Forensic Anthropology

Transcription

1 Forensic Anthropology Cutting Edge Science William R. Belcher, Ph.D., D-ABFA (No. 66)

2 CES: Forensic Anthropology ISBN: Published by Quantum Scientific Publishing a division of Sentient Enterprises, Inc. Pittsburgh, PA. Copyright 2008 by Sentient Enterprises, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission in writing must be obtained from the publisher before any part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system. All trademarks, service marks, registered trademarks, and registered service marks are the property of their respective owners and are used herein for identification purposes only. Printed in the United States of America Quantum Scienti c Publishing Cover design by Andrew Miller and Laura Johnson

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5 UNIT ONE SECTION 01: Introduction to Forensic Sciences 2 SECTION 02: Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 14 SECTION 03: Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 20 SECTION 04: Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 28 SECTION 05: Human Osteology 35 SECTION 06: Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 48 SECTION 07: Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 54 SECTION 08: Determining the Biological Sex 60 SECTION 09: How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 68 SECTION 10: Stature, or How tall was this person? 75 UNIT TWO SECTION 01: Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 84 SECTION 02: Trauma 92 SECTION 03: Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 99 SECTION 04: The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 108 SECTION 05: Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 117 SECTION 06: Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Military 121 SECTION 07: Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 128 SECTION 08: A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 135 SECTION 09: Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 141 SECTION 10: The Hollywood Factor and Reality 147 APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Answer Key CLIV APPENDIX B: Glossary CLXXI APPENDIX C: Human Bones CLXXXVIII Table of Contents

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7 Forensic Anthropology Cutting Edge Science

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9 unit Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.2 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 1.3 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 1.4 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 1.5 Human Osteology 1.6 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 1.7 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 1.8 Determining the Biological Sex 1.9 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 1.10 Stature, or How tall was this person?

10 1.1 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 2 Section One: Introduction to Forensic Sciences Defi ne forensics Describe the three different types of evidence of evidence Describe several different areas of specialty in forensic science 1 Explain the general process involved in the physical analysis Introduction The goal of this section is to provide an outline of the broader topics of the forensic and investigative sciences as used in crime scene investigation and analytical sciences. This is an exciting field that is only a small part of the overall field of crime scene and forensic investigation. Many of the forensic sciences work hand-in-hand to help solve crimes or even determine if a crime has been committed. What is Forensics? Forensics in general is a form of argumentative discourse. This is why your high school debate team is often called a forensic team. How does this fit with criminal investigation? Well, it refers to the argumentative aspect of the legal system and refers to discussions that are suitable for discussion in a judicial format. Within the Forensics Module, we will use forensics in terms of this latter definition; that has to do with the scientific and medical methods used for legal questions. Forensic science refers to the use of a variety of investigation and scientific procedures used to assist the law enforcement and legal community or, as is often described the medico-legal community. Forensic investigation uses a wide variety of techniques ranging from visual observation and recording these ideas into a notebook to the most sophisticated form of DNA analysis. Forensic analysis, particularly in a laboratory setting, has the primary goals of examining, identifying, and comparing potential evidentiary items using a wide scope of scientific techniques and procedures. Through this analysis, an attempt is made to link suspect, victim, and crime scene through this material and biological evidence.

11 3 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.1 How does the term forensic differ in its use in a legal setting and the way it may be used in your school? CONCEPT CHECK ONE Evidence What is evidence? Well, as defined here, it includes physical or biological evidence. Physical evidence is defined as something that exists in a physical sense that is used in a court of law or criminal investigation that will be used in an argument to determine the matter of truth. Biological evidence is any item of evidence that originate from the biological world. Another form of evidence is referred to as trace evidence. Trace evidence includes those forms of evidence that can be extremely small, such as fibers or hair. Evidence also includes the relationships of different aspects of evidence to each other as well as the physical setting in which they are found. Crime Scene Investigation The entire forensic process begins with a crime scene or alleged crime scene. It is the responsibility of the crime scene investigators to oversee the entire process of documentation of the crime scene as well as the collection of the evidence. While many smaller jurisdictions in the United States have general crime scene investigators as an additional duty, larger metropolitan districts have entire teams, with each member specialized in specific forms of evidence collection and documentation. Crime scene investigation often begins with interviewing witnesses. This may be especially important to reconstructing events that occurred at the scene and is usually conducted by specially trained individuals.

12 1.1 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 4 What are the different types of evidence? CONCEPT CHECK TWO Physical Analysis of Evidence There are many types of forensic analyses that can take place in the field and in laboratories. The discussion of different types of analyses below is not meant to be complete or exhaustive, but really include topics you all may be familiar with because of television dramas or other readings. Any type of scientific analysis that can be used in a legal setting can be a form of forensic science. While extremely important, some of the more obscure (that is, not seen on television dramas) would be forensic geology and forensic engineering. For example, on August 1, 2007, the I-35W Bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota collapsed during rush hour and, eventually, it was known that 13 people were killed, over 100 were injured, and much personal property was destroyed. The analysis of how that structure failed can be considered forensic engineering. Usually, evidence that is collected during an investigation is brought back to the laboratory. Care is taken to avoid possible contamination, particularly of samples like DNA (see below), but also that the chain of custody or chain of evidence is not broken. A chain of custody documents all individuals that have had access to evidence from the time of its collection to its possible presentation to a jury or other legal body in a court of law. Most of the evidence that is analyzed in a laboratory setting is called trace evidence. We often say that the devil is in the details. That means that through very detailed analyses of small pieces of evidence, we may be able to accomplish the tasks related to linking evidence to a victim, a perpetrator, and the scene. Any analyst must always consider the context of the evidence; however, most scientists are not concerned with the outcome of the legal action and are focused more on the analysis. This allows the analyst to remain blind in their approach to the analysis. Often blind samples are given in laboratories for a variety of reasons. This process maintains the objectivity of the analyst and it also may serve as a check to the analytical procedures. One important rule in dealing with trace evidence is called the exchange or transfer principle. This idea states that when two objects or substances come in contact with each other, portions of the other object or substance are transferred to the other. Thus, through detailed analysis we can identify these materials and then link them.

13 5 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.1 Specialty Areas in Forensic Science Toxicology is the analysis of foreign substances that are found in biological samples. It can include the use of chemical analyses (including analytical chemistry and clinical chemistry) and pharmacology. These analyses are used to aid medico-legal investigations into death, poisoning, or drug use. With the rise of illegal drug use, and their related deaths, in the United States, this accounts for most of the work in forensic or crime laboratories. Samples are usually related to possible drug samples at a scene as well as body fluids or biological tissue samples. Fibers are another important form of trace evidence. Fibers can originate from various sources either at the scene or on a person. The primary goal is to link a victim or alleged perpetrator to a scene through fibers found on or in areas associated with either person or scene. Through the use of a comparison microscope (or stereomicroscope), it is possible to compare physical attributes of samples found at various scenes and control samples taken from a variety of substances. This allows the analyst to determine the type of fiber and its possible origin. Also, through various comparisons, it may be possible to link fibers to a specific, individual source. For example, the fibers that compose duct tape may be examined. Specific fiber and tear patterns may be specifically matched between a piece found at a scene and the roll from which it was torn. This would allow a connection to be made between the scene and the roll of tape and, by extension, the owner of that roll of tape. Fingerprint identification has a long history in the use of forensic sciences. Some individual place the first use of fingerprinting as a form of identification back to 14th century Persia! Although much later, in the late 1800s, the use of fingerprints as a form of identification was presented to English police divisions and eventually adopted as a form of identification. Fingerprinting is based on the patterns seen in friction ridges in the skin. While generally referred

14 1.1 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 6 to as fingerprinting, these ridges occur on finger pads, toe pads, and over most surfaces of the palms and soles of the hands and feet. These are thought to be specific to individuals, but this has been questioned lately in U.S. courts as background statistical research on the uniqueness of friction ridges has not been demonstrated. Additionally, the validity of analyses has not been established in a scientifically reliable sense in a legal sense. Fingerprints can occur in three general types: latent prints which are left on a surface at a scene by chance or random act; patent prints are left at a scene through the transfer of the print by a foreign ma- Give some examples of trace evidence and the ways in which they are analyzed. CONCEPT CHECK THREE terial (such as blood) on the friction ridge; and, plastic prints which occur when a friction ridge is preserved in a plastic material such as clay or sediment. DNA fingerprinting. So-called DNA fingerprinting has all but superseded standard friction ridge work for identification of individuals. If any form of body fluid or biological tissue was left at a site, it may be possible to identify an individual, whether it is a victim or a person that was at the scene of the crime. DNA evidence is now used routinely to link individuals to a scene. DNA is a complex molecule found in two sources of all living cells. Most human cells are of complex type of eukaryotic cell that consists of various organelles and structures cytoplasm within a cellular wall. The most important of these structures, for our purposes are the cell nucleus and the mitochondria. Within the cell, the DNA that controls individual characteristics and has components contributed from both parents occurs in the nucleus. This is usually re-

15 7 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.1 ferred to as nucleic or genomic DNA. The DNA found in the nucleus is formed through fertilization when the complete DNA structure is brought together. The other major form of DNA found in cells occurs in the organelles known as the mitochondria, found in the cytoplasm outside of the nucleus. Mitochondria are considered the DNA is a complex, nucleic acid that contains genetic material or information that is used in the development growth, and maintenance of all living things. The DNA molecule model looks like a twisted ladder the double helix model. Structurally, DNA is composed of chains of nucleotides with a spine formed of sugars and phosphates. These sugars and phosphates form the rungs of the ladder. One of four complementary bases is attached to each sugar, thus, creating the rungs of the ladder. These bases encode the information that is necessary for life to exist and replicate. Through the process of mitosis, simple cell division occurs that allows the cells to replace those that are needed or lost during growth and injury. Through the process of meiosis, sex cells or gametes are produced that are various combinations of half of the genetic complement needed for life. During fertilization, these sex cells are combined to produce the complete complement. Due to the amount of variation that can occur during meiosis and during fertilization, the amount of diversity for each human is staggering. From the development and fertilization of gametes, it is possible to have a possible 70 trillion different combinations. Thus, each individual is considered unique. ENRICHMENT SECTION powerhouse of the cell and convert sugars and carbohydrates to energy that are necessary for the survival of the cell. The mitochondria contain short strands of DNA that are not involved in the reproductive process. In fact, mitochondrial DNA (mtdna) only comes from the maternal line or from the mother. Based on this uniqueness, biological samples, including hard and soft tissues and bodily fluids, contain unique genetic codes that can be

16 1.1 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 8 traced back to individuals with a high level of certainty. Bodily fluids such as blood and semen are the premier samples found at various times of crime scenes. Through DNA analysis or DNA fingerprinting, it is possible to compare samples found at a crime scene with an individual and determine a likely match. Because of the small amounts of genetic material, the possibility of contamination by inadvertent contact by the investigators or analysts is great. Much effort has been expended to control the contamination as well as the physical custody of these samples. Many samples have been contaminated or not allowed to be used as evidence due to the lack of control (chain of custody) of the samples from the scene to the laboratory. Identification of unknown human remains uses the same type of DNA fingerprinting. However, skeletonized remains contain little nucleic DNA or may be difficult to sample due to size or condition. Nevertheless, a less specific type of DNA, mtdna can be extracted from boney tissues. This is less specific because it does not represent an individual. Mitochondria are only inherited from the mother and the source of mitochondria occurs in the egg only. Because mtdna is inherited from the mother only, the sequences can be shared between siblings. So if we need to obtain a family blood reference sample, we can go to a victim s siblings or mother. If the victim is a female, we can obtain samples from her children (if she had any); however, we cannot obtain this type of sample from Discuss the differences between genomic DNA and mitochondrial DNA and where they might be used in forensic analyses. CONCEPT CHECK FOUR a man s children as their mtdna would originate from the mother and would not match his sequences. Therefore, we must obtain a sample from a sister s children. This type of analysis often requires the use of a genealogist to assist in the tracking down suitable relatives for an appropriate blood sample. Of course, these genealogists are called forensic genealogists!

17 9 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.1 Tool marks include unique aspects of tools that leave trace evidence at a scene. These tools may be used to create a clandestine burial, create blunt force or sharp force trauma on a body, or create any sort of mark at a scene. These marks can be general marks that identify a type of instrument (such as a type of shovel or pick) or they can exhibit individuating or specific marks that help identify an individual item (sometimes to a specific manufacturer, other times to a individual tool). Through the life of a tool, it can be reshaped or damaged through use. These activities usually leave a very specific signature on the tool that can be transferred to a variety of surfaces or media (including human biological tissue). Through specific macroscopic and microscopic analysis, it may be possible to match marks to the tools or at least get a general idea of the type of tool used at a scene. Ballistics is the science that deals with the physical characteristics of projectiles (including, but not limited to motion, behavior, and effects). A major use of ballistics in forensic sciences is to reconstruct projectile patterns as well as the comparison of projectiles found at a scene with a suspected weapon or system of discharge. Primarily this is done through the use of a comparison microscope where the different patterns seen on an evidentiary projectile are compared to one shot from a suspected weapon. These marks are the result of microscopic wear that occur during the life of a weapon. These marks are transferred to a lead projectile as it leaves the weapon. We discussed forensic sciences in a very broad manner in this section. Forensics is a form of argumentative discourse. In the forensic sciences, this means that the work done by experts in each area must be usable in a judicial setting, such as a court of law, for arguing the truth of the case being judged. Because the forensics analyses are being used to determine the truth of a situation, the forensic scientists must follow precise and documentable procedures in performing all of their analyses. Evi-

18 1.1 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 10 dence must be gathered, protected and documented through the chain of custody to ensure that true findings are presented to the court. There are many different forms of forensic science, including ballistics, fingerprinting, tool marks, DNA, toxicology and a number of other fields of expertise, that contribute to the overall picture developed of a case as it is analyzed.

19 11 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.1 VOCABULARY ACCIDENTAL Refers to deaths that are related to various causes that cannot be related directly or indirectly to specific individuals. BALLISTICS The science that deals with the physical characteristics of projectiles (including, but not limited to motion, behavior, and effects). BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Any item of evidence that originate from the biological world. BLIND SAMPLES Samples of evidence submitted for examination that are not identified in such a way that the analyst knows where they came from. This minimizes the introduction of bias into the analysis. CHAIN OF CUSTODY Documents all individuals that have had access to evidence from the time of its collection to its possible presentation to a jury or other legal body in a court of law. DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a complex, nucleic acid that contains genetic material or information that is used in the development growth, and maintenance of all living things. DNA FINGERPRINTING Using any form of body fluid or biological tissue was left at a site to identify the individuals who were at the site by analyzing their DNA. DNA evidence is now used routinely to link individuals to a scene. EVIDENCE Something that exists in a physical sense that is used in a court of law or criminal investigation that will be used in an argument to determine the matter of truth. EUKARYOTIC An organism that has internal membranes and a cytoskeleton, including a membrane-bound structure called the nucleus. FIBER Another important form of trace evidence. Fibers can originate from various sources either at the scene or on a person.

