Builder 3 & 2, Volume 1

Transcription

1 NONRESIDENT TRAINING COURSE March 1993 Builder 3 & 2, Volume 1 NAVEDTRA DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

2 Although the words he, him, and his are used sparingly in this course to enhance communication, they are not intended to be gender driven or to affront or discriminate against anyone. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

3 COMMANDING OFFICER NETPDTC 6490 SAUFLEY FIELD RD PENSACOLA, FL ERRATA #2 7 JUN 1999 Specific Instructions and Errata for Nonresident Training Course BUILDER 3 & 2, VOLUME 1 1. No attempt has been made to issue corrections for errors in typing, punctuation, etc., that do not affect your ability to answer the question or questions. 2. To receive credit for deleted questions, show this errata to your local course administrator (ESO/scorer). The local course administrator is directed to correct the course and the answer key by indicating the questions deleted. 3. Assignment Booklet Delete the following questions, and leave the corresponding spaces blank on the answer sheets: Questions

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5 PREFACE By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and the Navy. Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the total Navy training program. Practical experience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also necessary to successfully round out a fully meaningful training program. THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing learning objectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations to help you understand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and experiences of personnel in the rating or skill area. It also reflects guidance provided by Enlisted Community Managers (ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references, instructions, etc., and either the occupational or naval standards, which are listed in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower Personnel Classifications and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS THE QUESTIONS: The questions that appear in this course are designed to help you understand the material in the text. VALUE: In completing this course, you will improve your military and professional knowledge. Importantly, it can also help you study for the Navy-wide advancement in rate examination. If you are studying and discover a reference in the text to another publication for further information, look it up Edition Prepared by BUCS John Buza Published by NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER NAVSUP Logistics Tracking Number 0504-LP i

6 Sailor s Creed I am a United States Sailor. I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States of America and I will obey the orders of those appointed over me. I represent the fighting spirit of the Navy and those who have gone before me to defend freedom and democracy around the world. I proudly serve my country s Navy combat team with honor, courage and commitment. I am committed to excellence and the fair treatment of all. ii

7 CONTENTS CHAPTER Page Construction Administration and Safety Drawings and Specifications Woodworking Tools, Materials, and Methods Fiber Line, Wire Rope, and Scaffolding Leveling and Grading Concrete Working with Concrete Masonry Planning, Estimating and Scheduling APPENDIX I. Glossary II. References Used to Develop the TRAMAN AI- 1 AII- 1 III. Hand Signals AIII- 1 INDEX INDEX-1 iii

8 SUMMARY OF BUILDER 3&2 RATE TRAINING MANUALS VOLUME 1 Builder 3&2, Volume 1, NAVEDTRA 14043, is a basic book that should be mastered by those seeking advancement to Builder Third Class and Builder Second Class. The major topics addressed in this book include construction administration and safety; drawings and specifications; woodworking tools, materials and methods of woodworking; fiber line, wire rope, and scaffolding; leveling and grading; concrete; placing concrete; masonry; and planning, estimating and scheduling. VOLUME 2 Builder 3&2, Volume 2, NAVEDTRA 14044, continues where Volume 1 ends. The topics covered in Volume 2 include floor and wall construction; roof framing; exterior and interior finishing; plastering, stuccoing, and ceramic tile; paints and preservatives; advanced base field structures; and heavy construction. iv

9 INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE ASSIGNMENTS The text pages that you are to study are listed at the beginning of each assignment. Study these pages carefully before attempting to answer the questions. Pay close attention to tables and illustrations and read the learning objectives. The learning objectives state what you should be able to do after studying the material. Answering the questions correctly helps you accomplish the objectives. SELECTING YOUR ANSWERS Read each question carefully, then select the BEST answer. You may refer freely to the text. The answers must be the result of your own work and decisions. You are prohibited from referring to or copying the answers of others and from giving answers to anyone else taking the course. SUBMITTING YOUR ASSIGNMENTS To have your assignments graded, you must be enrolled in the course with the Nonresident Training Course Administration Branch at the Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC). Following enrollment, there are two ways of having your assignments graded: (1) use the Internet to submit your assignments as you complete them, or (2) send all the assignments at one time by mail to NETPDTC. Grading on the Internet: Advantages to Internet grading are: you may submit your answers as soon as you complete an assignment, and you get your results faster; usually by the next working day (approximately 24 hours). In addition to receiving grade results for each assignment, you will receive course completion confirmation once you have completed all the assignments. To submit your assignment answers via the Internet, go to: Grading by Mail: When you submit answer sheets by mail, send all of your assignments at one time. Do NOT submit individual answer sheets for grading. Mail all of your assignments in an envelope, which you either provide yourself or obtain from your nearest Educational Services Officer (ESO). Submit answer sheets to: COMMANDING OFFICER NETPDTC N SAUFLEY FIELD ROAD PENSACOLA FL Answer Sheets: All courses include one scannable answer sheet for each assignment. These answer sheets are preprinted with your SSN, name, assignment number, and course number. Explanations for completing the answer sheets are on the answer sheet. Do not use answer sheet reproductions: Use only the original answer sheets that we provide reproductions will not work with our scanning equipment and cannot be processed. Follow the instructions for marking your answers on the answer sheet. Be sure that blocks 1, 2, and 3 are filled in correctly. This information is necessary for your course to be properly processed and for you to receive credit for your work. COMPLETION TIME Courses must be completed within 12 months from the date of enrollment. This includes time required to resubmit failed assignments. v

