bors and I.Pitas Department of Informatics University of Thessaloniki BOX 451, 54006 Thessaloniki GREECE e-mail: [email protected]
Solving simultaneous equations using the inverse matrix
Solving simultaneous equations using the inverse matrix 8.2 Introduction The power of matrix algebra is seen in the representation of a system of simultaneous linear equations as a matrix equation. Matrix
An Introduction to Coordinate Systems in South Africa
An Introduction to Coordinate Systems in South Africa Centuries ago people believed that the earth was flat and notwithstanding that if this had been true it would have produced serious problems for mariners
Integrating Quality Assurance into the GIS Project Life Cycle
Integrating Quality Assurance into the GIS Project Life Cycle Abstract GIS databases are an ever-evolving entity. From their humble beginnings as paper maps, through the digital conversion process, to
Understanding Raster Data
Introduction The following document is intended to provide a basic understanding of raster data. Raster data layers (commonly referred to as grids) are the essential data layers used in all tools developed
What is GIS? Geographic Information Systems. Introduction to ArcGIS. GIS Maps Contain Layers. What Can You Do With GIS? Layers Can Contain Features
What is GIS? Geographic Information Systems Introduction to ArcGIS A database system in which the organizing principle is explicitly SPATIAL For CPSC 178 Visualization: Data, Pixels, and Ideas. What Can
ADWR GIS Metadata Policy
ADWR GIS Metadata Policy 1 PURPOSE OF POLICY.. 3 INTRODUCTION.... 4 What is metadata?... 4 Why is it important? 4 When to fill metadata...4 STANDARDS. 5 FGDC content standards for geospatial metadata...5
2 GIS concepts. 2.1 General GIS principles
2 GIS concepts To use GIS effectively, it is important to understand the basic GIS terminology and functionality. While each GIS software has slightly different naming conventions, there are certain principles
The Role of SPOT Satellite Images in Mapping Air Pollution Caused by Cement Factories
The Role of SPOT Satellite Images in Mapping Air Pollution Caused by Cement Factories Dr. Farrag Ali FARRAG Assistant Prof. at Civil Engineering Dept. Faculty of Engineering Assiut University Assiut, Egypt.
A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared.
A Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS allows us to view,
Representing Geography
3 Representing Geography OVERVIEW This chapter introduces the concept of representation, or the construction of a digital model of some aspect of the Earth s surface. The geographic world is extremely
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND MATRICES WITH THE TI-89. by Joseph Collison
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND MATRICES WITH THE TI-89 by Joseph Collison Copyright 2000 by Joseph Collison All rights reserved Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections
WHAT IS GIS - AN INRODUCTION
WHAT IS GIS - AN INRODUCTION GIS DEFINITION GIS is an acronym for: Geographic Information Systems Geographic This term is used because GIS tend to deal primarily with geographic or spatial features. Information
UNITED NATIONS E/CONF.97/5/CRP. 13
UNITED NATIONS E/CONF.97/5/CRP. 13 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL Seventeenth United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, 18-22 September 2006 Item 6 (b) of the provisional
Perspective of Permanent Reference Network KOPOS in Kosova
143 Perspective of Permanent Reference Network KOPOS in Kosova Meha, M. and Çaka, M. Kosovo Cadastral Agency, Kosovo Archive Building II nd floor, P.O. 10000, Prishtina, Republic of Kosovo, E-mail: [email protected],
Lecture 9: Geometric map transformations. Cartographic Transformations
Cartographic Transformations Analytical and Computer Cartography Lecture 9: Geometric Map Transformations Attribute Data (e.g. classification) Locational properties (e.g. projection) Graphics (e.g. symbolization)
Digital Terrain Model Grid Width 10 m DGM10
Digital Terrain Model Grid Width 10 m Status of documentation: 23.02.2015 Seite 1 Contents page 1 Overview of dataset 3 2 Description of the dataset contents 4 3 Data volume 4 4 Description of the data
UTM Zones for the US UTM UTM. Uniform strips Scalable coordinates
UTM UTM Uniform strips Scalable coordinates Globally consistent, most popular projection/coordinate system for regional to global scale geospatial data (i.e. satellite images global scale datasets USGS/EDC)
CATIA Wireframe & Surfaces TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction... 1 Wireframe & Surfaces... 2 Pull Down Menus... 3 Edit... 3 Insert... 4 Tools... 6 Generative Shape Design Workbench... 7 Bottom Toolbar... 9 Tools... 9 Analysis... 10
Development of Large-Scale Land Information System (LIS) by Using Geographic Information System (GIS) and Field Surveying
Engineering, 2012, 4, 107-118 http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/eng.2012.42014 Published Online February 2012 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/eng) Development of Large-Scale Land Information System (LIS) by Using
13 PRINTING MAPS. Legend (continued) Bengt Rystedt, Sweden
13 PRINTING MAPS Bengt Rystedt, Sweden Legend (continued) 13.1 Introduction By printing we mean all kind of duplication and there are many kind of media, but the most common one nowadays is your own screen.