20 1.1 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 12 VOCABULARY FINGERPRINTING Based on the patterns seen in friction ridges in the skin on the hands and used to identify individuals. FORENSIC ANALYSIS Has the primary goals of examining, identifying, and comparing evidentiary items using a wide scope of scientific techniques and procedures. FORENSIC INVESTIGATION Uses a wide variety of techniques ranging from visual observation and recording these ideas into a notebook to the most sophisticated form of DNA analysis. FORENSICS The use of a variety of investigation and scientific procedures used to assist the legal community. HOMICIDE Refers to a victim s death related to the direct and deliberate actions of others. LATENT PRINTS Are left on a surface at a scene by chance or random act. MEIOSIS Process of producing sex cells, or gametes, which are various combinations of half of the genetic complement needed for life. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (MTDNA) Is found in the mitochondria and only comes from the maternal line or from the mother. MITOSIS Simple cell division occurs that allows the cells to replace those that are needed or lost during growth and injury. NATURAL DEATH Natural refers to conditions that are naturally occurring and are usually related to age or disease. NUCLEIC (GENOMIC) DNA The DNA that controls individual characteristics and has components contributed from both parents occurs in the nucleus.

21 13 Introduction to Forensic Sciences 1.1 VOCABULARY PATENT PRINTS Are left at a scene through the transfer of the print by a foreign material (such as blood) on the friction ridge. PLASTIC PRINTS Occur when a friction ridge is preserved in a plastic material such as clay or sediment. SUICIDE Refers to those deaths that are related to a victim causing their own death through either direct or indirect means. TOOL MARKS Include unique aspects of tools that leave trace evidence at a scene. TOXICOLOGY The chemical analyses of chemicals that are found in biological samples. TRACE EVIDENCE Very small pieces of evidence used to investigate alleged crimes. UNKNOWN Refers to those deaths that are related to factors that cannot be determined.

22 1.2 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 14 Section Two: Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 2 List the characteristics that can be determined by forensic Defi ne and discuss forensic anthropology anthropologists in regards to recovered remains Defi ne forensic odontology and discuss its usefulness in the medico-legal community Physical anthropology is a unique discipline that has contributed much to forensic investigation over the last two centuries. Physical anthropology is also known as biological anthropology. Physical anthropologists study biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology and the fossil record of human evolution. Forensic sciences, including forensic anthropology, are becoming more and more popular due to various television dramas, novels, and movies. This section gives a more detailed overview on forensic anthropology and forensic odontology (or dentistry). What is forensic anthropology? Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology and its techniques to assist in the investigation of human (and often nonhuman) remains in order to provide more information to a medical examiner or coroner s office. The investigation of human skeletal materials answers many questions about what may have happened to a person or group of people. While a forensic anthropologist cannot give a legal opinion on the CAUSE of death, they do offer information that can be used to understand the mode or manner of death. While the cause of death can be tied to many different contributing factors, the primary cause of death is failure of the heart to supply the amount of blood flow necessary for life. Of course, this may be related to drugs, trauma, disease, etc. But only a medical examiner (or coroner in some jurisdictions) can make that legal definition in most jurisdictions. However, forensic anthropologists can use evidence of skeletal trauma and condition to understand the mode of death. There are five different modes (manners) of death: natural, suicide, homicide, accidental, and unknown. It should be pointed out that these are general definitions and specific jurisdictions may differ from those discussed here.

23 15 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 1.2 Natural refers to conditions that are naturally occurring and are usually related to age or disease. Suicide refers to those deaths that are related to a victim causing their own death through either direct or indirect means. Homicide refers to a victim s death related to the direct and deliberate actions of others. Accidental refers to deaths that are related to various causes that cannot be related directly or indirectly to specific individuals. Finally, unknown refers to those deaths that are related to factors that cannot be determined. What are the main classifi cations for mode/manner of death? CONCEPT CHECK ONE What can a Forensic Anthropologist tell investigators? The information that can be provided by the forensic anthropologist can be illustrated in the form of questions. The answers to those questions are used to develop a biological profile of the victim, along with other relevant records, such as medical and dental records. A biological profile is the reconstructed life and death of the individual, including biological sex, chronological age, ante-mortem trauma, ancestry, and stature. Are these remains human? Most of the remains that are seen by a forensic anthropologist are usually animal bones found by responsible citizens who turn them over or report these remains to the local police. Most mammals have the same general type of bones and many do look alike (even a trained forensic anthropologist may mistake a skeletonized bear paw with a human hand). Many forensic anthropologists either rely on colleagues who have training in comparative osteology or faunal (animal) analysis; some forensic anthropologists may even have extensive

24 1.2 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 16 training in the identification of animal bones. Additionally, through the analysis of bone histology (its microscopic structures), we can examine the type of bone and its structure. Human and non-human bones differ in their structure. How many people are represented? Mammals have what is called a bilateral (or paired) skeleton. This means that mammals have a left side and a right side. Because of this situation, it is possible to distinguish bones from different sides of the body (for example, while the left and right humerus are similar, we can tell which side they came from based on the different orientations of the bone itself). Forensic anthropologists can count the number of left and right bones of the same kind (left and right femora or thigh bones for example) and see what the minimum number of people (Minimum Number of Individuals or MNI) are needed to account for this number. Other sources of information that can be used to get a better idea of the MNI are bone size, age, and general condition). What is the biological sex of this person? One of the most important aspects of the skeleton that need to be ascertained is the biological sex of the individual. This differs from the gender of the individual as gender may refer to outward sexual attitude, characteristics, clothing, and behavior while, in general, biological sex is usually male or female (there are some exceptions to this, of course). Primarily the differences between males and female are manifest in the pelvic region (this should go as no surprise as the female pelvis has evolved to birth a large-brained child as well as walking erect) as well as musculature marks on bones such as the femur (upper leg) and occipital/nuchal (neck) region of the skull. How old was this person? People change as they age. We can usually look at a person and see what age, even generally, they are. This same situation occurs in bone tissue. By looking at different bones, we can get

25 17 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 1.2 a general idea of the age of a person. Up until around age 25, we look at growth of tissues, like long bones of the arms and legs. As we get older, those bones get longer because they are actually composed of three or more pieces (mostly the two ends on a shaft of bone). As we age, those bones grow and when we get to a certain age, the pieces fuse together and no longer grow. This age is different for males and females as well as different ethnic populations. After about age 25, we are looking at degeneration or damage to bone tissue. This wear-and-tear on bones can be calculated and give us a rough idea of the age of the individual. Important bones for this include the hip bones, especially where the two sides of the hips rub against each other or other bones. What was this person s ancestry or ethnicity? Most modern physical anthropologists don t use concepts such as race because they recognize that variation in the human appearance (phenotype) as a continuum. Race is a social concept that is applied and related to appearance, religious, as well as economic settings. However, forensic anthropologists routinely use this concept in discussing skeletal remains because race is a social concept and used in today s society to describe individuals. Thus, if we have a missing person s report and we are attempting to identify possibilities, we have to use these concepts. For example, if we have a report that says an individual is white we must be able to distinguish this, if possible, based on skeletal information. A lot of research in forensic anthropology has been focused on defining these sociallydefined characteristics as they may appear in bone tissue. How tall was this person? Basically, if a person has long bones, he or she was probably a tall person. But through research done over the past 100 years, we can take a measurement of a bone and determine with some certainty how tall that individual was. Of course, this varies based on ethnicity and gender. However, some bones are better to use for this analysis than others. Most of our height is related to the length of our legs, so it is better to determine the height (or stature) of an individual based on leg bones instead of arm bones (although this can be done it s just not as accurate). What is a biological profi le? CONCEPT CHECK TWO

26 1.2 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 18 Forensic Odontology Forensic odontology (or dentistry) includes the analysis of materials related to dentition in a legal setting. Three different aspects are the primary areas of interest: the estimation of age based on tooth development and growth, the analysis of various characteristics of teeth in order to identify specific individuals, and bite-mark analysis. ENRICHMENT SECTION For aging, forensic dentists will examine the growth sequences of deciduous (not permanent) dentition and its replacement by permanent teeth. For identification purposes, forensic odontology is the preferred method of positive identification. The comparison of after-death (post-mortem) radiographs (xrays) with before death (ante-mortem) radiographs is the primary way of identifying specific individuals. While this will be discussed more in a subsequent section, tooth restoration, including various types of fillings, caps, partial dentures, and dentures, may provide a point-by-point comparison of the shape of various fillings. Other forms of comparison include the shape of roots and pulp cavities. Due to the individual shape of teeth as well as modifications that occur during life, primarily breakage, it is possible to identify someone based on bite marks. Bite marks are very personal lines of evidence that are often left on victims of physical and/ or sexual abuse, particularly children. Thus, much of bite-mark analysis done by forensic odontologists is related to child abuse. Defi ne the terms forensic anthropology and forensic odontology. Summarize how they are similar and how they are different from one another. CONCEPT CHECK THREE

27 19 Introduction to Forensic Anthropology and Odontology 1.2 VOCABULARY FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY The application of physical anthropology and its techniques to assist in the investigation of human (and often non-human remains) in order to provide more information to a medical examiner or coroner s office. FORENSIC ARCHAEOLOGY Using the techniques of archaeology to find out what happened on a recent crime scene in order words, to reconstruct all the human and other behaviors that have caused a scene to look the way it does when an investigator arrives on the scene. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY (or dentistry) includes the analysis of materials related to dentition in a legal setting.

28 1.3 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 20 Section Three: Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation anthropology Discuss the importance of preserving the scene during an investigation Describe how archaeological methods are used analyze evidence at a scene Defi ne forensic archaeology and compare it with forensic 3 This section presents basic information on the proper use of archaeological techniques in the investigation of crime scenes. The primary concern of crime scene investigation is the collection and preservation of evidence. Because archaeology is concerned with the context, or physical setting, of material evidence, it is uniquely qualified as a scientific discipline to be used in the collection of legal evidence. Additionally, one of the main principles of archaeology focuses on the temporal (time-based) reconstruction of past events and behavior. Through the examination of the physical relationships of evidence to the landscape and to other pieces of evidence, it is possible to reconstruct the events that led up to the creation and modification of this crime scene. What is Forensic Archaeology? In North America, archaeology is generally considered one of the four sub-disciplines of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of human diversity, both cultural and social as well as physical. Archaeology is the reconstruction and interpretation of past human behavior based on the material remains of that behavior. The other sub-disciplines of archaeology include physical anthropology (the study of human and related primate biology as well as the origins of the human species), cultural or social anthropology (the study of human societies and cultural interactions), and linguistics (the study of human verbal and non-verbal communication). Forensic archaeology is the application of archaeological techniques and strategies to sites or scenes in a medical or legal setting. These settings can include any sort of legal setting. While forensic archaeology has primarily been used for the excavation and recovery of human remains in various settings (isolated burials to mass disasters), it can have other uses, for example, in the investigation of arson. We will focus more

29 21 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 1.3 on the aspects of forensic archaeology used to investigate and record outdoor crime scenes. Forensic archaeology is a relatively new term applied to something that is basically standard archaeology, the appropriate excavation and recovery of sites or remains, which has been used for years to assist police. In the old days, a forensic anthropologist would often call upon an archaeologist colleague to assist in the recovery of human remains, usually the excavation of a clandestine (or hidden) grave. This was often a natural collaboration between two professionals, and allowed a great deal of information on the grave and other types of sites to be recovered. The types of information recorded were different to most standard police investigators, but the results were the same - to answer the questions: What happened here? Today, many archaeologists have specialized in a type of consulting archaeology that focuses on serving the legal and law enforcement community. One of the main goals of archaeology is to find out what happened in the past usually we are talking about a couple hundred to several thousand or more years. But in forensic archaeology, we want to use the techniques of archaeology to find out what happened on a recent crime scene in order words, to reconstruct all the human and other behaviors that have caused a scene to look the way it does when an investigator arrives on the scene. These kinds of behaviors can relate to the initial crime and anything (such as animals modifying a set of human remains) that may alter the initial crime scene and need to be taken into account to reconstruct the crime. This portion of the module deals with forensic archaeology, while other portions deal with the analysis of possible human and human biological evidence through forensic anthropology. So what s the difference? Well, it depends on your point of view. In this course, these two disciplines are viewed separately primarily based on the learned skill set or experience of the investigator or analyst that is necessary for different scientific observations and interpretations. In some countries, universities or colleges, or even official government titles, the two terms are used interchangeably. That seems confusing! Here we will say that forensic archaeology uses archaeological techniques and relates to material evi-

30 1.3 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 22 dence and understanding the physical context of evidence, while forensic physical anthropology concerns the medical and legal examination of the physical remains of humans, particularly hard tissues such as bone and teeth. Forensic archaeology focuses on understanding the formation of assemblages of biological and/or material evidence created by criminal activity within a broader context of a landscape. These collections of evidence are the result of human behavior after they have been left (or deposited) on the landscape. Natural processes, including decomposition, gravity (colluvial), water movement (fluvial), as well as insect and animal activity result in modifications to the scene and human remains. Insects are part of the decomposition process in because they act as scavengers and carnivores, contributing to the scattering of remains. This is part of understanding the postmortem interval. The postmortem interval is an important aspect of reconstructing a crime and can include such observations as the degree of decomposition as well as the stage of insect growth (this is usually accomplished by a specialist, known as a forensic entomologist). Archaeological endeavors include the recovery and recording of material and/or biological evidence that preserves the integrity of the spatial and temporal context (space and time components) of the scene. Forensic archaeologists are best used at all outdoor crime scenes where the physical evidence is becoming incorporated into the natural environment. ENRICHMENT SECTION Insects are part of the decomposition process in that through their scavengers and carnivores scattering remains. This is part of understanding the postmortem interval. The postmortem interval is an important aspect of reconstructing a crime and can include such observations as the degree of decomposition as well as the stage of insect growth (this is usually accomplished by a specialist, known as a forensic entomologist). There are well-established processes that insect life follows once a living thing has died. These processes are dependent on the conditions the corpse is exposed to, including light, dark, heat, cold, dry, and moist. Flies are most active in bright light, slowing down in cloudy conditions and being inactive at night. Flies are also most active in hot conditions. Heat also seems to speed up larval growth and species succession. Different species of insects are attracted to different conditions. For example, blow fly maggots stay away from moist areas while other insects, such as wasps, butterflies and some beetles are attracted to the moistest areas. However, the number of cells that express the CD34

31 23 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 1.3 antigen has been found to correlate with successful bone marrow and cord blood transplantation. Dr. Jerry Payne described 6 levels of decay in his studies of the effects of insect activity on dead piglets in the 1960s: fresh, bloated, active decay, advanced decay, dry decay, and remains. These levels of decay are based on the fact that the different gases formed at each stage of decay attract different types of insects. Fresh refers to the newly dead animal. The insects have not yet become active. Bloated refers to the state where gas builds up inside the carcass and it becomes bigger because of the pressure of the gas. Blow flies and flesh flies become active at this stage. They lay eggs and feed on the flesh. Active decay occurs when the fly larvae get through the abdominal cavity and deflate the corpse. This results in liquids leaving the corpse and soaking into the ground, which attracts rove beetles and clown beetles, which bury themselves beneath the carcass. The odor of decay also attracts house flies. As the fluid begins to ferment, emitting a sweet smell, butterflies, bees and moths are also attracted to the scene. Advanced decay is starts when most of the soft tissue is gone. The odor decreases except for some ammonia smell. The maggots begin to abandon the carcass and were preyed upon by more beetles. At the end of this phase, the carcass looks dry. Dry decay starts with a noticeable shift of odor to that of wet fur and old leather. New types of insects begin to arrive: skin beetles, hide beetles, checkered beetles, as well as mites, roaches, soil beetles, springtails, and gnats. The remains phase consists of hair, bits of dry skin, bleached bones, and teeth. Centipedes and millipedes live under the bones and ants may visit to take away skin or hair scraps. ENRICHMENT SECTION

32 1.3 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 24 Describe the differences between forensic anthropology and forensic archaeology. CONCEPT CHECK ONE Protecting the Integrity of the Scene In order to investigate a scene, an investigator must first ensure the protection of the scene and its evidence. We need to control the amount of disturbance that can occur from unauthorized individuals or natural events. This can be a very difficult job as many people want to have access to a scene. Only those individuals such as the team leader and the investigators should have primary access to the scene. All others, including the media and even possible family members of the deceased, should be kept in a buffer zone, well away from the primary zone of investigation. The primary activity of investigators is the recovery of evidence and recording of the three-dimensional location of each piece of evidence. Following this documentation, this evidence must be packaged in a way that will preserve it physically as well as in an evidentiary manner, especially if it must travel some distance to the analysis facility or laboratory. The evidence must be protected and secured in a manner that protects its contamination and integrity. Usually this is done through packaging in paper or plastic bags; these evidence containers are then labeled with unique information including a case number or scene designator as well as the date and name or initials of the investigator. In summary, the primary goals of forensic archaeology while at a scene include: Locate scene(s) Identify, record, and collect contextual evidence, which is any evidence that has meaning in relationship to the overall scene. For example, a bat would be an interesting piece of contextual evidence if the victim died of blunt force trauma. Identify, record, and collect physical evidence, which includes weapons, clothing, and anything else that could be relevant to the recovery.