10 PASS/FAIL ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES If your overall course score is 3.2 or higher, you will pass the course and will not be required to resubmit assignments. Once your assignments have been graded you will receive course completion confirmation. If you receive less than a 3.2 on any assignment and your overall course score is below 3.2, you will be given the opportunity to resubmit failed assignments. You may resubmit failed assignments only once. Internet students will receive notification when they have failed an assignment--they may then resubmit failed assignments on the web site. Internet students may view and print results for failed assignments from the web site. Students who submit by mail will receive a failing result letter and a new answer sheet for resubmission of each failed assignment. COMPLETION CONFIRMATION After successfully completing this course, you will receive a letter of completion. ERRATA Errata are used to correct minor errors or delete obsolete information in a course. Errata may also be used to provide instructions to the student. If a course has an errata, it will be included as the first page(s) after the front cover. Errata for all courses can be accessed and viewed/downloaded at: STUDENT FEEDBACK QUESTIONS We value your suggestions, questions, and criticisms on our courses. If you would like to communicate with us regarding this course, we encourage you, if possible, to use . If you write or fax, please use a copy of the Student Comment form that follows this page. For subject matter questions: n314.products@cnet.navy.mil Phone: Comm: (850) , Ext DSN: , Ext FAX: (850) (Do not fax answer sheets.) Address: COMMANDING OFFICER NETPDTC (CODE N314) 6490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROAD PENSACOLA FL For enrollment, shipping, grading, or completion letter questions: fleetservices@cnet.navy.mil Phone: Toll Free: Comm: (850) /1181/1859 DSN: /1181/1859 FAX: (850) (Do not fax answer sheets.) Address: COMMANDING OFFICER NETPDTC (CODE N331) 6490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROAD PENSACOLA FL NAVAL RESERVE RETIREMENT CREDIT If you are a member of the Naval Reserve, you will receive retirement points if you are authorized to receive them under current directives governing retirement of Naval Reserve personnel. For Naval Reserve retirement, this course is evaluated at 12 points. (Refer to Administrative Procedures for Naval Reservists on Inactive Duty, BUPERSINST , for more information about retirement points.) COURSE OBJECTIVES In completing this nonresident training course, you will demonstrate a knowledge of the subject matter by correctly answering questions on the following: construction administration and safety; drawings and specifications; woodworking tools, materials, and methods; fiber line, wire rope, and scaffolding; leveling and grading; concrete; working with concrete; masonry; and planning, estimating, and scheduling. vi

11 Student Comments Course Title: Builder 3 & 2, Volume 1 NAVEDTRA: Date: We need some information about you: Rate/Rank and Name: SSN: Command/Unit Street Address: City: State/FPO: Zip Your comments, suggestions, etc.: Privacy Act Statement: Under authority of Title 5, USC 301, information regarding your military status is requested in processing your comments and in preparing a reply. This information will not be divulged without written authorization to anyone other than those within DOD for official use in determining performance. NETPDTC 1550/41 (Rev 4-00) vii

