THE DYNAMICS OF THEORY AND PRACTICE IN INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN

Transcription

1 THE DYNAMICS OF THEORY AND PRACTICE IN INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN A thesis by MARY RUTH DE VILLIERS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor in the Department of Teaching and Training Studies of the Faculty of Education University of Pretoria Supervisor: Prof. Dr J.C. Cronje February 2002

2 ABSTRACT This study investigates the dynamics of theory and practice in the design of instructional systems, learning events and learning environments, with a view to synthesizing an integrated metamodel as a framework to facilitate effective learning in systems which use computer technology as a tutor, tool, or environment. This framework can be used as a design aid by instructional designers and instructor-designers, or as a tool to examine existing learning events from the viewpoint of learning and instructional-design theory. The research contributes to inquiry into learning theory by an in-depth study of the elements of the framework itself, investigating how they function in different contexts and contents. Following an extensive literature survey, the researcher synthesizes a concise integrated framework of learning theories and instructional design practice from the cognitive family. This framework, the Hexa-C Metamodel (HCMm), is generated by a process of criterion-based textual filtration through effectiveness criteria, and encompasses the theoretical concepts of constructivism, cognitive learning and knowledge/skills components, as well as the practical characteristics of creativity, customization and collaborative learning. Using mainly qualitative ethnographic methods within the contexts of action research and development research, case studies are undertaken, applying the elements of the HCMm as an inquiry toolset to investigate three diverse learning events to determine what they reveal about the practice of effective and motivational learning. The learning events - a computer-based practice environment, an Internet-based course, and a fieldwork project were selected due to the researcher s close involvement with each intervention. Information from the evaluations of the learning events is then used to further examine in-depth the theories and characteristics which comprise the tool, as well as their interrelationships and ways of implementing them in domains that differ in context and content - distinguishing particularly between well-structured and ill-structured domains. Key words: Instructional systems design and development; Learning and instructional theory; Evaluation; Inquiry tool; Computer-integrated learning; Cognitive learning; Collaborative learning; Components of knowledge; Constructivism; Creativity; Customization; Domains of learning. ii

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I should like to thank: My supervisor, Prof Johannes Cronjé - for sound, insightful and supportive, as well as consistently enthusiastic and encouraging leadership. The institutions and academic departments which gave permission for evaluation of the artifacts, course material and learning events investigated in the case studies: 1. Department of Computer Science, University of South Africa for permission to evaluate the interactive practice environment FRAMES. 2. Department of Teaching and Training Studies, University of Pretoria for permission to evaluate RBO880, the Internet-based course on Computer-Assisted Communication and Management. 3. School of Tourism Management, University of Pretoria for permission to evaluate the Mkambati Project of the Ecotourism course. The academics and students who participated in the three evaluations - for their willing co-operation and contributions. My young-adult children - for valuable practical assistance. In an unusual variation on the parent-offspring relationship, we mutually support one another in our post-graduate studies. Thank you to: Adrian for the CAD charts Dorothy for editorial assistance Gabrielle for doing the bibliography, and to JP for Figure 4.1 Jonathan for the diagrams. My husband André - for assistance, both technical and domestic, in the final stages. I really do appreciate it! Ruth de Villiers September 2001 iii

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One Introduction Real-world problem statement Research questions and associated subquestions Value of research Research goal and criteria Research goals within educational technology Research goals of this thesis Field of investigation Selection criteria Motivation for the selection criteria Research methods Research methods for educational technology Research methods used in this thesis Limitations and deliminations of the study View of instructional systems design and instructional systems Domain of the study and its literature Research perspectives of the study Technology in this study Research design Research design in this thesis Development research Development research in this study Action research Action research in this study Structure and chapters of this thesis Structure and interrelationships Development of the reasoning Content of the chapters 20 iv

5 Chapter Two Theory Learning and instructional theory Introduction Behaviourism Background and ethos of behaviourist instructional theory Key characteristics of behaviourism Behaviourist instruction: associated concepts Gagné's categories of learning outcomes Gagné's conditions of learning Behaviourist learning theory: related perspectives Objectivism Instructionism Reductionism Comments on behaviourist instruction Cognitivism Background and ethos of cognitive learning theories Ventures into artificial intelligence Adaptive control of thought: Anderson's ACT model Characteristics of the cognitive learning perspective Key features of cognitive learning Bloom's taxonomy Gagné-Merrill enterprise schemas Theories of cognitive instruction Human problem solving: Newell and Simon theory Learning as human information processing Component display theory (CDT) The second generation paradigm (ID 2 ) Instructional transaction theory (ITT): Automaticity Cognitive learning theory: related perspectives Complexity theory: integrating the affective with the cognitive Transfer 41 v