33 25 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 1.3 Why is it important to protect a forensic/crime scene until the investigation is completed? CONCEPT CHECK TWO Archaeological Methods The key assumption concerning all forms of archaeology is that it is destructive in nature. To excavate a site is to destroy it. You can never place all the dirt and other artifacts back in exactly the same places. The very act of excavation destroys the very information we seek. Thus, record keeping and documentation in the form of photography, videography, maps, sketches, and notes are essential and actually form the basis of the evidence of your activities at a scene. The various types of documentation should be treated like other forms of evidence and may be subpoenaed into court or may be needed to verify the conclusions offered in court. Key lines of evidence include the spatial relationships between individual items of evidence and spatial relationships between items of evidence and their physical setting. These relationships can only be observed when the evidence is in situ that is, in their original placement as found. The excavation team may be the only people ever to see these relationships of evidence to each other and their physical setting. This is why the documentation must be done immediately and with a high degree of accuracy. The quality of the excavation can be measured by the amount of information that is collected as well as the number of items of evidence. Discuss how archaeological methods are used to support crime scene analyses and why use of proper methodology is important to maintain the integrity of the fi ndings? CONCEPT CHECK THREE Archaeological methods are crucial for detailed and accurate collection of data and analysis of a crime scene. The methods used to excavate ancient cites have been adapted for use in excavating crime scenes or burial sites. Forensic archaeology is just one branch of forensic sciences that support law enforcement officials who are working to solve crimes.

34 1.3 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 26 VOCABULARY ANTHROPOLOGY The study of human diversity, both cultural and social as well as physical. ARCHAEOLOGY The reconstruction and interpretation of past human behavior based on the materials remains of that behavior. ASSEMBLAGE A specific group of items, often found together; in these terms a group of evidence found together at a scene. COLLUVIAL Movement of materials through processes related to gravity, such as sliding down a hill slope from an original location. CONTEXT The physical setting of evidence and the spatial relationships between those items; how the items relate to each other and their environmental setting. FORENSIC ARCHAEOLOGY The application of archaeological techniques and strategies to sites or scenes in a medical or legal setting. FLUVIAL Movement of materials through processes related to flowing water, such as sheet wash after a rain storm or a stream/river. FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY The study of insects and their growth cycles related to medical and legal investigations; this is usually done to determine the postmortem interval at a scene. IN SITU A Latin term that means in place. In archaeology, this implies that the evidence is still in its original place and context as it was upon discovery and that it has not been moved prior to its documentation. STRATIGRAPHY The study of or physical relationship of strata (sing. Stratum) that deals with the formation, composition, distribution, and succession of strata.

35 27 Forensic Archaeology and Crime Scene Investigation 1.3 VOCABULARY STRATUM A sheet-like mass or individual collection of sedimentary materials of one kind lying between layers of similar materials. These layers can be the result of both natural and human activities.

36 1.4 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 28 Section Four: Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 4 Discuss the role of the forensic anthropologist at a crime Defi ne the term chain of evidence Discuss the importance of protecting evidence scene List the tools used in evidence collection at crime scenes Introduction Evidence accountability must be maintained through a chain-of-evidence or chain-of-custody documentation. This type of documentation allows one to trace back all individuals that have been in contact or transferred evidence since the time of recovery to its presentation in a courtroom. The documentation at a scene must allow one to reconstruct all activities that occurred at a site since the arrival of the investigator. Basically, it is a log sheet that is signed by the person receiving the evidence and the person releasing the evidence. The person releasing the evidence should be the person who received it in the next previous action, hence the concept of a chain. For example, if you find a piece of evidence and prepare it for transport to the crime laboratory, you will sign it off to the transporting officer; this officer has signed for receiving the evidence. When she arrives at the crime laboratory, she will then sign again to release it to an evidence manager or custodian at the facility: DATE ITEMS RELEASING SIGNATURE RECEIVING SIGNATURE REASON OF TRANSFER 1/31/08 EVIDENCE ITEM #CSI /31/08 EVIDENCE ITEM #CSI /31/08 EVIDENCE ITEM #CSI JOSEPH SCAPELLI JOSEPH SCAPELLI MARY BELKNAP EVIDENCE RECOVERED AT SCENE CSI TRANSFER TO STATE CRIME LABORATORY MARY BELKNAP BENJAMIN COLE ACCESSION INTO STATE CRIME LABORATORY EVIDENCE HOLD- ING AREA A-2

37 29 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 1.4 Thus, for protecting the evidence after it leaves the scene, the primary goals of forensic archaeology include: Transfer physical evidence from the scene to the appropriate authorities in a manner that does not harm the evidence Provide appropriate chain of custody document(s), report(s), and any other related documentation While not discussed specifically above, two additional goals are part of forensic archaeology: Present finding(s), either in the form of a report or in court Conduct activities in an ethical manner An archaeologist should be prepared to write a complete, detailed and logical report on the findings of the recovery and evidence collection activities at a scene. These may be part of the records that will eventually be prepared and presented in a court of law. Additionally, the forensic archaeologist may be called as an expert witness to testify to the accuracy of the report and procedures used while at the scene. Different forensic organizations have ethics statements that the membership is required to sign. Additionally, organizations such as the Register of Professional Archaeologists (SOPA) have ethics statements and procedures that help guide archaeological work, particularly in dealing with consulting work. Why must a chain of evidence or chain of custody be maintained for materials recovered at a forensic/crime scene? CONCEPT CHECK ONE Achieving the Goals of Forensic Archaeology One of the primary goals is to understand the physical and temporal (time) contexts of the scene and the evidence it contains. This is done primarily through the survey and analysis of the topographic, or physical landscape, which can include the urban landscape. When examining the

38 1.4 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 30 physical context of a scene, our first goal is to recognize whether or not this scene is a contemporary crime scene. That is, does this collection of evidence have any forensic significance? In many areas around the world, human remains and burials are present that may be hundreds or thousands of years old. However, these are not usually of forensic interest as they may represent ancient burials or human settlements. Usually items that are older than 50 years are not considered as modern or contemporary crime scenes. However, the desecration and disturbance of these burials and gravesites may represent a crime. The United States has several state and federal laws that protect the unauthorized disturbance of archaeological sites, especially Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Native Aleut/Inuit sacred sites and burials. With a team of investigators examining an area, it is possible to find and record the scene s perimeter and dimensions. This is important as it gives us physical limits that we can protect and control. It makes sense that in order to control and protect the integrity of a scene and its evidence; we must first understand the dimensions and size of the scene! Usually a scene perimeter is recognized by the distribution of various types of evidence. Contextual evidence can also be in the form of disturbed soils (from clandestine burials) or vegetation changes that occur when soil is disturbed. Have you ever noticed weeds and plants grow in disturbed areas of a garden? It is the same whenever you dig a hole in the ground to bury evidence (i.e. a human body). The disturbance aerates the soil and causes different plants to grow and, as a result of the plant growth, the soil becomes looser and the soil colors are different from the undisturbed soils. Additionally, the decomposition of a body in the ground can cause a distinct odor and attract certain kinds of insects, including blow flies. Blow flies are important as their development and reproductive stages are very specific. This allows forensic entomologists to reconstruct the post-mortem interval, or time since death, of an individual. This type of contextual information is invaluable for forensic archaeologists to focus on where to dig and which methods of recording will be used for evidence that may be on the near surface or subsurface of the ground. By using specific kinds of mapping instruments

39 31 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 1.4 (primarily analog/optical transits or digital infrared total stations these are tools used to measure distance and elevation), photography, and hand drawing techniques to record stratigraphy (or the layers in the earth that represent human or natural activity), the forensic archaeologist can begin to record physical relationships of evidence in three-dimensions. This documentation allows us to interpret the scene and differentiate between criminal and non-criminal human behavior at a scene. Additionally, the physical context and relationships of evidence can allow us to reconstruct the past activities that have occurred at a scene. In other words, we can reconstruct the past chronology that led up to the formation of a scene and anything that modified it after the deposition of the evidence. Also, through careful excavation and examination of scenes, evidence such as tool marks (from spades, shovels, and picks) found on the edges of clandestine (secret) burials may be recognized in the interface of the grave. That is, the edges of the grave may still exhibit the shape of the tool that was used to dig the burial. These tool marks must be preserved, if recognized, as they may help identify a specific tool used to create the grave and tie this action back to the tool s owner. For example, through careful excavation at various mass graves, one can identify the types of bucket that was used on a backhoe to bury these individuals. If there are enough individuating marks on this bucket, we may be able to identify the specific piece of machinery used. This would allow us to tie the users or owners of this piece of equipment to the scene.

40 1.4 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 32 A forensic archaeologist may need to use special kinds of tools such as remote sensing equipment, including satellite imagery, aerial photography, soil resistivity meters, groundpenetrating RADAR, and similar equipment. Additionally, the forensic archaeologist should recognize when to call in and obtain the assistance of specialists in fields such as ballistic analysis, entomology, Stacy Barnett - Fotolia.com Ballistic analysis is the analysis of the tool marks left on a bullet or its casing by the gun from which it was fired. The rifling (grooves inside gun barrels) of the barrel of each weapon leaves a unique series of marks on the bullet that can be used to match it to the weapon that fired it. Entomology is the study of insect and their role in body decomposition. Insect activity follows a well-defined pattern based on the level of decomposition of the body. ENRICHMENT SECTION Geology can contribute to forensic archaeology by providing a time line based on the layers of soil in the excavation site. If the burial is old enough that soil has compressed into layers, the geologist can provide information on how long ago the burial occurred. Zoology is the study of animals. In the context of forensic archaeology, a zoologist may contribute to the investigation by identifying evidence related to animal activity. Botany is the study of plant life. Disrupted soil (soil that has been moved through digging or some other means) tends to have different plant life than would normally be found in the area. Weeds often take hold in disrupted soil, providing a visual clue that the soil has been disrupted.

41 33 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 1.4 geology, zoology, or botany. Other skill sets may include the ability to use and monitor mechanical equipment. If a large amount of soil or other material needs to be moved to access crime scenes, heavy equipment such as bulldozers and belly scrapers may be necessary. While it may seem more destructive to use this type of equipment, bulldozers and backhoes have been used successfully to investigate mass graves in areas such as Kosovo and Iraq. List some of the instruments and other tools that a forensic archaeologist might use to excavate a crime scene and gather evidence. CONCEPT CHECK TWO

42 1.4 Protecting the Evidence through Forensic Archaeology 34 VOCABULARY CHAIN OF EVIDENCE OR CHAIN OF CUSTODY This document details the movement of evidence from its initial recovery, through analysis, and, if necessary, to presentation in a court room. This document is signed by an individual releasing the evidence to a responsible person. CONTEXTUAL EVIDENCE This is the group of evidence that is based more on the association of objects to their landscape or to each other. These include the physical relationships between other types of evidence and their landscape. DESECRATION These include acts of a blasphemous nature that deprives a place or object of its sacred nature. In this context, it includes the digging up and disturbance of graves or burials. ENTOMOLOGIST An entomologist studies the behavior and life-cycles of insects. Forensic entomologists study the life cycles of insects that feed on or use decaying tissue in their life cycles. This allows one to reconstruct the time of death or the post-mortem interval (how much time has passed since death). ETHICS STATEMENT This is usually a signed document by a member of a professional society. This helps codify certain professional acts and verifies the commitment of the membership to abide by these rules. FORENSIC SIGNIFICANCE This refers to the use of evidence in a legal case or if the evidence even refers to a legal case. PERIMETER A perimeter is the boundary or border of a geographic space or territory. In this case, it is the edges of a scene or site that contains evidence. STRATIGRAPHY These are the layers in the ground that are formed by either natural processes or artificial/human activities. Most of these layers are formed from sediment or dirt, but can include garbage, trash, etc. TOOL MARKS These are the marks left in dirt or on a body that originates from a tool such as a shovel, spade, or other time used in blunt force trauma.

43 35 Human Osteology 1.5 Section Five: Human Osteology of each Describe the six functions of the human skeleton Identify the bones comprising the axial and appendicular skeletons Discuss the anatomical terminology used to identify body planes of reference and directionality List the fi ve categories of human bones and give examples 5 THE HUMAN SKELETON: The adult human skeleton is composed of over 200 bones. The shape or morphology of each bone (skeletal or osseous element) differs, according to its function in the body. These differences in shape make the bones easily identifiable, especially when the bones are completed and well-preserved, that is the bone surfaces are not modified to a great deal. In many cases, certain soils will abrade or erode the outer surfaces of the bone. If the shape is modified enough, it can be difficult to identify. While part of the skeletal system, a general discussion on teeth is found in the section on Forensic Odontology. Bones are often classified in one of the following categories: Long, including the bones of the arms and legs. Flat, including bones such as the scapula or shoulder blade. Short, including the bones of the hands and feet. Irregular, including bones such as bones of the wrist, ankle, and pelvis. Sesamoid, small bones that are inside a tendon, where it passes over a joint (such as the patella or knee cap). A sesamoid bone prevents the tendon from flattening into the joint as the tendon s tension increases.