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13 CHAPTER 1 CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION AND SAFETY Being a petty officer carries many inherent responsibilities. These include your personal obligation to be a leader, an instructor, and an administrator in all the areas of your rating-military, technical, and safety. As a petty officer, you need to develop an ability to control the work performed by your workers, as well as to lead them. As you gain experience as a petty officer and increase your technical competence as a Builder, you begin to accept a certain amount of responsibility for the work of others. With each advancement, you accept an increasing responsibility in military matters and in matters relating to the professional work of your rate. As you advance to third class and then to second class petty officer, you not only will have increased privileges but also increased responsibilities. You begin to assume greater supervisory and administrative positions. The proper administration of any project, large or small, is as important as the actual construction. This chapter will provide you with information to help you to use and prepare the administrative paperwork that you encounter as a crew leader or as a crewmember. ADMINISTRATION LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Upon completing this section, you should be able to identify crew leader responsibilities in preparing tool kit inventories, preparing supply requisitions, and submitting labor time cards. Administration is the means a person or an organization uses to keep track of what s happening. It provides a means of telling others what s been done and planned, who s doing it, and what s needed. Administration ranges from a simple notebook kept in your pocket to filling out a variety of reports and forms. As a growing leader in the Navy, you must learn about and become effective in the use of both the tools of your trade and administrative tools. Once you become comfortable with these, you can be a successful administrator. PLANNING WORK ASSIGNMENTS For our purposes here, planning means the process of determining requirements and developing methods and schemes of action for performing a task. Proper planning saves time and money and ensures a project is completed in a professional manner. Here, we ll look at some, but not all, of the factors you need to consider. When you get a project, whether in writing or orally, make sure you clearly understand what is to be done. Study the plans and specifications carefully. If you have any questions, find the answers from those in a position to supply the information you need. Also, make sure you understand the priority of the project, expected time of completion, and any special instructions. Consider the capabilities of your crew. Determine who is to do what and how long it should take. Also, consider the tools and equipment you will need. Arrange to have them available at the jobsite at the time the work is to get under way. Determine who will use the tools and make sure they know how to use them properly and safely. To help ensure that the project is completed properly and on time, determine the best method of getting it done. If there is more than one way of doing a particular assignment, you should analyze the methods and select the one most suited to the job conditions. Listen to suggestions from others. If you can simplify a method and save time and effort, do it. Establish goals for each workday and encourage your crew to work as a team in meeting these goals. Set goals that keep your crew busy, but make sure they are realistic. Discuss the project with the crew so they know what you expect from them. During an emergency, most crewmembers will make an all-out effort to meet a deadline. But when there is no emergency, don t expect them to work continuously at an excessively high rate. Again, set realistic goals. Daily briefings of this type cannot be overemphasized. 1-1

14 DIRECTING WORK TEAMS After a job has been properly planned, it is necessary to carefully direct the job. This ensures it is completed on time and with the quality that satisfies both the customer and the crew. Before starting a project, make sure the crew knows what is expected. Give instructions and urge the crew to ask questions on all points that are not clear. Be honest in your answers. If you don t have an answer, say so; then find the answer and get back to the crew. Don t delay in getting solutions to the questions asked. Timely answers keep projects moving forward. They also show the crew your concern for the project is as genuine as theirs. While a job is under way, spot check to ensure that the work is progressing satisfactorily. Determine whether the proper methods, materials, tools, and equipment are being used. When determining the initial requirements, do so early enough so there are no delays. If crewmembers are incorrectly performing a task, stop them and point out the correct procedures. When you check crewmembers work, make them feel the purpose of checking is to teach, guide, or direct not to criticize or find fault. Make sure the crew complies with applicable safety precautions and wear safety apparel when required. Watch for hazardous conditions, improper use of tools and equipment, and unsafe work practices. These can cause mishaps and possibly result in injury to personnel. There are no excuses for unsafe practices. Proper safety instructions and training eliminate the desire to work carelessly. When directing construction crews, practice what you preach. When time permits, rotate crewmembers on various jobs. Rotation gives you the opportunity to teach. It also gives each crewmember an opportunity to increase personal skill levels. As a crew leader, you need to ensure that your crew work together in getting the job done. Develop an environment where each crewmember feels free to seek your advice when in doubt about any phase of the work. Emotional balance is especially important. Don t panic in view of your crew or be unsure of yourself when faced with a conflict. Be tactful and courteous in dealing with your crew. It sounds obvious, but don t show any partiality. Keep every crewmember informed on both work and personal matters that affect his or her performance. Also, try to maintain a high level of morale. Low morale has a definite effect on the quantity and quality of a crew s work. As you advance in rate, you spend more and more time supervising others. You have to learn as much as you can about supervision. Study books on both supervision and leadership, Also, watch how other supervisors-both good and bad-operate. Don t be afraid to ask questions. TOOL KIT INVENTORY Tool kits contain all the craft hand tools required by one, four-member construction crew or fire team of a given rating to pursue their trade. The kits may contain additional items required by a particular assignment. However, they should not be reduced in type of item and should be maintained at 100 percent of kit assembly allowance at all times. As a crew leader, you can order and are responsible for all the tools required by the crew. This incurs the following responsibilities: Maintaining complete tools kits at all times; Assigning tools within the crew; Ensuring proper use and care of assigned tools by the crew; Preserving tools not in use; Securing assigned tools; and Ensuring that all electrical tools and cords are inspected on a regular basis. To make sure tools are maintained properly, the operations officer and the supply officer establish a formal tool kit inventory and inspection program. As a crew leader, you perform a tool kit inventory at least every 2 weeks. Tools requiring routine maintenance are turned in to the central tool room (CTR) for repair and reissue. Damaged or worn tools should be returned to the CTR for replacement. You must submit requisitions for replacement items. Tool management is further specified in instructions issued by Commander, Construction Battalion, Pacific (COMCBPAC) and Commander, Construction Battalion, Atlantic (COMCBLANT). 1-2