6 Metacognition Cognitive flexibility theory Objectivism Discussion on cognitivism and its development Constructivism Background and ethos of constructivist learning theories Key characteristics of the constructivist learning perspective General features and characteristics Constructivist evaluation Views and controversies about constructivist learning Radical/extreme constructivism Constructivist learning theory: related perspectives Situated cognition and anchored instruction Cognitive apprenticeship and cognitive flexibility theory Constructivist learning environments and open-ended learning environments Project-based learning and problem-based learning (PBL) Interpretivism Positivism Chaos theory Discussion of constructivist learning Cross-paradigm characteristics Collaborative learning and co-operative learning The difference between collaborative and co-operative learning Key elements of co-operative learning Learner-centricity and learner-control Creativity and motivation Creative instruction Motivation The learning-focused paradigm of instructional theory Towards a new paradigm of instructional theory Relationship between instructional theory and instructional strategies Learning-focused instructional theory 71 vi

7 2.6.4 Involvement of user-designers How the new paradigm of instructional theory differs A theoretical subdivision according to educational psychologists The behaviourist/empiricist view The cognitive/rationalist view The situative/pragmatist-sociohistoric view The three paradigms - isolationist or integrative? Conclusion 81 Chapter Three Practice Learning and instructional systems design in practice Introduction and discussion of terminology Instruction and learning: theory to practice Terminology Behaviourist instructional systems Introduction to behavioural instructional systems development Characteristics of behaviourist instruction Fleming and Levie's behaviourist principles Hannafin and Peck's behaviourist principles Gropper's behaviourist skills Behavioural instructional systems development models Gagné's events of instruction The Dick and Carey model Briggs and Wager model The Braden model Discussion of behaviourist instructional design Cognitive instructional systems Introduction to cognitive instruction and systems development Characteristics of cognitive instructional design Objectives and task analysis Entry characteristics Instructional strategies 98 vii

8 3.3.3 Cognitive ISD models Component display theory (CDT) Another perspective on components Enterprise schemas Second generation instructional design (ID 2 ) Instructional transaction theory (ITT) Alternative views to linear ID - 'design alternatives' Cognitive-related aspects: practical applications in ISD Implementation of metacognitive strategies Instructionism and grounded design Five star instructional design rating Constructivist instructional systems Introduction to constructivist learning and constructivist design Differences between assumptions of traditional ID and constructivism Towards constructivist instructional design Characteristics and principles of design for constructivist learning From objectivist strategies to constructivist methods Constructivist values Constructivist constructs Constructivist instructional principles Constructivist design principles BIG and WIG constructivism Constructivist assessment Frameworks for constructivist learning and constructivist instructional design models The recursive, reflective design and development model (R2D2) The layers of negotiation model for designing constructivist learning materials Constructivism and grounded design The revised R2D2 model Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environments Design of learning in perspectives related to constructivism Situated cognition, anchored instruction, and cognitive apprenticeship Constructivist learning environments (CLEs) Open-ended learning environments (OELEs) 138 viii

9 Problem-based learning (PBL) Implications of chaos theory for instructional design Cross-paradigms issues Collaborative learning and co-operative learning Learner-centricity, customization, and learner-control Creativity and motivation in instructional methods and resources Five facets of a learning environment Technology The learning-focused paradigm of instructional-design theory Towards a new paradigm Reigeluth's classification according to instructional goal Implications of the learning-focused paradigm The debate on the learning-focused paradigm Duchastel's prolegomena to instructional-design theory: a challenge for a full theory of instructional design Many current theories - resulting confusion Issues involved in building a full theory How instruction can influence learning Towards a theory of instructional design Instructional design approaches - eclectic and pure Should aspects of different paradigms be combined in ISD? Research methods to examine different paradigms The practitioner in action Conclusion 166 Chapter Four Synthesis Towards a metamodel Introduction Comparative analysis of the three major paradigms Comparison and contrast: a summary The different approaches - conflict, convergence or co-existence? Selection criteria 175 ix

