Electric Power Distribution

Transcription

1 Electric Power Distribution A S Pabla Consulting Engineer and Former Chief Engineer Punjab State Electricity Board McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

2 Preface xvn 1. Power System 1.1 General Concept Distribution of Power Quality of Supply System Study Benchmarking Electricity Reforms Future Distribution Systems 20 Problems 24 Bibliography Electricity Forecasting 2.1 Power Loads Connected Load Load Forecasting Definitions of Some Basic Concepts in Statistics 2.5 Regression Analysis Correlation Theory Analysis of Time Series Factors in Power System Loading Unloading the System Forecast of System Peak Strategic Forecasting (10)

3 2.12 Spatial Load Forecasting Technological Forecasting Sources of Error: Regulating the Model 72 Problems 72 Bibliography System Planning Planning Process Planning Criteria and Standards System Development Dispersed Generation Distribution System Economics and Finance Mapping 96 ; 3.7 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Modelling System Calculations Introductory Methods Network Elements Load Flow Automated Planning Fault Studies Effect of Abnormal Loads line Circuits Urban Distribution Outsourcing 143 Problems 144 Bibliography Design and Operation Engineering Design Operation Criteria and Standards Sub-transmission Sub-station and Feeder Low Voltage-Three-phase or Single-phase Practices Location of Sectionalizer Voltage Control Harmonics Load Variations 189

4 ix '4.11 Impact Loading of Transformer 4.12 Ferroresonance System Losses Energy Management 276" 4.15 Model Distribution System 218 Problems 220 Bibliography Distribution Automation Distribution Automation (DA) Project Planning Definitions Communication 232 /,5.5 Sensors Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) 5.7 Consumer Information Service (CIS) Geographical Information System (GIS) Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) Automation Systems 255 Problems 261 Bibliography Optimization 6.1 Introduction Costing of Schemes Typical Network Configurations Planning Terms Network Cost Modelling 274 Voltage Levels 282 Synthesis of Optimum Line Networks Applications of Linear Programming to Network Synthesis 292 Optimum Phasing Sequence Economic Loading of Distribution Transformers 295 Worst-Case Loading of Distribution Transformers Discussion 305 Problems 306 Bibliography

5 X Contents 7. Reliability and Quality Introduction Definition of Reliability Failure Probability Concepts Limitations of Distribution Systems Power Quality Reliability Measurement Power Supply Quality Survey [3] Reliability Aids 334 Problems 341 Bibliography Consumer Services Supply Industry Natural Monopoly Regulations Other Legal Provisions Distribution Code Consumer Care Standards Consumer Load Requirements Consumer Factors Least Cost of Supply Revenue and Return Load Management [2] Energy Audit Theft of Electricity Metering of Energy Periodical Testing of Meters Consumer Load Monitoring 399 Problems 399 Bibliography Tariffs and Billing Objectives Costing Pricing Approach 410

6 XI 9.4 Classifications Economically Efficient Tariff Structure Electricity Market Rational Tariffs Tariff Applications Billing 437 Problems 442 Bibliography Grounding 10.1 Grounding System Earth and Safety Nature of an Earth Electrode System Earth Conductor Sizes Design of Earthing Electrodes System Earthing Earth Testing 472 Problems 476 Bibliography Overhead Lines 11.1 Choice of the System Optimum Design Considerations Overhead Lines Design of Overhead Power Lines Overhead Line Construction Vibrations line Accessories Installation of Distribution Transformer Compact Lines Aerial Bunched Cables (ABC) System Service Line 521 Problems 522 Bibliography Underground Cables 12.1 Circuit Design: Key to Reliability [6] Determination of Cable Rating Stress Grading

7 XII Contents 12 A Thermo-Mechanical Effects in Cable Systems Cable Materials Cable Jointing Installation of Cables Principal Causes of Cable Failure Selection of Cables System Fault Location 556" Problems 562 Bibliography System Overvoltages Causes of Overvoltages Lightning Protective Devices Failure of Lightning Arresters Detection of Arrester Failures in the Field Allowable Maximum Distance of Separation Travelling Waves 583 \ 13.8 Protection Schemes Pole-Mounted Distribution Transformers Cable Junction Lightning Arresters: Earthing 590 Problems 592 Bibliography Rural Supply Rural System Reliability Faults and Protection A Improvement of Existing Distribution Systems 6* Single Wire Earth Return System Fault Locating Auto-Reclosers Determination of Rating of Induction Motor (Cage Type) Constructional Practices Future Orientation of Rural System 629 Problems 643 Bibliography 644

8 xiii 15. Power Capacitors Reactive Power Series and Shunt Capacitors System Harmonics 665, 15.4 HT Shunt Capacitors' Installation Requirements 6" Size of Capacitors for Power Factor Improvement LT Capacitors Construction Features Failures [7, 6] 680 Problems 682 Bibliography Insulation Measurements Insulation Supervision Insulation Measurement-Non-Destructive Techniques [9] Insulation Testing: Destructive Tests Transformer Oil Testing 699 Problems 706 Bibliography System Protection Time Current Characteristics Fuses Switching Devices A Circuit Breakers Protective Relaying Instrument Transformers Overcurrent Schemes Unit Protection 748 Problems 749 Bibliography 750 if* System Maintenance * 751 B.I Successful Maintenance Failures and Maintenance Porcelain Insulators Transformer Oil Maintenance Transformer Drying 769

9 18.6 Maintenance Staff and Tools Maintenance Costs 776 Problems 777 Bibliography Electrical Services Standards Electrical Installations Reception of Electric Supply Supply Voltage Consumer Supply Arrangement Internal Wiring Switchgear Plug and Socket Outlets Circuit Loading Load Estimation Earthing Lighting Lamps Luminaires Lighting Design Road Lighting Floodlighting Automatic Fire Alarm System Electrical Call Bell Services Other Services Lightning Protection Standby Supplies Voltage Stabilizers [5] 537 Problems 833 Bibliography 834 Appendix I: International Electricity Supplies 836 Appendix II: Conductors and Cable Data 841 Appendix III: Power Cable Laying Merits 852 Appendix IV: Village Electrification and Pumpset Energization 854 Appendix V: Electrical Accidents 856 Appendix VI: Illumination Levels 859 Appendix VII: Optimum Specific Energy Consumption 863 Appendix VIII: Tinned Copper Fuse Wire 865

10 XV Appendix IX: Power Factors 867 Appendix X: Ambient Temperature and Average Altitude 869 Appendix XI: Transmission and Distribution Losses in States 577 Index 873