15 PREPARING REQUISITIONS As a crew leader, you must become familiar with the forms used to request material or services through the Navy Supply System. Printed forms are available that provide all the information necessary for the physical transfer of the material and accounting requirements. The form you will use most often is NAVSUP Form 1250, shown in figure 1-1. Crew leaders are not usually required to complete the entire form. However, you must list the stock number of the item, when available, the quantity required, and the name or description of each item needed. Turn this form in to the expediter, who checks it, fills in the remaining information, and signs it. The form then goes to the material liaison officer (MLO) or supply department for processing. In ordering material, you need to know about the national stock number (NSN) system. Information on the NSN system and other topics about supply is given in Military Requirements for Petty Officer Third Class, NAVEDTRA TIMEKEEPING In both battalion and shore-based activities, you will be posting entries on time cards for military personnel. You need to know the type of information called for on the cards and understand the importance of accuracy in labor reporting. The reportings systems used primarily in naval mobile construction battalions (NMCBs) and the system employed at shore-based activities are similar. A labor accounting system is used to record and measure the number of man-hours a unit spends on various functions. Labor utilization information is collected every day in sufficient detail and manner to allow the operations department to readily compile the data. This helps the operations officer to both manage manpower resources and prepare reports for higher authority. Although labor accounting systems may vary slightly from one command to another, the system described here is typical. Each work unit accounts for all labor used to carry out its assignment. This lets management determine the amount of labor used on the project. Labor costs are figured, and actual man-hours are compared with other similar jobs. When completed, unit managers and higher commands use this information to develop planning standards. The type of labor performed must be broken down and reported by category to show how labor has been used. For timekeeping and labor reporting Figure 1-1. NAVSUP

16 purposes, all labor is classified as either productive or overhead. Labor codes are shown in figure 1-2. Productive labor either directly or indirectly contributes to the completion of the unit s mission, including construction operations and training. It is broken down into four categories: direct labor, indirect labor, military operations and readiness, and training. Direct labor includes labor expended directly on assigned construction tasks contributing directly to the completion of an end product. It can be either in the field or in the shop. Direct labor must be reported separately for each assigned construction task. Indirect labor is labor required to support construction operations but not producing an end product itself. Military operations and readiness includes work necessary to ensure the unit s military and mobility readiness. It consists of all manpower expended in actual military operations, unit embarkation, and planning and preparations. Training includes attendance at service schools, factory and industrial courses, fleet-level training and short courses, military training, and organized training conducted within the battalion or unit. Overhead labor, compared to productive labor, does not contribute directly or indirectly to the completion of an end product. It includes labor that must be performed regardless of the assigned mission. During project planning and scheduling, each direct labor phase of the project is given an identifying code. For example, excavating and setting forms may be assigned code R-15; laying block, code R-16; and installing bond beams, code R-17. (Since there are many types of construction Figure 1-2. Labor codes. 1-4

17 projects involving different operations, codes for direct labor may vary from one activity to another.) Use direct labor codes in reporting each hour spent by each of your crewmembers during each workday on an assigned activity code. Submit your reports on a daily labor distribution report form (timekeeping card). Views A and B of figure 1-3 show typical timekeeping cards. The form provides a breakdown, by man-hours, of the activities in the various labor codes for each crewmember for each day on any given project. The form is reviewed at the company level by the staff and platoon commander. The company commander then initials the report and sends it to the operations department. The management division of the operations department tabulates the report, along with those received from all other companies and departments in the unit. This consolidated report is the means by which the operations office analyzes the labor Figure 1-3. Typical timekeeping cards (A and B). 1-5