44 1.5 Human Osteology 36 The scapulae and ribs are an example of flat bones. The humerus (arm bone) is an example of a long bone. The vertebrae are an example of irregular bones. What are the fi ve main categories of bones? Give an example of a bone in each category. CONCEPT CHECK ONE Understanding Bone: Because bone has so many functions, fully understanding this biological tissue is key for the person analyzing the bones. Bones, including the human skeleton, can be studied on several different levels, from gross morphology to microstructure. Skeletal system functions: There are six specific skeletal system functions: Support Protection Movement Mineral storage Production and storage of blood cell-producing cells Storage of energy The skeleton supports and protects internal organs. For example, the skull protects the brain; the rib cage protects the organs such as the heart, lungs, and stomach; and the pelvic girdle protects the bladder, internal reproductive organs, and lower intestines. Bones also produce and

45 37 Human Osteology 1.5 store blood cells (called hematopoiesis) and minerals. Hematopoiesis and calcium metabolism are essential biological processes controlled, in part, by the bony structures. Bones aid homeostatic cellular function by storing the minerals essential for normal cellular and metabolic systems. What are the six specifi c functions of bone? CONCEPT CHECK TWO Skeletal structural components: Due to the variety of functions that bones perform, different bones will have different shapes and structural components based on their function. Bone provides the supportive structure. Soft tissues, such as ligaments and muscles, are attached at various points to bone. Bone is not static, but a living tissue that adapts in form to the biomechanical and chemical stresses placed upon it. Thus, while considered a hard tissue, bone has the flexibility to maintain its shape despite all the various forces that act upon it such as compression, tension, and shearing. Bone formation (ossification): It is important to possess a basic understanding of the formation and development of human bones not only to recognize the difference between adults and juveniles (thus, assisting in deriving an age estimate), but also to ensure that the remains of juveniles are not overlooked or ignored during the recovery process. While I was working on a collection of animal bones from an ancient site in Cambodia, I noticed that about 30% of the bones were from human juveniles because many of the smaller bones were of human hands and feet. The previous analysts were not familiar enough with human osteology to tell the differences between these human bones and animal bones. The ability to tell the difference between human and animal bones at a crime scene is critical to later analysis!

46 1.5 Human Osteology 38 Bone Development and Growth Mammalian bone exists in two forms: mature and immature. Immature bone develops in utero during prenatal life. This material is replaced with mature bone throughout life via osteogenesis. However, immature forms do exist in the adult skeleton, but only in times of injury and disease. The developmental stages occur through chondrogenesis. Chondrogenesis begins when mesenchymal cells (embryonic connective tissue) travel to areas of future bone forming (osteogenic) activity. The mesenchyme differentiates into osteogenic cells that begin producing bone in ossification centers. Throughout a person s life and growth, this cartilage is slowly replaced by bone. ENRICHMENT SECTION Bone is replaced through two different processes: endochondral and intramembraneous, dependent on the bone s function. Endochondral bone forms from a cartilaginous structure that is similar in shape to the future bone, such as the long bones of the appendicular skeleton. Bones formed through endochondral replacement are not complete units. The epiphyseal ends of these bones are separated from their centers by cartilage plates. The cartilage is replaced by the expanding center of the bone until individual bones reach their adult size. When this occurs, the cartilage is completely replaced and the end plates fuse to the centers. This is the process by which we estimate age, and is based on the amount of fusion between these plates. Additionally, at a recovery scene, the investigator must realize that these

47 39 Human Osteology 1.5 bones can occur as multiple pieces. Intramembraneous bone is formed by a matrix of woven, mineralized fibers. These bones include neurocranial elements and a limited number of other bones, such as the clavicles. There are two types of mature bone: cortical and trabecular. While these two types originate from the same physical material, cortical (or compact), and trabecular (or cancellous or spongy) bone have characteristic structures. Cortical bone tissue is dense and forms the rigid outer structure/surface of all bone. Trabecular bone forms the internal three-dimensional lattice that fills the hollow space at the center of bones. This type of bone is highly porous and light. At a microscopic level, bone contains the following structures: Osteons (or Haversian systems) and Volkmann s canals. Osteons are organized roughly longitudinal to the axis of long bones and contain nerves and capillaries; running down the center of this system is the Haversian canal. Osteons, with other structures, assist in the exchange of nutrients and waste within bone tissue. Volkmann s canals are not as large compared with Haversian canals, run perpendicular to the osteons, serving as connections between Haversian canals and the bone s outer covering, the periosteum. Other forms of bone are osteoclasts and osteoblasts. These structures are important for the growth and development, as well as healing processes, within bone. Osteoblasts are cells that are responsible for bone formation, while osteoclasts remove bone tissue by removing its mineral structure. Bone consisting of these cell types is responsible for remodeling bone and the growth of bone from fetal tissue to adult tissue. This process continues throughout the life of an individual. The growth and development of bone is a constant play of reshaping and modeling through these two cells. Some aging techniques examine this process to estimate the amount of bone creation and absorption has occurred in the life of an individual. ENRICHMENT SECTION

48 1.5 Human Osteology 40 Skeletal Anatomy A basic working knowledge of skeletal anatomy is required for the scientist to fully appreciate and understand simple and complex ossuary (bone) assemblages. Understanding Bone Morphology: Each skeletal element has its own unique shape and possesses morphological features that allow them to be identified. Having a basic understanding of these shapes, even for the forensic archaeologist, is necessary to help plan and recover bones during an excavation. This helps the archaeologists feel confident that they are able to undertake the most complete recovery possible. In addition a good working knowledge of the human skeleton facilitates communication on-site. Examples of this include being able to recognize a bone as human bone, and recognize what side of the body it comes from, and where it occurs in the body. Knowledge of basic human spatial anatomy and anatomical terminology becomes important as well in human osteology. Bones of the Human Skeleton: The human body, on average, has 206 bones. Bones can be divided into two groups: cranial bones and postcranial bones. Cranial bones are those bones of the cranium or skull with the mandible (jaw). Postcranial bones are those skeletal elements that occur below the cranium. Traditionally, the skeleton has been described as appendicular and axial. The axial skeleton includes the vertebrae, ribs, sternum and cranium. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs and limb girdles. For the upper limb this includes the clavicles and scapulae, and for the lower limbs it includes the pelvic region. Each of these groups includes paired and unpaired bones. Higher order animals possess a structure called bilateral symmetry, which means they have a left and right side that is virtually identical. Thus, humans, and their skeletons, possess paired bones having a left and a right side. Discuss the different groupings of bones in the skeleton. CONCEPT CHECK THREE

49 41 Human Osteology 1.5 The Axial Skeleton - Cranial Elements: Cranial osseous elements include the cranium, the mandible, as well as the dentition, or teeth. The skull consists of 28 bones, which may be paired or unpaired. These are included in the axial skeleton. Frontal Parietal (2) Occipital Temporal (2) Sphenoid Maxillae (2) Zygomatic (2) Mandible Nasal (2) Lacrimal (2) Ethmoid Vomer Inferior nasal conchae (2) Palatine (2) Incus, maleus, and stapes (2 each) The cranium from a lateral view A frontal view of the cranium An interior view of the cranium. The Axial and Appendicular Skeletons Postcranial Elements: The postcranial skeleton is comprised of 178 bones, which are either paired or unpaired skeletal elements. These can be grouped by limbs and appendicular skeleton.

50 1.5 Human Osteology 42 The Axial and Appendicular Skeletons Postcranial Elements: The postcranial skeleton is comprised of 178 bones, which are either paired or unpaired skeletal elements. These can be grouped by limbs and appendicular skeleton. The Axial Skeleton: Hyoid Ribs Sternum o Manubrium o Sternal body o Xiphoid Vertebrae o Cervical vertebrae (5) o Thoracic vertebrae (7) o Lumbar vertebrae (12) Pelvic Girdle o Os coxae (or innominate/pelvic) o Sacrum o Coccyx Shoulder Girdle o Scapula o Clavicle A closeup of a vertebrae The clavicle is part of the axial skeleton and provides support to the shoulder girdle. The Appendicular Skeleton Postcranial Elements: Paired Bones of the Arms: o Humerus o Radius o Ulna o Carpals Scaphoid

51 43 Human Osteology 1.5 Lunate Triquetral Pisiform Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate o Metacarpals o Phalanges Paired Bones of the Legs: o Femur o Patella o Tibia o Fibula o Tarsals Calcaneus Talus Navicular Cuboid First cuneiform Second cuneiform Third cuneiform o Metatarsals o Phalanges a) b) c) a) the radius and ulna bones of the forearm b) different views of the fibula or lower leg bone c) the patella forms the knee cap When describing position within and on an animal body, an analyst uses specific terminology, much like a mapmaker uses mapping terms to define the directions north, south, east and west. These include planes of reference and directional terms.

52 1.5 Human Osteology 44 Planes of Reference: Sagittal (midsagittal, median, or midline): refers to the vertical plane that divides the body into two sides with an imaginary vertical midline or plane that runs from front to back. This plane of reference connects the nose and the navel Parasagittal: refers to any plane that is parallel to the sagittal, but that is not along the midline. That is, to the left or right of the sagittal plane. Coronal (frontal): refers to the vertical plane that divides the body into two sides, a front and a back. This imaginary plane plane of reference connects the ears, shoulders, and hips and runs parallel to the coronal suture of the skull. Transverse: any plane that divides the body parallel to the horizontal. Directional Terms General: Superior: toward the head end of the body Inferior: toward the foot (caudal) end of the body. Anterior: toward the front of the body Posterior: toward the back of the body Medial: toward the midline Lateral: away from the midline Proximal: nearest the axial skeleton Distal: farthest from the axial skeleton External: outer Internal: inside Endocranial: inner surface of the cranial vault Ectocranial: outer surface of the cranial vault Superficial: close to the surface Deep: far from the surface Subcutaneous: just below the skin The dorsal aspect of the foot

53 45 Human Osteology 1.5 While all of these are important for communication, the italicized words are the ones that would be most frequently encountered in describing bones or parts of bones. Hands and Feet: Palmar: palm side of the hand Plantar: sole of the foot Dorsal: top of the foot or back of the hand Discuss the reference directions for describing the body and bones of the skeleton. CONCEPT CHECK FOUR HUMAN VERSUS NONHUMAN SKELETAL IDENTIFICATION: One of the most important aspects of understanding and recognizing human bones is the ability to differentiate them from nonhuman animal bones that may be encountered in the archaeological or forensic setting. The most commonly mistaken bones are those of nonhuman mammals, but also included are animals from the bird, reptile, amphibian, and fish classes. For the most part, identification and recognition of human bones are fairly straightforward, but in some instances, the bones of some nonhuman animals can resemble human skeletal elements. The first question asked of an anthropologist is usually whether bones that are discovered are human or non-human. This distinction is important because law enforcement is usually only interested in crime scenes relating to humans. We will address how an expert analyzes bones to determine if they are human or not in the next section of the text. Human osteology is the study of the human skeleton, including all its bones. Bones are often the only biological evidence remaining in a burial site, so it is important for those who are working to identify the remains have the skills and experience to correctly identify the bones. The skeleton is described as having two primary sections: the axial and appendicular skeletons. The axial skeleton is the torso and spine. The appendicular skeleton is the arms and legs. Skeletons are also described in the planar and directional terms to precisely describe characteristics of the specific parts of the skeleton. An expert in human osteology is often consulted when bones are found to find out if they are human or nonhuman. Discovery of human bones often leads to an investigation.

54 1.5 Human Osteology 46 VOCABULARY CHONDROGENESIS Formation of the cartilaginous scaffolding from which bone arises. CORTICAL BONE Bone tissue is dense and forms the rigid outer structure/surface of all bone. CRANIAL BONES The bones that form the skull and jaw. ENDOCHONDRAL BONE Forms from a cartilaginous model and is characterized by the long bones of the appendicular skeleton. HAVERSIAN CANALS (OSTEON) Haversian canals are the center canal of an osteon. HEMATOPOIESIS Formation of blood cells. HOMEOSTATIC CELLULAR FUNCTION Normal cellular feedback functions often maintained by calcium. INTRAMEMBRANOUS BONE Formed by a matrix of woven fibers that mineralize. MESENCHYMAL Embryonic connective tissue from which bone develops. MORPHOLOGY Appearance, especially with shape. OSTEOGENESIS Formation of bone cells. OSTEOBLAST Type of bone cell responsible for the formation of bone tissue. OSTEOCLAST Type of bone cell responsible for the removal of bone tissue. OSTEOLOGY The study of bone and skeletal elements.

55 47 Human Osteology 1.5 VOCABULARY OSTEON Miscropic structures in bone that deliver of nutrients and remove metabolic waste. POSTCRANIAL BONES The bones that form the torso, arms and legs of the body. SPATIAL ANATOMY The location of different biological structures in relation to their function and other such structures. TRABECULAR BONE Forms the internal three-dimensional lattice that fills the hollow space at the center of bones. This type of bone is highly porous and light. VOLKMANN S CANALS Microscopic structures that run perpendicular to Haversian canals in an osteon. Blood vessels in the periosteum or the marrow cavity send branches to the Haversian canals through the Volkmann s canals.

56 1.6 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 48 Section Six: Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 6 Discuss some of the considerations when doing preliminary Defi ne assemblage assessment of evidence Defi ne the main techniques for distinguishing human and non-human bone When evidence is recovered and transported back through a secure system to a laboratory or analytical area, the analyst needs to answer several questions. We need to determine if our assemblage is even bone it may be something else! In archaeological terms, these collections of material or biological evidence are called assemblages. An assemblage can be thought of as a collection of evidence that is found together. However, for These materials appear very similar to bone, but they range from styrofoam to melted plastic to bamboo fragments. the remainder of this module on forensic anthropology, we will refer to an assemblage only in terms of biological evidence. Many items, especially when covered in dirt, may mimic bone. Items like burned plastic, Plexiglas, and fiberglass look suspiciously like bone. During work at the 9/11 attacks on the Pentagon, many fragments of plastic and fiberglass had to be separated from bone fragments. It is best to have a forensic anthropologist or a forensic archaeologist on the crime scene investigation team to help determine if the biological evidence is of forensic interest; however, crime scene investigation teams often don t have one on staff due to budgetary considerations. Usually evidence is collected by evidence technicians; these individuals, while trained, may or may not have experience with human or other animal skeletal material. Thus, these technicians may not have the experience to make a call like this while on the scene. Under these circumstances, it

57 49 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 1.6 is best to collect all evidence, even if the technician suspects that it is not of forensic interest. Skeletal materials may be encased in partially decomposed tissue as well as sediment from the scene. It is best (and saves time) not to clean these materials while in the field. Additionally, cleaning may alter or damage the evidence. Triage (categorizing evidence by level of importance) should be done in a laboratory setting. For example, a bloody tool would be categorized as being of high importance. A random button may be placed in a category of less importance. After these activities, analysis can be conducted when and where it is possible to do a more thorough examination and cleaning. In this section and the next, we can conduct this preliminary assessment or examination of possible biological evidence through a series of questions: Is this bone? Is this human bone? What are some of the considerations when assessing evidence? Is this bone? If you talk to a forensic anthropologist, many would tell you that up to 70% of they cases they examine concern non-human materials. Of these items, many may not even represent hard tissues. Hard biological tissues such as teeth and bone fragments can be mimicked by a variety of natural and artificial materials found in outdoor crime scenes, particularly when these materials are covered in dirt. In some areas, broken ceramic shards or coconut shells may look like skull fragments. During investigations at the 9/11 aircraft CONCEPT CHECK ONE

58 1.6 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 50 crash at the Pentagon, melted plastic and fiberglass mimicked certain human bone structures like the patella (knee cap) or the distal fibula (one of the lower leg bones). Plastic materials may exhibit a dense outer coating and a bubbled interior that looked like hard, outer cortical and the interior spongy (cancellous or trabecular) tissues of bone. Is this human bone? Many of the areas where crime scenes occur are associated with trash accumulation or areas of current or past human occupation, including bones from food. Also, many campers and hikers stumble upon suspected crime scenes while in the wilderness. While many of these items are certainly bone, the forensic anthropologist must determine if the bones are human in origin. Certain animal bones are notorious for causing confusion, including turtle or tortoise plastron (shell pieces) that look like cranial suture fragments and bear paws that look suspiciously like human hands. ENRICHMENT SECTION However, it must be mentioned that many zoologists have specialized in this type of forensic analysis. In the U.S, there is an important federal forensic laboratory for animals and animal crimes called the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory (US- FWFL), which analyzes evidence related to crimes and suspected crimes related to animals, particularly poaching and illegal importation. Some forensic anthropological laboratories will receive human bones that were sent to this laboratory and forensic anthropologists will routinely send animal bones to the USFWSFL. In one case, human remains had been sent through the mail from Laos (in Southeast Asia) to an address in Minnesota. The U.S. Customs Service seized the bones and, due to their unfamiliarity with human remains, sent them to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory. These were then determined to be human and sent to the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command s Central Identification Laboratory on Hickam AFB for analysis. The analyst must be able to recognize human remains in a variety of forms, including fragmented materials and cremated remains ( cremains ). This requires a very thorough knowledge of the bones of the human skeleton, both adult and juvenile. For analysts unfamiliar with human skeletal materials, juvenile bones may be difficult to recognize. For example, the author examined a collection of animal bones from an ancient garbage dump over an even older cemetery in Southeast Asia. Over 50% of the bones were recognized as human in origin and did not belong with the animal bones.