The Production of Orienteering Maps in Austria
The Production of Orienteering Maps in Austria Ditz Robert Institute for Military Geography, Federal Ministry of Defence and Sports, Austria Abstract. Due to changing technologies in collecting data, the
Force measurement. Forces VECTORIAL ISSUES ACTION ET RÉACTION ISOSTATISM
Force measurement Forces VECTORIAL ISSUES In classical mechanics, a force is defined as "an action capable of modifying the quantity of movement of a material point". Therefore, a force has the attributes
Current Standard: Mathematical Concepts and Applications Shape, Space, and Measurement- Primary
Shape, Space, and Measurement- Primary A student shall apply concepts of shape, space, and measurement to solve problems involving two- and three-dimensional shapes by demonstrating an understanding of:
INTEGRAL METHODS IN LOW-FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETICS
INTEGRAL METHODS IN LOW-FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETICS I. Dolezel Czech Technical University, Praha, Czech Republic P. Karban University of West Bohemia, Plzeft, Czech Republic P. Solin University of Nevada,
Chapter 17. Orthogonal Matrices and Symmetries of Space
Chapter 17. Orthogonal Matrices and Symmetries of Space Take a random matrix, say 1 3 A = 4 5 6, 7 8 9 and compare the lengths of e 1 and Ae 1. The vector e 1 has length 1, while Ae 1 = (1, 4, 7) has length
For example, estimate the population of the United States as 3 times 10⁸ and the
CCSS: Mathematics The Number System CCSS: Grade 8 8.NS.A. Know that there are numbers that are not rational, and approximate them by rational numbers. 8.NS.A.1. Understand informally that every number
1 Symmetries of regular polyhedra
1230, notes 5 1 Symmetries of regular polyhedra Symmetry groups Recall: Group axioms: Suppose that (G, ) is a group and a, b, c are elements of G. Then (i) a b G (ii) (a b) c = a (b c) (iii) There is an
8.2. Solution by Inverse Matrix Method. Introduction. Prerequisites. Learning Outcomes
Solution by Inverse Matrix Method 8.2 Introduction The power of matrix algebra is seen in the representation of a system of simultaneous linear equations as a matrix equation. Matrix algebra allows us
Title 10 DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Division 35 Land Survey Chapter 1 Cadastral Mapping Standards
Title 10 DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Division 35 Land Survey Chapter 1 Cadastral Mapping Standards 10 CSR 35-1.010 Application of Standards PURPOSE: These minimum standards provide the digital mapper
NGA GRID GUIDE HOW TO USE ArcGIS 8.x ANS 9.x TO GENERATE MGRS AND OTHER MAP GRIDS
GEOSPATIAL SCIENCES DIVISION COORDINATE SYSTEMS ANALYSIS TEAM (CSAT) SEPTEMBER 2005 Minor Revisions March 2006 POC Kurt Schulz NGA GRID GUIDE HOW TO USE ArcGIS 8.x ANS 9.x TO GENERATE MGRS AND OTHER MAP
Big Ideas in Mathematics
Big Ideas in Mathematics which are important to all mathematics learning. (Adapted from the NCTM Curriculum Focal Points, 2006) The Mathematics Big Ideas are organized using the PA Mathematics Standards
The Map Grid of Australia 1994 A Simplified Computational Manual
The Map Grid of Australia 1994 A Simplified Computational Manual The Map Grid of Australia 1994 A Simplified Computational Manual 'What's the good of Mercator's North Poles and Equators, Tropics, Zones
SolidWorks Implementation Guides. Sketching Concepts
SolidWorks Implementation Guides Sketching Concepts Sketching in SolidWorks is the basis for creating features. Features are the basis for creating parts, which can be put together into assemblies. Sketch
Formulas and Problem Solving
2.4 Formulas and Problem Solving 2.4 OBJECTIVES. Solve a literal equation for one of its variables 2. Translate a word statement to an equation 3. Use an equation to solve an application Formulas are extremely
A HYBRID APPROACH FOR AUTOMATED AREA AGGREGATION
A HYBRID APPROACH FOR AUTOMATED AREA AGGREGATION Zeshen Wang ESRI 380 NewYork Street Redlands CA 92373 [email protected] ABSTRACT Automated area aggregation, which is widely needed for mapping both natural
Name Class. Date Section. Test Form A Chapter 11. Chapter 11 Test Bank 155