18 distribution of total manpower resources for each day. It also serves as feeder information for preparing the monthly operations report, and any other source reports required of the unit. The information must be accurate and timely. Each level in the organization should review the report for an analysis of its own internal construction management and performance. SAFETY PROGRAM LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Upon completing this section, you should be able to describe the safety organization, function of the battalion or unit safety program, and the responsibilities of key personnel. You must be familiar with the safety program at your activity. You cannot function effectively as a petty officer unless you are aware of how safety fits into your organization. You need to know who establishes and arbitrates safety policies and procedures. You should also know who provides guidelines for safety training and supervision. Every NMCB and shore command has a formal safety organization. SAFETY ORGANIZATION The NMCB s safety organization provides for the establishment of safety policy and control and reporting. As illustrated in figure 1-4, the battalion safety policy organization contains several committees: policy; supervisors ; and equipment, shop, and crew. The executive officer presides over the safety policy committee. Its primary purpose is to develop safety rules and policy for the battalion. This committee reports to the commanding officer, who approves all changes in safety policy. The battalion safety officer presides over the safety supervisors committee. This committee includes safety supervisors assigned by company commanders, project officers, or officers in charge of a detail. Basically, it helps the safety officer manage an effective overall safety and health program. The committee provides a convenient forum for work procedures, safe practices, and safety suggestions. Its recommendations are sent to the policy committee. The equipment, shop, and crew committees are assigned as required and are usually presided over by the company or project safety supervisor. The main Figure 1-4. NMCB safety policy organizaton. 1-6

19 objective of this committee is to propose changes in the battalion s safety policy to eliminate unsafe working conditions or prevent unsafe acts. It is your contact for recommending changes in safety matters. In particular, the equipment committee reviews all vehicle mishap reports, determines the cause of each mishap, and recommends corrective action. As a crew leader, you can expect to serve as a member. Each committee forwards reports and recommendations to the safety supervisors committee. SAFETY DUTIES As a crew leader, you will report to the safety supervisor, who directs the safety program of a project. The safety supervisor is inherently responsible for all personnel assigned to that shop or project. Some of the duties include indoctrinating new crewmembers, compiling mishap statistics for the project, reviewing mishap reports submitted to the safety office, and comparing safety performances of all crews. The crew leader is responsible for carrying out safe working practices. This is done under the direction of the safety supervisor or others in positions of authority (project chief, project officer, or safety officer). You, as the crew leader, ensure that each crewmember is thoroughly familiar with these working practices, has a general understanding of pertinent safety regulations, and makes proper use of protective clothing and safety equipment. Furthermore, you should be ready at all times to correct every unsafe working practice you observe, and report it immediately to the safety supervisor or the person in charge. When an unsafe condition exists, any crew or shop member can stop work until the condition is corrected. In case of a mishap, make sure injured personnel get proper medical care as quickly as possible. Investigate each mishap involving crewmembers to determine its cause. Remove or permanently correct defective tools, materials, and machines. Do the same for environmental conditions contributing to a mishap. Afterward, submit required reports. SAFETY TRAINING New methods and procedures for safely maintaining and operating equipment are always coming out. You must keep up to date on the latest techniques in maintenance and operation safety and pass them on to your crewmembers. One method of keeping your crewmembers informed is by holding stand-up safety meetings before the day s work starts. As crew leader, you are responsible for conducting each meeting and passing on material from the safety supervisor, Information (such as the type of safety equipment to use, where to obtain it, and how to use it) is often the result of safety suggestions received by the safety supervisors committee. Encourage your crew to submit ideas or suggestions. Don t limit yourself to just the safety lecture in the morning. Discuss minor safety infractions when they occur or at appropriate break times during the day. As the crew leader, you must impress safe working habits upon your crewmembers through proper instructions, constant drills, and continuous supervision. You may hold group discussions on specific mishaps to guard against or that may happen on the job. Be sure to give plenty of thought to what you are going to say beforehand. Make the discussion interesting and urge the crew to participate. The final result should be a group conclusion as to how the specific mishap can be prevented. Your stand-up safety meetings also give you the chance to discuss prestart checks, and the operation or maintenance of automotive vehicles assigned to a project. Vehicles are used for transporting crewmembers as well as cargo. It is important to emphasize how the prestart checks are to be made and how to care for the vehicles. You can use a stand-up safety meeting to solve safety problems arising from a new procedure. An example might be starting a particular piece of equipment just being introduced. In this case, show the safe starting procedure for the equipment. Then, have your crewmembers practice the procedure. Because of the variety of vehicles that may be assigned to a project, there is too much information and too man y operating procedures for one person to remember. You need to know where to look for these facts and procedures. For specific information on prestart checks, operation, and maintenance of each vehicle assigned, refer to the manufacturer s operator/maintenance manuals. In addition, personnel from Alfa Company (equipment experts) will instruct all personnel in the proper start-up procedures for new equipment. In addition to stand-up safety meetings, conduct day-to-day instruction and on-the-job training. Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter to describe teaching methods, a few words on your 1-7