59 51 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 1.6 During hunting season in many parts of North America, hunters may find partially or completely decomposed sets of skeletal materials. These are often thought to be decomposed human bodies. Of particular interest are possible decomposed human hands. Interestingly enough, these actually turn out to be bear forepaws. Skeletonized or partially decomposed bear forepaws bear a similarity to the human hand. Often the forepaws are left behind at a kill site without the claws. Often the claws are removed during skinning, with the claws still attached to the hide. Differentiating Between Human and Nonhuman Bone Forensic anthropologists can distinguish between human and non-human bone through two mechanisms visually (or through gross morphology) and histologically (at the cellular level). Visual inspection is the easier of the two methods, as it does not require altering or destroying skeletal elements. In addition, visual techniques are based on knowledge of both human osteology, as well as knowledge of the anatomy and osteology of nonhuman animals. Visual technique: This technique uses anatomical and skeletal knowledge in order to examine bones of unknown origin at the gross morphological level and match them to known species. To feel confident in the differentiation of human from nonhuman bone, a forensic anthropologist should possess a working knowledge of comparative, nonhuman skeletal morphology. This type of knowledge is obtained by learning the anatomy and osteology of animals. Once one has experience in this, the differences and, in some cases, the similarities between human skeletal elements and nonhuman skeletal elements become readily apparent. Physical, hands-on experience and the use of a comparative skeletal collection are essential. The key to recognizing non-human animal bone is morphology. Humans have evolved to have a particular type of locomotion they are bipedal, that is, they walk erect and on two feet. This has caused certain types of physical changes in the general quadruped (four footed) mammalian skeleton. Certain bones may mimic human skeletal structure, but famil-

60 1.6 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 52 iarity and intimate knowledge of human osteology allows the analyst to distinguish faunal remains from human remains. Many scenes may contain animal bone; a forensic anthropologist must be trained to separate out these materials during a preliminary assessment (one of the bones above is human; can you tell which one it is? It is the fifth from the left it s a juvenile human femur and is almost the same size as the red squirrel femur to the left of it!) Histological technique: Histology is the microscopic analysis of bone structure. This technique involves a destructive procedure that requires removing a transverse thin section, usually from a long bone, in order to examine the cortical bone cellular development. Under light microscopy, if the presence of a cellular structure called plexiform bone is observed, the bone is consistent with nonhuman origin. This technique is usually reserved for small fragmentary bone that cannot be readily assigned origin via the visual technique. However, without considerable experience it can be very difficult to distinguish long bone shaft fragments. Even with experience, if the fragments are small enough, it can be very difficult to distinguish non-human bone from human without a microscope. Human bone has a different type of structure from faunal bone. Differences include the patterning of the osteons as well as the subperiosteal lamellar bone. What are the primary ways of determining whether bones are human or non-human? CONCEPT CHECK TWO

61 53 Preliminary Assessment of Evidence, or What is this stuff? 1.6 ASSEMBLAGE A collection of evidence that is found together. VOCABULARY CREMAINS Burned or cremated bone or remains. HISTOLOGY The anatomical study of the microscopic structure of animal and plant tissues. LAMELLAR BONE Bone from that is layered. LIGHT MICROSCOPY Investigation involving the use of an optical microscope using a reflected or direct lighting source. OSTEONS The basic unit of structure of compact bone, comprising a haversian canal and its concentrically arranged lamellae. PLEXIFORM BONE Bone form that is similar to a plexus, or an interlaced network. SUBPERIOSTEAL Found below the periosteum tissue that sheaths hard bone tissue.

62 1.7 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 54 Section Seven: Forensic Significance and Minimum Number of Individuals 7 List the key points used to determine if an assemblage is of forensic interest Defi ne minimum number of individuals Discuss how MNI is determined Introduction After separating out non-bone materials and then determining the types of bones we are dealing with, the analyst or team needs to decide whether or not these bones are of forensic significance. Are these materials of legal interest? Do these materials, even if human, represent some form of criminal activity? These are important questions because if we can determine the assemblage s forensic significance, this will guide later analysis. If the assemblage is not of forensic interest, the analysis usually will not go any further. If the assemblage is of forensic interest, then we want to see how many individuals are present; that is, how many people are present in the assemblage. Is this of forensic interest? Even after we have distinguished that our biological evidence is human in origin, we still need to determine if it has forensic significance. Often this needs to be done in conjunction with the crime scene investigator or forensic archaeologist. If an assemblage is found to be faunal remains, depending on the focus of the investigation, it may be determined to have no forensic interest or significance in terms of criminal activity related to a human victim. However, even if the remains are determined to be human in origin, the material still may not be of forensic interest. A general rule for forensic interest is that if the situation that created the scene is over 50 years old, it is probably not of forensic interest. However, many forensic scientists have been interested in historical cases with unanswered questions. One of the most famous of these is Dr. William Maples examination along with a team of experts of the

63 55 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 1.7 Romanov Family to determine the sequence of events that led to their execution by the Bolsheviks in Also, desecration of graves, both in marked and unmarked cemeteries, are crimes in most jurisdictions. Even if these remains were buried over 50 years ago, this would still represent a crime. Thus, the context in which they were recovered, and the role of the crime scene investigator or forensic archaeologist, is crucial in understanding this type of crime. One interesting case in Hawaii concerns the finding of an assemblage of human remains on a ridge line overlooking an affluent community on the island of Oahu. The remains were weathered, but did not appear to have been in place or exposed for a long period of time. It appears that these remains were placed near a commonly used hiking trail and may have been put in this area in a very conspicuous manner so that passersby would notice them. Field and laboratory analysis revealed that these remains were human in origin. Is this assemblage of forensic interest? It seems that the remains were placed in the area recently; however, the exact timing is unknown. Upon analysis, it appears that the majority of the remains had metal pins at the proximal and distal areas of the bones and through the body of the vertebrae. This suggests that the skeleton was held together by metal pins and wire and may represent an anatomical teaching specimen, much like what you would now see in an anthropology laboratory or a chiropractor s office. ENRICHMENT SECTION What constitutes forensic signifi cance? Commingling Commingling in an archaeological or forensic anthropological sense concerns the mixing of different skeletal elements together. Often when mass graves are created by perpetrators, the skeletal elements will mix as the bodies decompose and shift. Commingling refers to those sets of remains that are mixed and no CONCEPT CHECK ONE

64 1.7 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 56 longer in anatomical position. A lot research has been conducted by forensic anthropologists to reassociate remains together to create the original sets. This type of research includes looking at the size and shape of the bones. This is called pair-matching. Additionally, osteometrics are used to sort out bones to specific individuals. What next? Calculating Minimum Number of Individuals Once an assemblage has been determined to be human and is of forensic significance, the forensic anthropologist will begin to ask the types of questions that any detective would ask. One of the first would be: How many people are represented in this assemblage or collection of bones? If the remains are articulated (in anatomical position) and individual bodies can be easily discerned during the excavation, determining the number of individuals is easy to determine. One simply counts the number of individual bodies represented by articulated, complete skeletons. If the bodies were laid out in a linear fashion in a mass grave, the number of individuals would be easily ascertained. However, usually in the case of many types of mass graves with multiple individuals, bodies can be mixed up (commingled) or shift through decomposition or even deliberate acts. Deliberate acts include the butchery and violent disarticulation of bodies in an attempt to hide the identities of individuals and criminal acts. Skeletons can become disarticulated (bones no longer in anatomical position or connection) and mixed with those bones from different individuals. Additionally, concerned family members can unintentionally mix remains in their hurry to obtain the remains of their loved ones. If an assemblage of remains is disarticulated, commingling of multiple individuals can be determined by comparison of the skeletal elements and determining the level of element duplication. In other words, how many of each of the different bones are present. In 1945, after the Japanese surrender, on many islands throughout the Pacific, Japanese garrisons dug up graves of executed prisoners in an attempt to hide the evidence. Many of the bodies were mixed up in an attempt to dispose of them. During 2003, in Iraq, after the fall of the Sadaam Hussein regime, many families returned to

65 57 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 1.7 known mass graves where numerous family members had been killed. The bodies were exhumed using picks, shovels, and even bulldozers. Some of the remains were hopelessly mixed up. While it may seem difficult to separate out the remains in these situations, we may be able to determine the minimum number of individuals (or MNI) present within the assemblage. During the initial analysis, the forensic anthropologist may begin to lay out skeletal material in anatomical position. Duplicated elements become fairly obvious. Because the mammalian skeleton has a bilateral symmetry, we can determine the MNI through the number of lefts and rights. In the table below is an example of the how to calculate a simple MNI of a hypothetical assemblage of bones from a mass grave: Skeletal Element Left Right MNI Femur (Thigh Bone) Tibia (Lower leg bone) Humerus (Upper arm bone) Ulna (Lower fore arm) Forensic anthropologists can gain a more refined MNI count by noting the differences in the remains by terms of sex, age, robusticity, size, or other morphology. In other words, a simple count may be expanded by determining different aspects that may represent different individuals. For example, we may have 5 left humeri and 4 right humeri, which would give us an MNI of 5 individuals. However, if the 5 left humeri all exhibit advance osteoarthritis and the 4 right humeri are all from juveniles, the MNI is now 9. This is called pair-matching and helps to determine a more accurate MNI.

66 1.7 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 58 Cremations can provide a particularly difficult situation. The fragments are often extremely fragile and it is difficult to identify which skeletal element they belong to. Nevertheless, through meticulous analysis, the forensic anthropologist can identify specific bones based on specific morphology or landmarks. Through careful comparison of these materials, the analyst should be able to identify the number of individuals that may be in such an assemblage. While routine, cremation remains (or cremains as they are called) are among the more difficult types of remains to analyze due to their highly fragmented nature. Why is it sometimes diffi cult to determine minimum number of individuals in a mass grave or a commingled assemblage? CONCEPT CHECK TWO When an assemblage is found that is suspected to contain the remains of more than one individual, forensic anthropologists follow specific techniques to determine the minimum number of individuals in the grave. Pair matching of bones based on size and gender is a key component of determining MNI.

67 59 Forensic Signifi cance and Minimum Number of Individuals 1.7 VOCABULARY BILATERAL SYMMETRY Characteristic of most animal skeletons; this refers to the fact that there is a left and right side that create mirror images of most skeletal elements. COMMINGLING Involving a mixed skeletal assemblage that involves bones of more than one individual that are no longer in articulation. CREMAINS Burned bones in general; specifically, cremated or burned human remains. FAUNAL Of non-human animal origin. LANDMARKS Skeletal landmarks are specific morphological spots on bones that help identify fragments as originating from specific skeletal elements. These landmarks include nutrient foramina, areas of muscle attachments, and other morphological indicators. MINIMUM NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS The minimum number of individuals estimated to have been buried in a mass grave. This estimate is obtained by counting the number of specific bones in a grave and assessing other morphology to determine age or gender. OSTEOMETRICS This activity involves the measurement and statistical analysis of bones to determine a variety of tasks. Within this section, osteometrics would be used to determine which bones belonged to specific individuals. PAIR-MATCHING This involves the comparison of bones to determine their size and morphology to assess if they came from the same individual. Usually pairmatching involves bilateral bones, such as leg and arm bones from the left and right sides.

68 1.8 Determining the Biological Sex 60 Section Eight: Determining the Biological Sex the context of a forensic investigation Explain in general the characteristics that differ between male and female pelvic bones Explain the general differences between male and female skulls and long bones Discuss the difference between biological sex and gender in 8 Introduction An important part of the identification process is determining the biological sex of the individual. In modern Western societies, we often use the term gender to mean biological sex. However, in a physical anthropological sense, gender may include a variety of behaviors that are not related to biological expressions of sex. While these can be of importance in forensic cases, when examining skeletal materials, we are primarily concerned with biological sex as expressed in skeletal markers. Age is an important consideration in determining biological sex. Prior to puberty, sexual characteristics in juveniles are difficult to ascertain skeletally. While some characteristics are consistent due to evolutionary processes related to childbirth, easily discernable characteristics do not occur until adolescence. Therefore, the majority of the discussion in this lesson refers to skeletal differences that can be seen on an adult skeleton. Left: Male pelvis; note general size larger than female (right) with much more rugged bone surfaces for muscle attachment. There are two different approaches to determining biological sex. The easiest, yet most difficult to master, is the examination of the shape (or morphology) of specific skeletal elements, particularly the pelvis and the skull, although other postcranial bones can be used. The other approach is through the use of

69 61 Determining the Biological Sex 1.8 osteometrics (bone measurements) and discriminant function analysis (a statistical method that determines which variables or measurements discriminate between two or more groups) that emphasizes bone size and shape of various human populations. This is important given the fact that many of the forensic cases an analyst may work on are either not complete assemblages and may be missing the pelvis and skull. Caudal view of male (left) and female (right) pelvis; again, note the larger area to accommodate the birth canal adapted for a large-brained baby. Humans have a very low level of sexual dimorphism (different shapes and sizes between the sexes) compared to other species of mammals. However, typically, males exhibit a larger skeletal size with greater musculature (reflected in roughened areas on the bone where muscles attach) when compared to females of the same population (a population is a group of individuals where mates are most likely found). It is most useful to compare males and females from within the same population. Of course, there is variation across individuals and across populations. The skeletal remains of some males may appear more gracile (graceful or slender) and some female skeletal remains may appear more robust. How is biological sex determined? CONCEPT CHECK ONE Determining the Biological Sex of Adults: The Pelvic Region The pelvis is a combined adaptation to bipedalism (a form of locomotion of walking on two limbs). Additionally, specific characteristics of the female pelvis are related to the carrying of and giving birth to a largebrained child. The evolution of the female pelvis and the gestation period of a human pregnancy are all tied in together to create a system of

70 1.8 Determining the Biological Sex 62 birthing a large-brained child and the mother s ability to walk erect. These various selective pressures have created some distinctive differences in the pelvis between males and females. While known since the beginning of anatomical studies, in 1969 Terrell W. Phenice published many of the characteristics that distinguish the female and male pelvis. Later research has expanded on his original trait list and observations, but most studies begin with this seminal piece of research. Cranial view of male (left) and female (right) pelvis; note the larger area to accommodate the birth canal adapted for a large-brained baby; also note the larger size of the male pelvis compared to the more gracile female pelvis. Basically, most of the differences are a result of selective pressures pulling the female pelvis forward and to the sides. This creates more room in the birth canal. This pulling is reflected in the sciatic notch, which tends to be narrow in males and wider in females as well as the u-shaped subpubic angle in females and the sharper, more vee-shaped angle in males. T.W. Phenice found that the three most important visual characteristics are the ventral arc, the sub-pubic concavity, and the medial area of the ischio-pubic ramus. Table 1 presents the general characteristics of the skeletal landmarks on the human pelvis, particularly these primary three recommended by Phenice. Of course, Table 1 is not an exhaustive trait list and, in fact, other textbooks may offer a more complete list. However, in the author s experience, these are the primary areas that make up the bulk of the morphological differences between human male and females. Not all of the traits or characteristics are of equal value; some, particularly those listed by Phenice, are more distinctive and useful. Additionally, some traits, while quite distinctive, require a very steep learning curve on the part of the analyst to distinguish and recognize. Some of these characteristics are quite subtle in appearance.