10 4.4 Selection process - culminating in the Hexa-C Metamodel How the selection criteria were used to filter textual data Results of the textual filtration process Consolidated results of the textual filtration process Discussion of results of textual filtration Learning theories and characteristics of instructional design/practice Further aspects of learning, including context and technology Aspects of learning theory from the behavioural family Elements of the Hexa-C Metamodel The six elements: singly and compositely Elements examined against the effectiveness criteria The Hexa-C Metamodel compared to Duchastel's challenge for a single theory of ID and Reigeluth's new paradigm of ID Conclusion 201 Chapter Five Evaluation What the HCMm toolset reveals about three learning events Introduction The three learning events Research methods for evaluating the learning events Structure of learning event evaluations 205 Section 5A - Case Study One: FRAMES 207 5A.1 Introduction to FRAMES 207 5A:1.1 Immediate domain and purpose 207 5A.1.2 Greater environment and learners 208 5A.1.3 Roles: the FRAMES designer, lecturer, and researcher 208 5A.1.4 Material and approach of the FRAMES practice environment 209 5A.1.5 Research design of the FRAMES case study 213 5A.2 Investigating FRAMES - using the Hexa-C Metamodel 214 5A.2.1 Components 215 5A Initial discussion 215 5A Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 217 x

11 5A Findings from survey of the learners 217 5A Concluding discussion 219 5A.2.2 Cognitive learning theory 220 5A Initial discussion 220 5A Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 222 5A Findings from survey of the learners 223 5A Concluding discussion 224 5A.2.3 Constructivism 225 5A Initial discussion 226 5A Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 227 5A Findings from survey of the learners 228 5A Concluding discussion 229 5A.2.4 Collaborative learning 230 5A Initial discussion 230 5A Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 231 5A Findings from survey of the learners 231 5A Concluding discussion 231 5A.2.5 Customization and learner-centricity 232 5A Initial discussion 232 5A Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 233 5A Findings from survey of the learners 233 5A Concluding discussion 235 5A.2.6 Creativity 236 5A Initial discussion 236 5A Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 237 5A Findings from survey of the learners 238 5A Concluding discussion 239 5A.3 General 240 5A.3.1 Facets of the FRAMES learning environment 240 5A.3.2 Technology in FRAMES 240 5A.4 Conclusion to the FRAMES evaluation 241 xi

12 Section 5B - Case Study Two: RBO B.1 Introduction to RBO B.1.1 Immediate domain and purpose 243 5B.1.2 Greater environment and learners 244 5B.1.3 Roles: the RBO880 developer, instructor, and the researcher 245 5B.1.4 Approach, the classroom, and tasks in RBO's electronic world 245 5B.1.5 Research design of the RBO case study 251 5B.2 Investigating RBO880 using the Hexa-C Metamodel 252 5B.2.1 Cognitive learning theory 252 5B Initial discussion 252 5B Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 255 5B Findings from survey of the learners 255 5B Concluding discussion 258 5B.2.2 Constructivism 259 5B Initial discussion 259 5B Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 264 5B Findings from survey of the learners 264 5B Concluding discussion 266 5B.2.3 Components 267 5B Initial discussion 267 5B Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 267 5B Findings from survey of the learners 268 5B Concluding discussion 268 5B.2.4 Collaborative learning in RBO 268 5B Initial discussion 268 5B Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 272 5B Findings from survey of the learners 273 5B Concluding discussion 275 5B.2.5 Customization 276 5B Initial discussion 276 5B Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 277 5B Findings from survey of the learners 277 5B Concluding discussion 280 5B.2.6 Creativity 281 5B Initial discussion 281 xii

13 5B2.6.2 Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 283 5B2.6.3 Findings from survey of the learners 283 5B Concluding discussion 286 5B.3 General 287 5B.3.1 Facets of the RBO learning environment 287 5B.3.2 Technology in RBO 288 5B.4 Conclusion 288 Section 5C - Case Study Three: Mkambati C.1 Introduction to Mkambati C.1.1 Immediate domain and purpose 290 5C.1.2 Operational environment and learners 291 5C.1.3 Roles: the project designer, facilitator, and the researcher 292 5C.1.4 Scope and events of Mkambati C.1.5 Research design of the Mkambati case study 298 5C.2 Investigating Mkambati using the Hexa-C Metamodel 299 5C.2.1 Creativity 299 5C Initial discussion 299 5C Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 300 5C Findings from survey of the learners 300 5C Concluding discussion 303 5C.2.2 Collaborative learning 304 5C Initial discussion 304 5C Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 305 5C Findings from survey of the learners 305 5C Concluding discussion 307 5C.2.3 Customization 308 5C Initial discussion 308 5C Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 310 5C Findings from survey of the learners 310 5C Concluding discussion 312 xiii