20 approach to safety and safety training at the crew level are appropriate. Getting your crew to work safely, like most other crew leader functions, is essentially a matter of leadership. Therefore, don t overlook the power of personal example in leading and teaching your crewmembers. They are quick to detect differences between what you say and what you do. Don t expect them to measure up to a standard of safe conduct that you, yourself, do not. Make your genuine concern for the safety of your crew visible at all times. Leadership by example is one of the most effective techniques you can use. RECOMMENDED READING LIST Although the current when this NOTE following references were TRAMAN was published, their continued currency cannot be assured. You therefore need to ensure that you are studying the latest revision. Naval Construction Force Manual, P-315, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Washington, D.C., Naval Construction Force Occupational Safety and Health Program Manual, COMCBPAC/ COMCBLANTINST F, Commander, Naval Construction Battalions, U.S. Pacific Fleet, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and Commander, Naval Construction Battalions, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, Naval Amphibious Base, Little Creek, Norfolk, Va., Seabee Planner's Estimator Handbook, NAVFAC P-405, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, Va.,

21 CHAPTER 2 DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS By this time in your Navy career, you have probably worked as a crewmember on various building projects. You probably did your tasks without thinking much about what it takes to lay out structures so they will conform to their location, size, shape, and other building features. In this chapter, you will learn how to extract these types of information from drawings and specifications. You will also be shown how to draw, read, and work from simple shop drawings and sketches. We provide helpful references throughout the chapter. You are encouraged to study these, as required, for additional information on the topics discussed. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Upon completing this section, you should be able to identify the different types of structural members. From the Builder s standpoint, building designs and construction methods depend on many factors. No two building projects can be treated alike. However, the factors usually considered before a structure is designed are its geographical location and the availability of construction materials. It is easy to see why geographical location is important to the design of a structure, especially its main parts. When located in a temperate zone, for example, the roof of a structure must be sturdy enough not to collapse under the weight of snow and ice. Also, the foundation walls have to extend below the frost line to guard against the effects of freezing and thawing. In the tropics, a structure should have a low-pitch roof and be built on a concrete slab or have shallow foundation walls. Likewise, the availability of construction materials can influence the design of a structure. This happens when certain building materials are scarce in a geographical location and the cost of shipping them is prohibitive. In such a case, particularly overseas, the structure is likely to be built with materials purchased locally. In turn, this can affect the way construction materials are used it means working with foreign drawings and metric units of weights and measures. By comparing the designs of the two structures shown in figures 2-1 and 2-2, you can see that each is designed according to its function. For example, light-frame construction is usually found in residential buildings where a number of small rooms are desired. Concrete masonry and steel construction is used for warehouse-type facilities where large open spaces are needed. You should study these figures carefully and learn the terminology. Depending on the use of the structure, you may use any combination of structural members. DEAD AND LIVE LOADS The main parts of a structure are the load-bearing members. These support and transfer the loads on the structure while remaining equal to each other. The places where members are connected to other members are called joints. The sum total of the load supported by the structural members at a particular instant is equal to the total dead load plus the total live load. The total dead load is the total weight of the structure, which gradually increases as the structure rises and remains constant once it is completed. The total live load is the total weight of movable objects (such as people, furniture, and bridge traffic) the structure happens to be supporting at a particular instant. The live loads in a structure are transmitted through the various load-bearing structural members to the ultimate support of the earth. Immediate or direct support for the live loads is first provided by horizontal members. The horizontal members are, in turn, supported by vertical members. Finally, the vertical members are supported by foundations or footings, which are supported by the earth. Look at figure 2-1, which illustrates both horizontal and vertical members of a typical light-frame structure. The weight of the roof material is distributed over the top supporting members and transferred through all joining members to the soil. 2-1

22 Figure 2-1. Typical light-frame construction. Figure 2-2. Typical concrete masonry and steel structure. 2-2

23 The ability of the earth to support a load is called its soil-bearing capacity. This varies considerably with different types of soil. A soil of a given bearing capacity bears a heavier load on a wide foundation or footing than on a narrow one. VERTICAL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS In heavy construction, vertical structural members are high-strength columns. (In large buildings, these arc called pillars.) Outside wall columns and inside bottom-floor columns usually rest directly on footings. Outside wall columns usually extend from the footing or foundation to the roof line. Inside bottom-floor columns extend upward from footings or foundations to the horizontal members, which, in turn, support the first floor or roof, as shown in figure 2-2. Upper floor columns are usually located directly over lower floor columns. In building construction, a pier, sometimes called a short column, rests either directly on a footing, as shown in the lower center of figure 2-3, or is simply set or driven into the ground. Building piers usually support the lowermost horizontal structural members. Figure 2-3. Exploded view of a typical light-frame house. 2-3