71 63 Determining the Biological Sex 1.8 Table 1: General Sexual Characteristics on the Pelvis Trait Group Male Female Greater Sciatic Notch A deep notch with a Wide and shallow more acute angle Preauriclar sulcus Usually absent or small Usually more developed Acetabulum Public Symphysis Larger and more directed towards the front Broad and more triangular Smaller, more directed to the sides Tends to be more narrow, rectangular Pelvic Inlet Heart-shaped More ovoid and larger opening Sacrum High and narrow Shorter and broader; less curved Obturator foramen Larger and more oval Smaller and more triangular Ventral arc Absent Present Subpubic arch Vee-shaped U-shaped, more broad Ischio-pubic ramus Broader Everted with ridge development Why is the pelvis important in human development? Why are there differences between the male and female adult pelvis? CONCEPT CHECK TWO Determining the Biological Sex of Adults: The Skull The skull is not the most diagnostic part of the skeleton for determining biological sex; however, it is commonly preserved and is usually one of the most common areas of the body used by forensic anthropologists. Additionally, skulls are often found in isolated situations. Many forensic laboratories will receive Frontal view of female (right) and male (left) caucasoid skulls; note the general size differences and the prominence of the supraorbital torus (yellow arrow) on the male skull.

72 1.8 Determining the Biological Sex 64 skulls as isolated items for analysis. This is probably due to the highly diagnostic nature of the skull; that is, most non-specialists will recognize it and, therefore, collect it. ENRICHMENT SECTION The preeminent William Bass, founder of the forensic program at the University of Tennessee- Knoxville, has published some interesting anecdotal accounts of socalled trophy skulls. Trophy skulls are a type of war trophy collected by various military troops, primarily during World War II, but some from the Vietnam Conflict are known. These skulls were brought back for display and eventually end up in attics or stored away, eventually forgotten. When the collector dies, these materials are often passed on to surviving family members or new owners of houses, or the skulls are just discarded. Eventually, someone will contact an academic department at a university or the police department concerning this find! Can you imagine finding a cardboard box in your new home s attic and discovering it contains one or more human skulls? Due to larger muscle attachments and generally larger size, the male skull tends to be more robust than female skulls and have more roughened areas for muscle attachments, particularly in the neck or nuchal region. Of course, these comparisons must be done within specific populations. For example, in general, Southeast Asian males tend to be more gracile than Caucasian males. Table 2 lists some of the general characteristics and almost all of these are re- Lateral view of male (left) and female (right) caucasoid skulls; note general size differences, especially of the mastoid process region (yellow arrow)

73 65 Determining the Biological Sex 1.8 lated in one way or another to general size and roughness. It should be noted that not all of the characteristics are equally reliable and may take considerable experience on part of the analyst to assess properly. Additionally, if possible, several traits should be assessed and the forensic anthropologist should not rely on a single trait. Table 2: General Sexual Characteristics on the Skull Trait Group Male Female General Characteristics: General Size Larger Smaller Robusticity Great musculature Lesser musculature FACIAL AREA: Supraorbital ridges Prominent Less Prominent Superior (upper) Dull to touch Sharp to touch border of orbits Frontal Area Receding Rounded (Forehead) Mastoid Process Larger, longer Smaller, less robust Nuchal (Neck) Area Muscle Attachments Boney crests Boney lines or ridges MANDIBLE: Chin Square Round Gonial Region Flaring Less to no flaring Gonial Angle Near 90 degrees Obtuse angle Ascending Ramus Broader Narrower and more slender Due to the inter-observer variability or error (differences noted between two analysts) with visual techniques, many researchers prefer statistical analyses, particularly discriminant function analysis. This form of analysis examines the contribution of different variables and their contribution to discriminating two or more groups (in this case, the two sexes). A series of measurements are made and compared within the groups and between the groups. This is an easy method for discriminating between individuals.

74 1.8 Determining the Biological Sex 66 Is the skull a useful bone for determining biological sex? Why is it used so frequently for this purpose? CONCEPT CHECK THREE Determining the Biological Sex of Adults: The Long Bones Actually, the long bones (appendicular skeleton) are more reliable to determine sex (of course, the pelvis is the most reliable) than the skull. The most important are the femur and the humerus (upper leg bone and upper arm bone, respectively). Again, most of the differences are related to size and robusticity. The diameter of the head of the femur tends to be much larger in males and the angle of the neck of the femur to the shaft is much smaller in females. Even measurements of the mid-shaft of the femur can be used to discriminate males from females. Determining the Biological Sex of Sub-Adults Determining the biological sex of children can be extremely difficult, even for the most seasoned forensic anthropologist. In 1980, D.S. Weaver suggested that by using iliac auricular surface, sex of fetal assemblages and infant assemblages can be determined with some success. Other analysts have found limited success in using mandibular and maxillary traits as well as pelvic traits (such as the sciatic notch) in determining sex of juvenile and sub-adult assemblages. Determining biological sex of skeletal remains is an important step in developing the biological profile of the victims. The bones most frequently used to identify biological sex are the skull and pelvis, although the long bones can provide some clues about biological sex. The pelvis provides the most definitive determination of biological sex because of the physiological differences between male and female pelvis bones.

75 67 Determining the Biological Sex 1.8 VOCABULARY APPENDICULAR SKELETON The paired bones that comprise the limbs of the skeleton/body. BIOLOGICAL SEX Biological expression of sex; this includes the genetic components of male, female, or hermaphrodite. BIPEDALISM A form of locomotion - walking erect on two legs. DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS A statistical method that determines which variables or measurements discriminate between two or more groups. GENDER May include a variety of behaviors that are not related to biological expressions of sex. GRACILE Graceful or slender. INTER-OBSERVER VARIABILITY Differences in observations noted between two analysts. MORPHOLOGY Shape. NUCHAL Related to the neck area of the cranium. OSTEOMETRICS Bone measurements. PELVIS The pelvic girdle, which includes the two ox coxae, the sacrum, and the coccyx. POPULATION A group of individuals where mates are most likely found. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM Different appearance between the sexes.

76 1.9 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 68 Section Nine: How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased Defi ne the terms adult and sub-adult and how these differ from the term biological adult Discuss the three steps in bone development List the three bones most used to assess chronological age and discuss the accuracy of each List the primary skeletal indicators used to estimate age 9 Introduction Chronological age is a necessary characteristic to determine for the identification of human remains. Age is often an essential component of personal information that can help identify individuals that are found in skeletal assemblages. Through observations of chronological and developmental changes associated with skeletal growth, it is possible to estimate, with some certainty, the age of a decedent (the deceased). However, it must be emphasized that growth varies between ethnic groups and sex as well as environmental variables associated with nutrition and general health. This section will examine the various skeletal indicators that forensic anthropologists use to estimate age. Initially, bones begin to grow from ossification centers, usually located in the center of the bone structure. We will divide the discussion into two sections, first looking at developmental stages of bone growth followed by a discussion of age-related bone degeneration. While there are many different techniques to examine growth and age, some are not considered very reliable and are difficult to perform. An important form of age assessment is the development and growth of dentition or teeth. This is especially important for children and subadults. This will be discussed in more detail in the section on Forensic Odontology.

77 69 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 1.9 List the two primary skeletal indicators used to assess age. Definition of Ages Age is an often a subjective description, but forensic anthropologists use various categories to describe age. The most general are sub-adult and adult. Usually a sub-adult is considered to be someone younger than 18 years of age; and adult is 18 years of age and older. This displays the general fusion pattern/aging for a male; females are two to three years earlier than this diagram CONCEPT CHECK ONE Developmental Sequences Bones grow from both primary and secondary centers of ossification in fetuses and infants. These centers will eventually coalesce to form larger parts of bones, such as diaphyses (shafts) and epiphyses (ends). The most reliable form of age estimation is based on the growth of long bones. Long bones (arms, legs, clavicle, and, in some cases, metatarsals and metacarpals) grow in general sequences. In general, long bones can be thought of as growing in three segments: the diaphysis (shaft) with the two epiphyses (ends), separated by a thin layer of cartilage. The diaphyses and epiphyses will continue to grow until a certain age and then they will begin to fuse or grow together. This effectively stops the growth of the shaft. The age that fusion begins and ends is related to the ancestry as well as the sex within a population. This process is called epiphyseal union and occurs in a large number of long bones within the human body.

78 1.9 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 70 List the three segments of bone development and how the segments change as development progresses. CONCEPT CHECK TWO Degeneration After about age 25, the epiphyses are fused in most cases (the last one to fuse is the sternal (towards the sternum) end of the clavicle, and the person is considered a biological adult. At this point we focus on degeneration of bone when estimating age. Forensic anthropologists use three specific areas in the skeleton. These areas exhibit specific changes as the young bone ages. Young-looking bone is smooth and has ridges of fine-grained bone. These structures become pitted and eroded through age and wear. These three areas include: (1) the pubic symphysis; (2) auricular surface; and, sternal rib ends. Pubic Symphysis. The use of the pubic symphysis in age estimation has a long history in forensic anthropology. This research has culminated in a detailed analytical system developed by Suchey, Katz, and Brooks. This area of the body provides some of the most reliable age estimates. While the various schemes and categories differ, the changes begin with a youthful bone surface of the pubic face or surface composed of ridges and furrows. Through time, these ridges and furrows fill in and disappear, and eventually form a surface that is pitted and eroded. Auricular Surface. The auricular surface is extremely important in determining age for older individuals. This surface is defined as the two joints between the sacrum and the os coxae (innominate), the so-called The anterior region where the two halves of the pelvis join (at the pubic symphysis) wears down through time; on the left is a relatively young individual with billowing present and fresh bone; on the right is a relatively older individual exhbiting degeneration of the bony tissue. sacroiliac joint. These areas exhibit distinct changes due to age-related wear and erosion on these specific bones. This is a primary center of

79 71 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 1.9 gravity for humans, and the long-term effects of bipedalism tend to cause wear and tear on the sacroiliac joint. While the specific features are beyond this text, there are five features in three different areas of the auricular surface that describe the type of wear and bone remodeling that occurs as the individual ages. Each of these areas and features must be assessed separately and then compared to either casts or published charts. These types of assessments give a range of ages, usually within a five-year span. Sternal Rib Ends. Various researchers, particularly M. Yasar Isçan and others, have shown that the sternal rib ends (the ends of the ribs that join the sternum via the costal cartilage) are a unique and reliable age indicator. As an individual grows older, past adulthood, the costal cartilage begins to ossify and slowly change to bone. According to this research, four traits of the rib will change in distinct sequences. These include the surface of the bone (which changes from smooth to granular): the surface contour (which begins as billowy and changes such that the end of the bone is more flat: the rim (which develops as one ages and begins to form as the costal cartilage ossifies; and, finally, the rim contour (which starts out fairly straight and becomes more wavy and eroded as one ages). Left photograph shows a relatively young rib, note the fresh and billowed appearance of the bone; as the rib ages the sternal rib ends get rougher and begin to degenerate (right) List the three key areas used to assess age by looking at bone degeneration and why each area provides good information on age. CONCEPT CHECK THREE

80 1.9 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 72 ENRICHMENT SECTION Other Methods A very popular method of aging skeletal material includes the use of cranial sutures, both ectocranial (outside the cranium) and endocranial (inside the cranium) sutures. While it is noted that these sutures do tend to fuse and disappear (obliterate) with age, this is a difficult method to use due to the complexity of location and the nature of these sutures. Due to the amount of variation across and within populations, most forensic anthropologists feel that this method only allows general age categories to be assessed, such as juvenile, adult, or older adult. Robert Mann and others have presented a useful aging method for older populations. Through the use of the fusion and obliteration of the sutures found on the bony palate, one can make some general assessment of age categories. These palatal sutures include the incisive suture, the median palatal suture, and the transverse palatine suture. Chronological age is another key component of a biological profile. Chronological age is determined by the stage of bone development in addition to the wear and tear that the bones have sustained. The areas of muscle attachment and bone wear are useful in determining chronological age.

81 73 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 1.9 ADULT An individual with a chronological age of 18 years or more. AURICULAR SURFACE The surface defined by the sacroiliac joint. VOCABULARY BIOLOGICAL ADULT An individual who has reached biological maturity, typically aged 25 years or older. BONE REMODELING Reshaping of the bone that occurs due to wear, injury, or disease. COALESCE To join or grow together. CHRONOLOGICAL AGE Age in years. CLAVICLE Collar bone. COSTAL CARTILAGE The cartilage that joints the ends of the ribs to the sternum. CRANIUM Skull. DIAPHYSES Shaft (long part) of a bone. ECTOCRANIAL Outside the cranium. ENDOCRANIAL Inside the cranium. EPIPHYSES Ends of a bone. EPIPHYSEAL UNION The final fusing of the diaphyses and epiphyses that stops the bone from growing further.

82 1.9 How old was this person? Estimating Chronological Age of the Deceased 74 OSSIFY/OSSIFICATION The process by which cartilage is replaced by bony tissue. VOCABULARY PUBIC SYMPHYSIS The symphysis or joint between the two pubic bones of the os coxae or innominate (pelvis). RIM A descriptive term for a development stage of the sternal rib end; particularly describes the most distal end. RIM CONTOUR The contour or shape of the rim; as one ages the rim becomes more irregular in shape and, thus, has a more irregular contour. SACROILIAC JOINT The joint that exists between the sacrum and the os coxae or innominate bones. SKELETAL ASSEMBLAGES Groups of skeletons from more than one individual, often with the bones mixed up. SKELETAL INDICATORS Specific characteristics of bones that can be used to infer information on age and other specific measures. STERNAL RIB ENDS The end of the rib that joins the sternum, or breastbone, via the costal cartilage. STERNUM Breast bone the bone that goes down the center of your chest that your ribs connect to. SUB-ADULT An individual with a chronological age of less than 18 years. SURFACE CONTOUR The shape and configuration of the bone surface, particularly in reference to the sternal rib ends.