14 5C.2.4 Components 312 5C Initial discussion 313 5C Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 313 5C Findings from survey of the learners 313 5C Concluding discussion 313 5C.2.5 Cognitive learning theory 314 5C Initial discussion 314 5C Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 315 5C Findings from survey of the learners 317 5C Concluding discussion 319 5C.2.6 Constructivism 321 5C Initial discussion 321 5C Viewpoint of the instructor-designer 325 5C Findings from survey of the learners 326 5C Concluding discussion 328 5C.3 General 329 5C.3.1 Facets of the Mkambati 2000 learning environment 329 5C.3.2 Technology in Mkambati C.4 Conclusion to evaluation of the Mkambati Project Conclusion to the chapter 333 Chapter Six Reflection What the case studies reveal about the HCMm toolset Introduction The three learning events Contexts of the learning events Use of technology in the learning events Learner-responses related to elements of the metamodel The Hexa-C elements, i.e. investigating the investigation tools Constructivism Cognitive learning 349 xiv

15 6.3.3 Creativity and motivation Collaborative learning in the three learning events Components Customization of learning, learner-centricity, and learner-control Inter-relationships and integration within the Hexa C Metamodel Conclusion 373 Chapter Seven Conclusion What has been achieved? Research questions and answers Response to Research Question One Response to Research Question Two Response to Research Question Three Final review of the Hexa-C Metamodel Strengths of the HCMm As an evaluation aid As a design aid Weaknesses of the HCMm As an evaluation aid As a design aid Relevance to South Africa Directions for further research Conclusion 383 Bibliography 384 Appendices 395 xv

16 LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Motivation for the selection criteria Research goals and methods of this thesis Tightly coupled approach to elements of instruction Conditions of learning for four of the five types of learning Conditions of learning for intellectual skills Assumptions of objectivism and constructivism How Information Age and Industrial Age instructional theory differ Descriptive theories and prescriptive practices The paradigms: Their underlying philosophy Instructional and learning models: The ISD process Actual instruction and learning: The learning process Actual instruction and learning: evaluation of learning Criterion 1: Consensus-builder Criterion 2: Demonstrates functionality in authentic situations of instruction/training Criterion 3: Learning-focused Criterion 4: Pragmatic, not theoretically idealistic Criterion 5: Incorporates some form of external assessment Criterion 6: Integrates affective and cognitive aspects Criterion 7: Has means to communicate domain complexity Criterion 8: Platform-independent Criterion 9: Helps learners apply knowledge and skills in practice Summary and scores from Criterion 1: Consensus-builder Summary and scores from Criterion 2: Demonstrates functionality in authentic instructional or training situations Summary and scores from Criterion 3: Learning-focused Summary and scores from Criterion 4: Pragmatic, not theoretically idealistic 187 xvi

17 4.6.5 Summary and scores from Criterion 5: Incorporates some form of external assessment Summary and scores from Criterion 6: Integrates affective and cognitive aspects Summary and scores from Criterion 7: Communicates domain complexity Summary and scores from Criterion 8: Platform-independent Summary and scores from applying Criterion 9: Helps learners apply knowledge and skills in practice Consolidated occurrences of learning theories and characteristics Consolidated references to other issues Consolidated occurrences of concepts from the behavioural family The six elements of the Hexa-C metamodel against the nine selection criteria Comparison and contrast : Hexa-C Metamodel, Reigeluth s new paradigm, and Duchastel s prolegomena Introduction to the three case studies A.1 Profiles of learners surveyed A.2 Relationship between FRAMES and CDT 215 5A.3 Learner-responses to structured questions relating to components 218 5A.4 Learner-responses to structured questions relating to cognitive learning 223 5A.5 Constructivist aspects of FRAMES 226 5A.6 Learner-responses to structured questions relating to constructivism 228 5A.7 Co-operative learning in FRAMES 230 5A.8 Customized learning in FRAMES 232 5A.9 Learner-responses to structured questions relating to customized learning 233 5A.10 Use of the three modes 234 5A.11 Learner-responses to structured questions relating to creativity 238 5A.12 Facets comprising the FRAMES practice environment 240 5B:1 Profiles of the learner population surveyed 251 5B.2 Internet familiarity prior to RBO 256 5B.3 Internet familiarity after RBO 256 5B.4 Aspects of overload/anxiety 257 5B.5 Constructivist aspects in RBO 264 5B.6 Being on the receiving end of constructivism 265 5B.7 How did you find the interaction with classmates? 273 5B.8 Did you use any other means of communication? 274 xvii