Chapter Test Bank 55 Test Form A Chapter Name Class Date Section. Find a unit vector in the direction of v if v is the vector from P,, 3 to Q,, 0. (a) 3i 3j 3k (b) i j k 3 i 3 j 3 k 3 i 3 j 3 k. Calculate
Figure 1.1 Vector A and Vector F
CHAPTER I VECTOR QUANTITIES Quantities are anything which can be measured, and stated with number. Quantities in physics are divided into two types; scalar and vector quantities. Scalar quantities have
Notes on Orthogonal and Symmetric Matrices MENU, Winter 2013
Notes on Orthogonal and Symmetric Matrices MENU, Winter 201 These notes summarize the main properties and uses of orthogonal and symmetric matrices. We covered quite a bit of material regarding these topics,
Algebra 2 Chapter 1 Vocabulary. identity - A statement that equates two equivalent expressions.
Chapter 1 Vocabulary identity - A statement that equates two equivalent expressions. verbal model- A word equation that represents a real-life problem. algebraic expression - An expression with variables.
Bildverarbeitung und Mustererkennung Image Processing and Pattern Recognition
Bildverarbeitung und Mustererkennung Image Processing and Pattern Recognition 1. Image Pre-Processing - Pixel Brightness Transformation - Geometric Transformation - Image Denoising 1 1. Image Pre-Processing
Part-Based Recognition
Part-Based Recognition Benedict Brown CS597D, Fall 2003 Princeton University CS 597D, Part-Based Recognition p. 1/32 Introduction Many objects are made up of parts It s presumably easier to identify simple
The Earth Really is Flat! The Globe and Coordinate Systems. Long History of Mapping. The Earth is Flat. Long History of Mapping
The Earth Really is Flat! The Globe and Coordinate Systems Intro to Mapping & GIS The Earth is Flat Day to day, we live life in a flat world sun rises in east, sets in west sky is above, ground is below
INVERSION AND PROBLEM OF TANGENT SPHERES
South Bohemia Mathematical Letters Volume 18, (2010), No. 1, 55-62. INVERSION AND PROBLEM OF TANGENT SPHERES Abstract. The locus of centers of circles tangent to two given circles in plane is known to
Digitizing and georeferencing of the historical cadastral maps (1856-60) of Hungary
G. Timár and S. Biszak Digitizing and georeferencing of the historical cadastral maps (1856-60) of Hungary Keywords: historical maps, cadastre, geo-reference, projections, Hungary, Habsburg Empire Summary:
Lecture 1: Systems of Linear Equations
MTH Elementary Matrix Algebra Professor Chao Huang Department of Mathematics and Statistics Wright State University Lecture 1 Systems of Linear Equations ² Systems of two linear equations with two variables
NEW YORK STATE TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS
NEW YORK STATE TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS TEST DESIGN AND FRAMEWORK September 2014 Authorized for Distribution by the New York State Education Department This test design and framework document
Learning about GPS and GIS
Learning about GPS and GIS Standards 4.4 Understand geographic information systems (G.I.S.). B12.1 Understand common surveying techniques used in agriculture (e.g., leveling, land measurement, building
Image Registration. Using Quantum GIS
Using Quantum GIS Tutorial ID: IGET_GIS_004 This tutorial has been developed by BVIEER as part of the IGET web portal intended to provide easy access to geospatial education. This tutorial is released
Problem of the Month: Once Upon a Time
Problem of the Month: The Problems of the Month (POM) are used in a variety of ways to promote problem solving and to foster the first standard of mathematical practice from the Common Core State Standards:
Structural Integrity Analysis
Structural Integrity Analysis 1. STRESS CONCENTRATION Igor Kokcharov 1.1 STRESSES AND CONCENTRATORS 1.1.1 Stress An applied external force F causes inner forces in the carrying structure. Inner forces
The small increase in x is. and the corresponding increase in y is. Therefore
Differentials For a while now, we have been using the notation dy to mean the derivative of y with respect to. Here is any variable, and y is a variable whose value depends on. One of the reasons that
LSA SAF products: files and formats
LSA SAF products: files and formats Carla Barroso, IPMA Application of Remote Sensing Data for Drought Monitoring Introduction to Eumetsat LANDSAF Products 11-15 November Slovenia OUTLINE Where to get