83 75 Stature, or How tall was this person? 1.10 Section Ten: Stature, or How Tall was this Person? Explain the relationship between bone length 10 and stature Defi ne stature Describe some of the sources of error in stature reporting Introduction An important characteristic that is part of the biological profile is the height of the individual or the person s stature, or how tall that individual was before death. This information is almost always reported in missing person s reports. Unfortunately, people often do not know how tall they are, unless they have recently had a physical examination. Also, height is often misreported in missing person s reports by people who may have known the missing. Even during the day our height changes due to gravity stresses we tend to be taller in the morning when first waking up than in the evening! Bone length Stature in complete skeletons can be estimated by placing the skeletal elements in anatomical position and measuring various elements from the skull to the feet, especially the vertebral column. The measurements are added together and then a correction factor is added to represent the soft, connective tissues, particularly the vertebral discs between each vertebra. This method was devised in 1956 by a French physician, Dr. Georges Fully, and has been used to some extent in modern physical and forensic anthropology. Osteometric board used to measure various long bones (in this photograph a femur); these measurements are then used to calculate the stature based on different types of regression equations.

84 1.10 Stature, or How tall was this person? 76 However, the predominant method is based on bone length. This is based primarily on the fact that taller people have longer limbs and, therefore, longer bones. Known bone lengths can be compared to (or plotted against) known statures; then, this information is used to create statistical formulae called regression equations that relate bone length of different bones to various statures. These equations can then be used to calculate a stature or height from a known bone length. Some of the earliest research in this field was supported by the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps as part of the federal government s commitment to the analysis and identification of war casualties. More recently, appropriate measurements can be taken on forensic specimens and submitted to a large forensic database maintained by the University of Tennessee. In this manner, continuing research on morpho-metric traits as well as stature will continue. As with any statistical analyses, stature will be calculated within a given range, often reported as a point estimate and an error range, such as: 66.5 inches inches (range of 64.3 to 68.7 inches) ENRICHMENT SECTION Mildred Trotter and Goldine Gleser developed a series of regression formulae based on measurements of World War II and Korean War casualties with known stature. Additionally, estimates were used from known statures collected from a large assemblage of skeletal material at George Washington University in St. Louis known as the Terry Collection, named after Robert J. Terry, the former head of the Department of Anatomy at George Washington University. Trotter s initial work on war casualties was done while she was the Director of the U.S. Army s Central Identification Laboratory at Schofield Barracks between 1948 and 1949 and again at Fort McKinley in the Philippines during The resulting equations have been used as standard equations by generations of forensic and physical anthropologists. Continued development of these formulae has suggested different formulae should be used for different historical and geographic/ ethnic populations. While formulae exist for a variety of long bones, the leg bones represent the majority of contribution to individual stature. Therefore, a forensic anthropologist will derive a more accurate stature estimate by using both the femur and the tibia. While it is pos-

85 77 Stature, or How tall was this person? 1.10 sible to use other bones to calculate stature, the amount of error that occurs will increase, particularly when using the arm elements. In the 1990s, it became apparent that some errors in stature estimates had been made in calculations using the tibia. The maximum length of the tibia as described by Trotter and Gleser is not the measurement that was used to produce the regression equations from the Terry Collections and the World War II data. The reported measurement was to include the total length from the lateral condyle to the end of the medial malleolus (see Section 1.5). The medial malleolus is the tip of bone that is on the medial (inside) side of the distal end of the tibia. This tip produces part of the ankle on the interior of the lower leg. The regression equations for the Terry Collection and the World War II material did not include the medial malleolus. The method of collecting information was not the same as that described by Trotter and Gleser. Therefore, this measurement would yield erroneous information. Instead, for these particular regression equations, Richard Jantz and colleagues of the University of Tennessee have suggested using the measurement without the medial malleolus. ENRICHMENT SECTION As mentioned above, stature will differ within different populations, particularly in reference to sex and ancestry. Thus, numerous regression equations have been developed for a variety of ethnic populations and sex. Primarily, one would conduct stature estimates after sex and ancestry have been determined. This allows a more accurate stature estimate to be developed. For most assemblages, sex can be easily ascertained, while ancestry may be more problematic. While large databases do exist, they are not consistent or equal across all populations. What this means is that the samples used for some regression equations are based on hundreds or thousands of observations, while for other populations, the sample size (number of observations, or n ) may be a hundred observations or less. It is important to pick the most appropriate regression equation that may represent the population of the decedent. In some cases, an unrepresentative stature estimate may be the result of too small a sample size.

86 1.10 Stature, or How tall was this person? 78 What is the most used measure of stature? What are the best bones to use to measure stature of skeletal remains? CONCEPT CHECK ONE Changes in Stature Several sources of error exist in reported stature. One source of stature used in missing person s reports and identification is identification cards or driver s licenses, particularly in the United States. P. Willey and Anthony Falsetti have examined the reported height from driver s licenses and the actual measured statures of 500 individuals, primarily young adults. Willey and Falsetti discovered that males tend to overestimate their reported height, while, in general, individuals tend to round up to the nearest even inch! Another form of error in records is that individuals will tend to use the same self-reported height for much of their life, although after certain ages, there is a loss of stature. Loss in stature occurs due to a variety of mechanisms, usually related to bone degradation as well as collapse and degeneration of vertebral discs. This begins to occur for both sexes around age 45 and continues well into an elderly age. The author (who is over 45!) has recently noticed that his reported stature 5 10 now measures 5 9 ½! Based on a longitudinal study (the examination of the growth and development of an individual or group over a period of years) and a large sample, the correction factors developed by Eugene Giles seem to be the best thus far. Allison Galloway, in a review of correction factors, has suggested reporting the correction factor, as well as maximum stature, in forensic reports because of the fact that elderly people do not tend to report a change in stature from their youth! Thus, this may help investigators more accurately match the individuals to the missing person s reports! Additionally, pathologies, such as degenerative bone diseases like osteoporosis, can result in extensive stature loss. However, these types of pathologies should be easily recognized in a forensic assemblage. Does stature remain the same during adult life? What are some things that infl uence stature? CONCEPT CHECK TWO

87 79 Stature, or How tall was this person? 1.10 Other bones Many other stature estimates use a variety of skeletal elements and fragmentary long bones. While these are not as ideally suited for reporting stature as the leg bones are, if these are the only suitable bones that can be measured or are present in an assemblage, they should be used. Gentry Steele has contributed several regression equations that allow one to reconstruct the length of certain long bones when an assemblage only has fragmented materials, especially when one or both ends are missing. Meadows and Jantz have published regression equations for stature based on the measurements of the metacarpals. The standard errors for these methods are very large, which can make their utility questionable at times. Why would the large standard errors for regression equations used to estimate stature based on measurements of the metacarpals make the utility of those analyses questionable? CONCEPT CHECK THREE Stature, combined with biological sex and chronological age, provide the basic information required to identify an individual. The long bones are typically used to determine stature. However, it is important to keep in mind that people tend to lose height as they get older but usually continue to report their maximum height. There are a number of techniques using different sets of bones that are used to estimate stature, but the long bones continue to provide the most accurate estimates.

88 1.10 Stature, or How tall was this person? 80 DECEDENT This refers to the individual that is deceased. VOCABULARY ERROR RANGE A measure of the uncertainty associated with a calculated number; often based on statistical sample size. LONGITUDINAL STUDY The examination of the growth and development of an individual or group over a period of years. MAXIMUM LENGTH OF THE TIBIA As defined by Trotter and Gleser, this is the maximum length of the tibia extends from the lateral condyle to the end of the medial malleolus. MORPHO-METRIC TRAITS These are traits related to the shape of bones that can be described using empirical measurements. POINT ESTIMATE This is a single value based on a use of sample data from a population that serves as an estimate for an unknown (fixed or random) population parameter (measure). RANGE The lowest and highest value. REGRESSION EQUATION This is an equation produced through regression analysis. Regression analysis is a technique used model results. It involves the analysis of numeric data that consists of dependent variable (response variable) and independent variables (explanatory variables). STATURE The living height of an individual.

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91 unit Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 2.2 Trauma 2.3 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 2.4 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 2.5 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.6 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Military 2.7 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 2.8 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 2.9 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 2.10 The Hollywood Factor and Reality

92 2.1 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 84 Section One: Determining Ethnic or Racial Affiliation Defi ne race Discuss the biological and cultural aspects of race ancestry and the key characteristics of each for the 3 ancestry categories Defi ne morphometric analysis and discuss how this type of List the 2 parts of the skeletons most used to determine 1 analysis has been refi ned over time Introduction Race is a difficult concept to deal with in these modern times. Race is a concept that really does not exist in modern physical anthropology. Instead, it is recognized that race is partially biological, but primarily a social construct or creation. There is a wide continuum, or range, in human variation. Race is a culturally-loaded term that has been used to separate and subjugate various populations of humans over the years and justify the mistreatment of large groups. There are both biological and cultural aspects of ethnic affiliation that will be discussed in this section. Race as a Concept Biologically, there is a wide range in the phenotypic (outward, observable appearance) and genotypic (genetic combination) diversity in human populations. Much of this is based on geographic distribution and variation of different genetic components. Since forensic anthropologists primarily deal with human skeletal materials, this may seem of much concern, but missing persons reports and medical records often reflect the types of social constructs that exist within a given culture or society. Despite the fact that modern physical anthropologists do not recognize the concept of race, it is something that the forensic anthropologist must attempt to translate to skeletal materials. Some issues do exist in groupings. Traditionally, forensic anthropologists have recognized three major groups of ancestry. I will use the modern descriptive terminology that would apply to global populations with the older, scientific terms in parenthesis. These terms are White or Caucasian (Caucasoid), Black (Negroid), and Asian (Mongoloid). Culturally,

93 85 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 2.1 there can be as many different ancestry affiliations as necessary to describe a population. In Hawaii, the State Department of Education has a long list to classify students, including ancestral differentiation by island group throughout the Pacific. The Canadian census includes over 40 different categories and includes many different countries of origin. The U.S. Census only recognizes five different categories. Ethnicity, or racial affiliation, is often a personal choice and the individual may decide what terms to use to define himself. Culturally, some concepts become important in missing person reports or medical records. During the last 20 years, the term Hispanic has become common in usage in both types of records. However, this is difficult to operationalize or use in terms of skeletal materials. Phenotypically, Hispanics can look very different from each other, depending on the geographic region. The only common denominator is the Spanish language spoken by these individuals as well as historical and cultural bonds. In the Caribbean, Hispanic populations may exhibit phenotypes characteristic of black African populations. In Central and South America, Hispanic populations may be mixtures of Caucasian, Black African, as well as Native American populations. Additionally, Hispanic populations in Spain may exhibit phenotypes characteristics of white, Caucasian populations. This is an issue that has entailed much research over the last decade and will continue as ethnic categories become more distinct and diverse to recognize this personal choice as well as the great diversity in the human population. Additionally, as pointed out by Klepinger in 2007, South Asian (Indian/Pakistani/Bangladeshi) populations may not be categorized as Caucasian because of the cultural differences between European and South Asian populations. List the 3 primary ancestry categories. CONCEPT CHECK ONE

94 2.1 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 86 Primary Racial or Ethnic Categories Used in Forensic Anthropology As stated above, forensic anthropology recognizes three general categories of ancestry: White, Black, and Asian. In general, these categories can be used in skeletal materials as certain characteristics (see Table 1) are more common in some populations than others. While no single trait should be used to identify the ancestry of a particular assemblage of skeletal materials, some characteristics are more valuable than others. In North America, Whites are often comprised of descendants of European immigrant populations; Blacks or African-Americans (or African-Canadians) are descendant of Black African populations; and, Asian can include recent East Asian immigrants as well as Native American, Native Aleut or Inuit as well as Pacific Islanders. It is difficult to assess ancestry if one does not have the mid-facial area available for examination. Much of what we recognize phenotypically in a living person as ancestry occurs within this region of the skull. These include the shape of the eyes, the shape and size of the nasal (nose) area, as well as the shape of the jaw (mandible) and the upper front incisors. Asian populations can be characterized by shovelshaped incisors which appear similar in shape and configuration to an old-style snow shovel. The backs of these incisors have a raised area of enamel along the lateral edges of the back portion of these teeth. These occur in over 95% of all Asian populations, although they do occur in some portions of Caucasian populations as well. Another interesting characteristic is the so-called rocker jaw in Polynesian populations. The interior (lower) border of the jaw is curved such that the jaw will rock slightly when moved on a flat surface, such as an examination table. This trait is common in 70-80% of all Polynesian populations, but occurs in low percentages among other ancestral groups, including Native American populations. Table 1: General Cranial (Skull) Characteristics for the Three Primary Races (modified from Byers 2002).

95 87 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 2.1 Ethnic or Racial Group Characteristic Caucasians Blacks Asians Nasal Root High and narrow Low and Low and ridged rounded Nasal Bridge High Low Low Lower Nasal Sharp sill Guttered Flat and sharp Border Nasal Spine Pronounced Small Small Nasal Narrow Wide Medium Aperture/Width Facial Profile Straight Projecting Intermediate Facial Shape Narrow Narrow Wide Eye Orbits Angular Rectangular Rounded Lower Eye Receding Receding Projecting Border Supraorbital Heavy Small Smooth torus (so-called brow ridge) Muscle Marks Rugged Smooth Smooth Vault Sutures Simple Simple Complex Post-Bregma Straight Depressed Straight Mandible Size Small Large Large Palatal Shape Parabolic Hyperbolic Elliptical Upper Incisors Spatulate Spatulate Shoveled For these morphological (shape) traits, it often takes a long period of training to be able to identify and characterize the differences between populations. A prudent forensic anthropologist will look at a wide variety of characteristics before making a definitive assessment. Some of the differences in bone tissue are extremely subtle and it may require years of experience to accurately score these differences correctly. Phenotypes of Skulls: Anterior View; left negroid/black; center: mongoloid/asian; right caucasoid/white

96 2.1 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 88 Phenotypes of Skulls: Lateral View; left negroid/black; center: mongoloid/asian; right caucasoid/white State the area of the skull most critical to determining the ancestry category of the individual and why. CONCEPT CHECK TWO ENRICHMENT SECTION Morphometric Analysis Because of the difficulty in assessing morphological characteristics, many forensic anthropologists have moved toward assessing ancestry using a non-biased form of measurement system that describes a skull in three-dimensions. This was pioneered by Giles and Eliot in their 1962 publication, Race Identification from Cranial Measurements, in the Journal of Forensic Sciences. Modern analysts can take into account more regional variations in phenotype based on large databases collected from skeletal collections worldwide, as well as from forensic cases. Large databases of forensic measurements for stature/height, as well as cranial measurements, can be used to develop more accurate statistical models. These models are based on multivariate statistics as well as discriminant function analysis. However, while more objective in the assessment of ancestry, these morphometric analyses cannot solve all of the difficulties of identifying ancestry classification. Large samples of many different populations are necessary to develop data sets that represent the increased blending of ancestral groups. Surely, mixed populations will show characteristics closer to one or another primary ancestral group, but the larger the samples, the more accurate the assessment may be.