18 5B.9 Realization of personal learning preferences in RBO 277 5B.10 RBO and learning preferences 278 5B.11 Would learners like marks on an ongoing basis? 279 5B.12 Was RBO useful in your personal or professional life? 279 5B.13 Innovative aspects of RBO 284 5B.14 Aspects of this approach that I have used / would use in my own teaching 285 5B.15 Facets comprising the RBO virtual classroom 287 5C.1 Profiles of the learner population surveyed 298 5C.2 What motivated you in this experience? 301 5C.3 What did you find innovative in this approach? 301 5C.4 Emotions at the nature reserve during the project 302 5C.5 Motivation at write-up time 303 5C.6 Views on collaborative learning 306 5C.7 Views on learning preferences and personalization of the project to own style, interests, and expertise 310 5C.8 Software packages used in generating collaborative projects 311 5C.9 How I bridged learning gaps 318 5C.10 Elaborations on overload/anxiety 319 5C.11 Learner comments on aspects of constructivist learning 326 5C.12 Correspondence between constructivist features and learner-responses C.13 Shortcomings identified and suggested remedies 327 5C.14 Facets comprising the Mkambati 2000 fieldwork project Contexts, conditions and circumstances of the three learning events Computer usage in the three learning events - categorized according to full and empty instructional technologies Information revealed about constructivism in this study Ways of implementing constructivism Features of instruction in well-structured procedural domains Information revealed about cognitive learning Ways of implementing cognitive learning Information revealed about creativity and motivation Ways of implementing creativity Information revealed about collaborative and co-operative work Ways of implementing collaborative learning 363 xviii

19 6.6.3 Problems incurred in collaborative learning Information revealed about components within instruction and learning Ways of implementing learning of basic components Information revealed about customization of learning Ways of customizing learning Positive relationships between elements of the Hexa-C Metamodel framework Negative relationships between elements of the Hexa-C Metamodel framework Review of the Research Questions 375 xix

20 LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 The development approach to research Structure of the thesis Chain of reasoning Stimulus-response-reinforcement A human information processing system Interactive learning model The objectivist-constructivist continuum The objectivist-constructivist plane The Dick and Carey instructional design model Merrill s performance-content grid for CDT Jonassen s web of constructivism The R2D2 instructional design model The Cennamo, Abell and Chung Layers of negotiation constructivist design model The revised R2D2 model Activity system Model for designing constructivist learning environments Development cycle of a science-based technology The framework of the Hexa-C Metamodel Evaluation perspectives : How each element is used to investigate each event from three perspectives 205 Text Box 5A: Subject matter and modus operandi of FRAMES and the FRAMES learner evaluations 209 5A.1 A FRAMES introductory screen 212 5A.2 A composite component for analysis of the Kind of relation 212 5A.3 Performance-content matrix for the components of FRAMES 217 5A.4 A FRAMES operational screen 221 5A.5 A FRAMES operational screen 222 5A.6 Operational screen showing example synthesis 227 5A.7 The graphic aid components 237 xx

21 Text Box 5B: The virtual world of an RBO learner 246 5B.1 Website of the RBO electronic classroom 248 5B.2 Desks of four of the learners of B.3 Mini-desks of the two former learners 250 5B.4 The RBO timetable for B.5 Outcomes and requirements of two RBO activities 260 5C.1 The Ecotourism tetrahedron 292 Text Box 5C: The Mkambati 2000 Project 293 5C.2 Map of Mkambati Nature Reserve 296 5C.3 Setting the scene 297 5C.4 Customizing the project to learners interests 309 5C.5 Integration and issues 316 5C.6 The mission of Mkambati 2000 in learners terms Computer Usage in the three learning events Categorization of FRAMES open-ended responses Categorization of RBO open-ended responses Categorization of MKAMBATI open-ended responses How the HCMm contributes towards the critical outcomes of OBE 381 APPENDICES Appendix A1 395 Appendix A2 402 Appendix B 404 Appendix C 414 xxi