Surveying & Positioning Guidance note 10
Surveying & Positioning Guidance note 10 Geodetic Transformations Offshore Norway Revision history Version Date Amendments 1.0 April 2001 First release 1 Background European Datum 1950 (ED50) is the de
1.2 Solving a System of Linear Equations
1.. SOLVING A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 1. Solving a System of Linear Equations 1..1 Simple Systems - Basic De nitions As noticed above, the general form of a linear system of m equations in n variables
MAPPING THE PREHISTORIC STATUE ROADS ON RAPA NUI USING REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE IMAGERY
MAPPING THE PREHISTORIC STATUE ROADS ON RAPA NUI USING REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE IMAGERY Gabe Wofford Global Environmental Science University of Hawai i at Manoa ABSTRACT In an extension of the work of
(Least Squares Investigation)
(Least Squares Investigation) o Open a new sketch. Select Preferences under the Edit menu. Select the Text Tab at the top. Uncheck both boxes under the title Show Labels Automatically o Create two points
Assessment Tasks Pass theory exams at > 70%. Meet, or exceed, outcome criteria for projects and assignments.
CENTRAL OREGON COMMUNITY COLLEGE: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM PROGRAM 1 CENTRAL OREGON COMMUNITY COLLEGE Associate Degree Geographic Information Systems Program Outcome Guide (POG) Program Outcome Guide
What do I do first in ArcView 8.x? When the program starts Select from the Dialog box: A new empty map
www.library.carleton.ca/find/gis Introduction Introduction to Georeferenced Images using ArcGIS Georeferenced images such as aerial photographs or satellite images can be used in many ways in both GIS
a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + + a 1n x n = b 1 a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + + a 2n x n = b 2.
Chapter 1 LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.1 Introduction to linear equations A linear equation in n unknowns x 1, x,, x n is an equation of the form a 1 x 1 + a x + + a n x n = b, where a 1, a,..., a n, b are given
Lecture 2: Homogeneous Coordinates, Lines and Conics
Lecture 2: Homogeneous Coordinates, Lines and Conics 1 Homogeneous Coordinates In Lecture 1 we derived the camera equations λx = P X, (1) where x = (x 1, x 2, 1), X = (X 1, X 2, X 3, 1) and P is a 3 4
1 Solving LPs: The Simplex Algorithm of George Dantzig
Solving LPs: The Simplex Algorithm of George Dantzig. Simplex Pivoting: Dictionary Format We illustrate a general solution procedure, called the simplex algorithm, by implementing it on a very simple example.
Updation of Cadastral Maps Using High Resolution Remotely Sensed Data
International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT) Updation of Cadastral Maps Using High Resolution Remotely Sensed Data V. V.Govind Kumar, K. Venkata Reddy, Deva Pratap Abstract:A cadastral
Five Years of CAF 2006: From Adolescence to Maturity What Next?
Five Years of CAF 2006: From Adolescence to Maturity What Next? A study on the use, the support and the future of the Common Assessment Framework Executive Summary Patrick Staes, Nick Thijs, Ann Stoffels
European Petroleum Survey Group EPSG. Guidance Note Number 10. April 2001. Geodetic Transformations Offshore Norway
European Petroleum Survey Group EPSG Guidance Note Number 10 April 2001 Geodetic Transformations Offshore Norway Background 1. European Datum 1950 (ED50) is the de facto and de jure geographic coordinate
Introduction to ILWIS 3.11 using a data set from Kathmandu valley.
Introduction to ILWIS 3.11 using a data set from Kathmandu valley. C.J. van Westen Dept. of Environmental System Analysis, International Institute Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), P.O.
Degree Reduction of Interval SB Curves
International Journal of Video&Image Processing and Network Security IJVIPNS-IJENS Vol:13 No:04 1 Degree Reduction of Interval SB Curves O. Ismail, Senior Member, IEEE Abstract Ball basis was introduced
Linear Algebra and TI 89
Linear Algebra and TI 89 Abdul Hassen and Jay Schiffman This short manual is a quick guide to the use of TI89 for Linear Algebra. We do this in two sections. In the first section, we will go over the editing