24 In bridge construction, a pier is a vertical member that provides intermediate support for the bridge superstructure. The chief vertical structural members in light-frame construction are called studs (see figures 2-1 and 2-3). They are supported by horizontal members called sills or soleplates, as shown in figure 2-3. Corner posts are enlarged studs located at the building corners. Formerly, in full-frame construction, a corner post was usually a solid piece of larger timber. In most modern construction, though, built-up corner posts are used. These consist of various members of ordinary studs nailed together in various ways. HORIZONTAL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS Technically, any horizontal load-bearing structural member that spans a space and is supported at both ends is considered a beam. A member fixed at one end only is called a cantilever. Steel members that consist of solid pieces of regular structural steel are referred to as structural shapes. A girder (shown in figure 2-2) is a structural shape. Other prefabricated, open-web, structural-steel shapes are called bar joists (also shown in figure 2-2). Horizontal structural members that support the ends of floor beams or joists in wood-frame construction are called sills or girders see figures 2-1 and 2-3). The name used depends on the type of framing and the location of the member in the structure. Horizontal members that support studs are called soleplates, depending on the type of framing. Horizontal members that support the wall ends of rafters are called rafter plates. Horizontal members that assume the weight of concrete or masonry walls above door and window openings are called lintels (figure 2-2). The horizontal or inclined members that provide support to a roof are called rafters (figure 2-1). The lengthwise (right angle to the rafters) member, which supports the peak ends of the rafters in a roof, is called the ridge. The ridge may be called a ridge board, the ridge piece, or the ridge pole. Lengthwise members other than ridges are called purlins. In wood-frame construction, the wall ends of rafters are supported on horizontal members called rafter plates, which are, in turn, supported by the outside wall studs. In concrete or masonry wall construction, the wall ends of rafters may be anchored directly on the walls or on plates bolted to the walls. A beam of given strength, without intermediate supports below, can support a given load over only a specific maximum span. When the span is wider than this maximum space, intermediate supports, such as columns, must be provided for the beam. Sometimes it is either not feasible or impossible to increase the beam size or to install intermediate supports. In such cases, a truss is used. A truss is a combination of members, such as beams, bars, and ties, usually arranged in triangular units to form a rigid framework for supporting loads over a span. The basic components of a roof truss are the top and bottom chords and the web members. The top chords serve as roof rafters. The bottom chords act as ceiling joists. The web members run between the top and bottom chords. The truss parts are usually made of 2- by 4-inch or 2- by 6-inch material and are tied together with metal or plywood gusset plates, as shown in figure 2-4. Roof trusses come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most commonly used roof trusses, shown in figure 2-5, for light-frame construction are the king-post, the W-type, and the scissors trusses. The simplest type of truss used in frame construction is the king-post truss. It is mainly used for spans up to 22 feet. The most widely used truss in light-frame construction is the W-type truss. The W-type truss can be placed over spans up to 50 feet. The scissors truss is used for buildings with sloping ceilings. Generally, the slope of the bottom chord equals one-half the slope of the top chord. It can be placed over spans up to 50 feet. DRAWINGS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Upon completing this section, you should be able to recognize the different types of drawings and their uses. The building of any structure is described by a set of related drawings that give the Builder a complete, sequential, graphic description of each phase of the construction process. In most cases, a set of drawings begins by showing the location, boundaries, contours, and outstanding physical features of the construction site and its adjoining areas. Succeeding drawings give instructions for the excavation and disposition of existing ground; construction of the foundations and superstructure; installation of utilities, such as plumbing, heating, lighting, air conditioning, interior and exterior finishes; and whatever else is required to complete the structure. 2-4

25 Figure 2-4. A truss rafter. The engineer works with the architect to decide what materials to use in the structure and the construction methods to follow. The engineer determines the loads that supporting members will carry and the strength qualities the members must have to bear the loads. The engineer also designs the mechanical systems of the structure, such as the lighting, heating, and plumbing systems. The end result is the architectural and engineering design sketches. These sketches guide draftsmen in preparing the construction drawings. CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS Generally, construction or working drawings furnish enough information for the Builder to complete an entire project and incorporate all three main groups of drawings-architectural, electrical, and mechanical. In drawings for simple structures, this grouping may be hard to discern because the same single drawing may contain both the electrical and mechanical layouts. In complicated structures, however, a combination of layouts is not possible because of overcrowding. In this case, the floor plan may be traced over and over for drawings for the electrical and mechanical layouts. All or any one of the three types of drawings gives you enough information to complete a project. The specific one to use depends on the nature of construction involved. The construction drawing furnishes enough information for the particular tradesman to complete a project, whether architectural, electrical, or mechanical. Normally, construction drawings include the detail drawings, assembly drawings, bill of materials, and the specifications. A detail drawing shows a particular item on a larger scale than that of the general drawing in which the item appears. Or, it may show an item too small to appear at all on a general drawing. An assembly drawing is either an exterior or sectional view of an object showing the details in the proper relationship to one another. Assembly drawings are usually drawn to a smaller scale from the dimensions of the detail drawings. This provides a check on the accuracy of the design drawings and often discloses errors. Construction drawings consist mostly of rightangle and perpendicular views prepared by draftsmen Figure 2-5. The most commonly used roof trusses. 2-5