22 Terminology This is not a comprehensive glossary of terms. Rather, it is an overview of some generally-accepted, traditional meanings of certain terms in the domain of instruction and instructional design. These terms set the background for this study and form the context out of which the newer approaches such as constructivist learning environments, problem-based learning, etc. evolved.! What is an instructional theory? (Reigeluth, 1996c, 1999) Instructional-design theory: - is design-oriented - focusing on how to attain goals for learning or development, rather than description-oriented - focusing on the effects of given events. Instructional-design theory identifies: - Methods of instruction (ways to support and facilitate human learning and development); - Situations in which those methods should and should not be used. A major aspect of any situation is the desired instructional outcome (not the same as a learning goal) which sets out the levels of effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal required from the instruction. The methods of instruction are: - Componential, in that they comprise different components or features; - Probabilistic, not deterministic, meaning that they increase the chances, but do not ensure, attainment of the goals.! How does instructional-design theory differ from learning theory? (Reigeluth, 1996c, 1999) Learning theories are descriptive, in that they describe how learning occurs but do not identify or prescibe methods for promoting learning. By contrast, instructional-design theories are applied in practice; they are theories that identify methods for use in particular situations. In short, an instructional-design theory comprises methods and situations, and relates to events external to learners rather than describing what takes place within learners when learning occurs.! How does instructional-design theory differ from instructional systems development (ISD) processes? Instructional-design theory is concerned with the characteristics of the instruction and its methods, not with the processes an instructional designer or teacher would use to plan the instruction. According to Reigeluth (1999), terms which characterize this distinction are: - Instructional theory, instructional model, instructional strategies - to represent instructionaldesign theory; - Instructional development model, instructional systems development (ISD) process -to represent the actual process and procedures of designing instruction. These processes are, however, closely related to underlying theories. xxii

23 ! What is instructional design? What are instructional design theory/models, and what does the instructional design process comprise? Instructional design (ID) is the link between descriptive learning theory and prescriptive educational practice (Reigeluth, 1997). ID thus comprises prescriptive instructional-design theories and models which set out methods for developing instruction, along with the conditions under which each should be used to produce a desired learning outcome. Instructional designers should be versed both in descriptive learning theories and prescriptive design theories, so that theory and practice can be integrated. Reigeluth (1983) in his classic, Instructional-design theories and models, Volume I describes instructional design: - As a professional activity, whereby decisions are taken as to what methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and skills in a specific content area, and - As a discipline concerned with producing knowledge about optimal instructional methods, strategies, and combinations of methods (i.e. whole models). Reigeluth (1999) proposes that instructional design theory describes the characteristics of the instruction, i.e. what methods should be used. Analogous concepts are instructional theory, instructional model, and instructional strategies. The instructional design process is what a teacher or designer does to plan and prepare for the instruction, also called an instructional development model or instructional systems development (ISD). However, ID theories and ID processes are closely related. According to Merrill et al (1996c), instruction is a science and instructional design is a technology founded on this science. - Instructional science is concerned with discovering the natural principles involved in instructional strategies. Sciences are verified by discovery, so instruction, like other sciences, is verified by discovery. - Instructional design is a man-made technology using those principles to invent procedures and tools that will promote learning. Like other technologies, ID is extended by invention. Design research involves deriving procedures and processes that incorporate the theory learned from instructional science. So instructional design is a technology for the development of learning experiences and environments which promote the acquisition of specific knowledge and skill by students. It incorporates known and verified learning strategies into these instructional experiences and environments, so as to make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing. - Instructional systems development (ISD) is a set of procedures for systematically designing and developing instructional materials. Winn (1990) defines instructional design as a set of decision-making procedures by means of which the most effective instructional strategies are developed or chosen. xxiii

24 Willis (1995) uses the following simple and paradigm-independent definitions: Instructional design refers to the process of designing instructional materials; and An instructional design model refers to a theory or model that can guide the process of instructional design.! What is entailed by instruction? Instruction involves directing students to appropriate learning activities, guiding them to appropriate knowledge, helping them rehearse, encode, and process information; monitoring student performance; providing feedback to their learning activities and practice (Merrill et al, 1996c). Dick (1991) defines instruction as an organized set of methods, materials, and assessments designed to promote competence in defined outcomes. Both of the above are definitions of what is known as direct instruction. Models of instruction Reigeluth (1989) identifies three basic forms for instructional theories and associated models of instruction: 1. Intact models, where a different kind of instruction is prescribed for each of a variety of conditions, for example, Merrill's CDT - section ; 2. Variations on a model where there is one general model and variations of it are prescribed for different conditions; and 3. The 'smorgasbord' paradigm, which has no formal model of instruction, but prescribes various methods on a mix-and-match basis according to the conditions. xxiv