26 using standard technical drawing techniques, relatively small scale. Both types of drawings use a symbols, and other designations as stated in military standard set of architectural symbols. Figure 2-6 standards (MIL-STDS). The first section of the illustrates the conventional symbols for the more construction drawings consists of the site plan, plot common types of material used on structures. plan, foundation plans, floor plans, and framing plans. Figure 2-7 shows the more common symbols used for General drawings consist of plans (views from above) doors and windows. Study these symbols thoroughly and elevations (side or front views) drawn on a before proceeding further in this chapter. Figure 2-6.-Architectural symbols for plans and elevations. 2-6

27 Figure 2-7. Architectural symbols for doors and windows. 2-7

28 2-8

29 Site Plan A site plan (figure 2-8) shows the contours, boundaries, roads, utilities, trees, structures, and any other significant physical features on or near the construction site. The locations of proposed structures are shown in outline. This plan shows comer locations with reference to reference lines shown on the plot that can be located at the site. By showing both existing and finished contours, the site plan furnishes essential data for the graders. Plot Plan The plot plan shows the survey marks with the elevations and the grading requirements. The plot plan is used by the Engineering Aids to set up the corners and perimeter of the building using batter boards and line stakes, as shown in figure 2-9. Thus, the plot plan furnishes the essential data for laying out the building. Figure 2-9. Plot plan. 2-9

30 Foundation Plan A foundation plan is a plane view of a structure. That is, it looks as if it were projected onto a horizontal plane and passed through the structure. In the case of the foundation plan, the plane is slightly below the level of the top of the foundation wall. The plan in figure 2-10 shows that the main foundation consists of 12-inch and 8-inch concrete masonry unit (CMU) walls measuring 28 feet lengthwise and 22 feet crosswise. The lower portion of each lengthwise section of wall is to be 12 inches thick to provide a concrete ledge 4 inches wide. A girder running through the center of the building will be supported at the ends by two 4-by- 12-inch concrete pilasters butting against the end foundation walls. Intermediate support for the girder will be provided by two 12-by-12-inch concrete piers, each supported on 18-by- 18-inch spread footings, which are 10 inches deep. The dotted lines around the foundation walls indicate that these walls will also rest on spread footings. Floor Plan Figure 2-11 shows the way a floor plan is developed: from elevation, to cutting plane, to floor plan. An architectural or structural floor plan shows the structural characteristics of the building at the level of the plane of projection. A mechanical floor plan shows the plumbing and heating systems and any other mechanical components other than those that are electrical. An electrical floor plan shows the lighting system and any other electrical systems. Figure 2-12 is a floor plan showing the lengths, thicknesses, and character of the outside walls and Figure Foundation plan. 2-10

31 Figure Floor plan development. Figure Floor plan. 2-11

32 partitions at the particular floor level. It also shows the number, dimensions, and arrangement of the rooms, the widths and locations of doors and windows, and the locations and character of bathroom, kitchen, and other utility features. You should carefully study figure In dimensioning floor plans, it is very important to check the overall dimension against the sum of the partial dimensions of each part of the structure. Elevations The front, rear, and sides of a structure, as they would appear projected on vertical planes, are shown in elevations. Studying the elevation drawing gives you a working idea of the appearance and layout of the structure. Elevations for a small building are shown in figure Note that the wall surfaces of this house will consist of brick and the roof covering of composition shingles. The top of the rafter plate will be 8 feet 2 1/4 inches above the level of the finished first floor, and the tops of the finished door and window openings 7 feet 1 3/4 inches above the same level. The roof will be a gable roof with 4 inches of rise for every 12 inches length. Each window shown in the elevations is identified by a capital letter that goes with the window schedule (which we ll discuss later in this chapter). Framing Plans Framing plans show the size, number, and location of the structural members (steel or wood) that make up the building framework. Separate framing plans may be drawn for the floors, walls, and roof. The floor framing plan must specify the sizes and spacing of joists, girders, and columns used to support the floor. When detail drawings are needed, the methods of anchoring joists and girders to the columns and foundation walls or footings must be shown. Wall framing plans show the location and method of framing openings and ceiling heights so that studs and posts can be cut. Roof framing plans show the construction of the rafters used to span the building and support the roof. Size, spacing, roof slope, and all details are shown. FLOOR PLANS. Framing plans for floors are basically plane views of the girders and joists. Figure 2-14 is an example of a typical floor framing plan. Figure Elevations. 2-12