97 89 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 2.1 Postcranial Assessment How are we to obtain an ancestral assessment if we do not have the skull? Certain post-cranial (below the head) skeletal elements can be used for general ancestry assessment. Of particular importance is the upper leg bone, the femur. T.D. Stewart, one of the founders of forensic anthropology, and William Bass, also an early proponent and researcher in forensic anthropology, have examined the anterior (forward) curvature of the femoral shaft as well as the degree of torsion (twisting). The femora of Blacks tend to be flat and have a smaller degree of anterior bowing. Likewise, the femora of Asians tend to exhibit the greatest amount of anterior bowing, with Caucasians falling between these two extremes. Based on forward twisting (anteversion) of the femoral head and the angle of the femoral neck, Asians have the greatest amount of torsion, while Blacks tend to have the least. Explain the importance of having a database that represents wide variation in population characteristics when assessing ancestry. CONCEPT CHECK THREE We discussed the race, ancestry, and how forensic anthropologists are able to use characteristics of bones to determine ancestry. This is becoming more difficult as people from the three primary ancestry categories are having offspring with people from other ancestry categories. This results in a blending of characteristics that compound the challenges of using bone morphology to assess ancestry. Researchers are working to gather as much data on bone morphology and ancestry as possible so the data can be made available to the scientific community to increase the accuracy of the ancestry assessments.

98 2.1 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 90 ANCESTRY CATEGORY The three primary categories are White, Black and Asian. ANTERIOR Front. ANTEVERSION Torsion twisting toward the front of the bone. VOCABULARY DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS A method used to determine the variables that allow one to determine the differences between two naturally occurring groups. ETHNICITY A cultural category associated with race, but which reflects specific cultural characteristics. This is separate from ancestry. FEMORA Multiple of femur, a long bone in the leg. GENOTYPE The genetic makeup of an individual. HISPANIC An ethnic category that consists of Spanish speaking cultures from around the world. MID-FACIAL AREA The part of the skull that includes the forehead, eyes, cheeks, jaw and nose. MORPHOLOGY Shape. MULTIVARIATE STATISTICS A collection of procedures that involve observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time. PHENOTYPE A combination of physical characteristics that apply, in general, so a specific population.

99 91 Determining Ethnic or Racial Affi liation 2.1 VOCABULARY RACE A social construct based on phenotye and culture that differentiates different populations. Examples include black, white, Asian, Native American, etc. TORSION Twisting force.

100 2.2 Trauma 92 Section Two: Trauma 2 List and describe the major types of bone fracture patterns Defi ne trauma Discuss the four major categories of trauma Compare and contrast the three types of traumatic events Introduction Trauma, or injury, is often a crucial part of a forensic anthropological analysis. Trauma analysis can establish individual identification as well as lead to an understanding of the mode of death of an individual. Additionally, trauma analysis can allow an understanding of types of continual abuse. Trauma is more formally defined as a pathological condition of bone that is caused by injury to living tissue by some form of force. This force can include anything from items associated with violent actions such as bludgeons, projectiles, and knives. However, the force also comes from vehicle impact or falls. In determining the sequence of traumatic events reflected in bone tissue, it is important to examine injury healing. Earlier, healed injuries may or may not be of forensic interest. For example, a healed fracture in the arm may be of little interest in a military casualty, except for identification purposes, while it may be of significant forensic interest in a 6-month old child. Physics of Trauma and Fracture Patterns While bone is a living tissue, it has specific physical properties that are related to shape and density. These properties are well understood in terms of how they react to different types of force and stress. The primary characteristics of force include direction, speed, and focus. Each of these characteristics exhibit specific attributes in bone tissue. Because of the importance of trauma analysis, the terminology and categories used for different types of trauma are extensive. However, most refer to different types of fracture and fracture patterns to bone. Most of us are familiar with a fracture from sports or just growing up; however, in a forensic sense, only when a discontinuity extends through the entire bone is it called a fracture; if it is incomplete, it is an infraction. If a bone is partially attached to one of its original surfaces, it is referred to as a hinge fracture. Green-stick fractures are the most common types

101 93 Trauma 2.2 of infractions. This fracture is just like it sounds just take a fresh twig and hold it between your two hands. Bend the stick until it breaks and it will fracture on one surface, but not completely through. This is a greenstick fracture. When a bone is completely broken into two sections, we call this a simple fracture; comminuted fractures occur when there are multiple fragments and crushing of the bone. Comminuted fractures are often associated with extremely violent types of trauma. Fracture lines are equally important, especially radiating fracture lines. These disperse outward from a point of impact and can be related to the center point as a point of origin or cause. Radiating fractures are often related to gunshot wounds. List the various types of fractures and describe their characteristics. CONCEPT CHECK ONE Types of Trauma Traumata (plural for trauma) are divided into four major categories, usually based on the type of force: blunt force trauma; sharp force trauma; gun-shot wound trauma; and miscellaneous trauma. Blunt Force Trauma refers to an impact injury that is caused by force from a wide, blunt surface. These surfaces can include an item that is struck against the body and can include items such as bludgeon or a vehicle, but also can occur when a body strikes surfaces such as the ground or a building. A bludgeon is a blunt object that can be swung with force, such as a bat or pipe, that can be used to cause trauma.

102 2.2 Trauma 94 Compression usually occurs, along with bending of the bone tissue. Blunt force injuries exhibit many different types of fractures with simple fracture lines dominating. Additionally, comminuted fractures are common due to the crushing and shattering through extreme force. Sharp Force Trauma is created by compression and shearing forces applied over a very narrow focus. Punctures or chop marks can occur when the force is applied perpendicular to the bone surface. If the force glances off the cortical (hard) bone tissue, cut marks or chatter marks can result. An example of sharp force trauma occurs when a person is stabbed with a knife and the knife nicks the bone as it is plunged into the body. Gun Shot Wounds, or Projectile Trauma, are very distinct in the types of fractures inflicted on bone tissue. Discontinuities and displacement fractures are common with fracture lines, particularly radiating fracture lines on cranium tissue. The most common type of projectile for this type of trauma is a bullet, but any form of projectile (such as arrow, etc.) can produce these types of fractures. Because of particular interest in these types of wounds they will be described in more detail in the enrichment section. ENRICHMENT SECTION Gun Shot Wounds have some very specific characteristics caused by the bullet hitting its target. Through this action, both an entry (penetrating) wound and an exit wound are formed. In 1998, Hugh Berryman and Steven Symes described the various processes that occur when a projectile hits bone. Initially a Gunshot entrance wound above the left eye socket. wound is formed in, and sometimes through, bone. Additionally, fracture lines will radiate out from the point of impact and occasionally the force is so great that bone can fracture and shatter.

103 95 Trauma 2.2 When a projectile penetrates bone, it deforms the bone in a funnel-like pattern called beveling. Inward beveling characterizes the entrance wound; while outward beveling is seen at an exit wound. Bullets can produce round entrance wounds when the trajectory is virtually perpendicular to the surface of the bone. Oval entrance wounds suggest that the trajectory is either slightly angled (less than 90o to the Gunshot exit wound with external beveling and radial cracking. surface of the bone or the bullet was tumbling when it struck. Finally, entrance wounds can be keyhole shaped; that is, they have the appearance of an old-fashioned key hole. These are usually caused by bullets that graze bone, or strike at an acute angle. Discuss beveling and the characteristics of projectile damage to bone. CONCEPT CHECK TWO Miscellaneous Traumas are traumata that do not fit neatly into any of the previous categories. Stephen Byers in his 2002 book Forensic Anthropology: A Text Book states that these types of trauma can include strangulation, sawing, explosions, and even chemical or heat trauma. List the four primary types of trauma and the characteristic signs of each in bone. CONCEPT CHECK THREE Traumatic Events There are three types of traumatic events: antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem. All of these have specific characteristics in the appearance of the bone as well as exhibiting sequence or timing information about the injury.

104 2.2 Trauma 96 Antemortem trauma refers to injuries that occurred before death. These can be distinguished from other types of trauma in that there is partial or complete healing of the bone tissue. Remodeling and smoothing of the blunt edges along fractures is characteristic of antemortem healing. Additionally, in some cases, a raised callous area may exist over fractures. Perimortem trauma is related to injuries that occur around the time of death. Because of the timing of this event, this type of injury may be of tremendous importance to determining the mode of death. Because these injuries occurred so close to the time of death, they do not exhibit any form of healing. Postmortem trauma refers to injuries to bone tissue that have occurred after death. Few changes occur to skeletal tissue during the immediate postmortem interval; therefore, postmortem injury to bone that is still relatively fresh can be difficult to distinguish from perimortem injuries. However, when the soft tissues have decomposed and the bone dries, the physical characteristics will change and how the bone reacts to force also will change. For example, when bone is dry, bones rarely exhibit radiating fractures. Green-stick fractures are rare with dry bone. Postmortem trauma is of interest to the forensic anthropologist as it may reflect changes to the scene after the death of the individual. Postmortem injury to bone can also occur during recovery and transport of the remains to a forensic laboratory. When dry bone breaks, the fracture areas are usually a lighter color than the outer surfaces of the dry bone. List the three types of traumatic events and a key characteristic of each that differentiates it from the others. CONCEPT CHECK FOUR This is particularly true if the bones were covered with sediment or soil. Trauma occurs in a number of ways: blunt force trauma, sharp force trauma, projectile trauma, and miscellaneous trauma. These may occur pre-mortem, peri-mortem or post-mortem. The forensic anthropologist is able to determine the type of trauma and when it occurred in relationship to the time of death of the individual.

105 97 Trauma 2.2 ANTEMORTEM TRAUMA Injuries that occurred before death. VOCABULARY BEVELING The funnel-shaped deformity caused in bone when a projectile enters it. BLUNT FORCE TRAUMA An impact injury that is caused by force from a wide, blunt surface. COMMINUTED FRACTURE A fracture that is compound and may include crush injury. DISCONTINUITY A break in the bone that may or may not be complete. Not all discontinuities constitute fractures in forensic anthropology. FRACTURE LINES Fracture lines are lines associated with a form of trauma; simple fracture lines tend to be linear and originate from a point of impact. GREEN STICK FRACTURE A fracture at the surface of the bone that does not go all the way through. Similar to the effect of twisting a green twig until the surface breaks. HINGE FRACTURE When a bone is partially attached to one of its original surfaces. INFRACTION An incomplete fracture. MISCELLANEOUS TRAUMA Any trauma that does not fit neatly into the blunt force, sharp force or projectile trauma categories. It can include strangulation, sawing, explosions, chemicals, heat and other traumas. PERIMORTEM TRAUMA Injuries that occur around the time of death. POSTMORTEM TRAUMA Injuries to bone tissue that have occurred after death. PROJECTILE TRAUMA Damage caused to the bone because of a projectile impact, typically from a bullet.

106 2.2 Trauma 98 VOCABULARY RADIATING FRACTURE LINES Radiating fracture lines tend to radiate, like a net or spider web, away from a point of impact. These are especially common in projectile trauma. SHARP FORCE TRAUMA Created by compression and shearing forces applied over a very narrow focus. SIMPLE FRACTURE A bone break that results in two sections of bone. TRAUMA A pathological condition of bone that is caused by injury to living tissue by some form of force.

107 99 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 2.3 Section Three: Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry Defi ne forensic odontology types of teeth List the characteristics of dental development that are used to assess age Discuss the importance of forensic odontology in identifying remains or prosecuting cases of abuse Describe the typical structures of a tooth and list the main 3 Introduction During the last twenty years, forensic odontology, or dentistry, has become an important component of forensic sciences. This field of analysis aids in the identification of individuals through the study of teeth and dental systems. It is possible to establish the identity of an unknown individual by analyzing individuation characteristics and developing age estimates based on tooth formation and eruption sequences. Forensic odontology is also used to examine the teeth and mouth of a suspected perpetrator used to inflict damage in cases of human neglect and abuse, particularly against children (i.e. bite marks). Forensic odontologists have a DDS (Doctor of Dental Science) degree with additional forensic and legal training beyond a standard DDS. Often, a dentist who wishes to practice forensic dentistry will seek board certification through the American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO). This organization certifies individuals who have reached a specific level of education, training, and expertise. Board certification is given to an individual who goes through a successful application and case review process as well as a three-day examination. Structural Characteristics and Types of Teeth The visible portion of the tooth, above the gum line is called the crown. The lower portion of the tooth below the gum is termed the root. The portion of the tooth at a healthy gumline is called the neck. The crown of each tooth is coated in enamel, which protects the underlying dentine. Enamel is one of the hardest substances in the human body. It must be able to withstand the daily stresses of mastication (chewing). Dentine is slightly softer than the enamel and is more related to bone in structure.

108 2.3 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 100 Below the gumline, the root is covered with a layer of cementum instead of enamel. The cementum is a bony substance that the periodontal membrane adheres to and which bonds the tooth to the bone of the maxilla and mandible. The central portion of the tooth comprises the pulp cavity, which contains blood vessels and nerves. These blood vessels and nerves extend through the roots into the root canals and finally enter into the maxilla and mandibular bony structures. Cross section of a typical tooth. In describing the teeth, forensic odontologists often use the following descriptive and directional terminology: ENRICHMENT SECTION Mesial: toward the midline Distal: opposite of mesial Lingual: toward the tongue Labial: toward the lips Buccal: toward the cheeks Interproximal: in contact with adjacent teeth in the same jaw Occlusal: facing the opposite dental arch (the chewing surfaces) Incisal: the biting edge of the incisors Mesiodistal: axis running from mesial to distal Buccolingual and Labiolingual: axis running from labial or buccal to lingual The terms above are used to indicate describe directionality, or the location of something relative to a specific point in the mouth. Mesial, meaning toward the midline, refers to the side of a tooth that is facing the anterior midline, or the front of the mouth where the teeth meet. The mesial side of a molar is the side facing the front of the mouth. Distal is the opposite of mesial. The distal side of that same molar faces the back of the mouth.

109 101 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 2.3 Lingual, Labial and Buccal are terms that refer to the relationship of a tooth to the tongue (lingual), lips (labial) and cheeks (buccal). The lingual side of a tooth is the side that is adjacent to the tongue. Labial typically refers only to those teeth that have a surface facing the lips, such as the incisors and eye teeth. Buccal refers to the side of the molars and pre-molars that face the cheek. Incisal and occlusal refer to the biting edges of teeth. Incisal refers to the cutting edge of the incisors. This is the edge of your front teeth that you use to break the skin of an apple when you take a bit from it. Occlusal refers to the surfaces of your back teeth that are used for chewing. Mesiodistal is the line that runs from the mesial (front) to distal (back) side of a tooth. Essentially, this is the distance from the front to the back of the tooth. Buccolinguial and labiolingual lines run from the buccal or labial side of a tooth to the lingual side of the tooth. ENRICHMENT SECTION In the human child s mouth, there are 20 deciduous, or primary, teeth. These are incisors (8), canines (4), and molars (8). In the adult human mouth, there are 32 permanent teeth. They can be broken up into four types: incisors (8), canines (4), premolars (8), and molars (12). Each type has a distinct morphology according to its placement in the dental arcade. The maxillae and mandible are the bones that hold the teeth. Universal numbering system for the identification of teeth Different tooth designation schemes numbered represent the Universal System; L/R represents tooth number and left and right designation; another common dental system is the M (molar); P (premolar) system Forensic odontologists and dentists use a wide variety of systems to describe the teeth. The most common system is called the Universal Numbering System. This system has been adopted by the American Dental

110 2.3 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 102 Association and is used by most North American dentists and forensic odontologists. The upper, right third molar is Tooth 1 and each tooth going forward across the dental arcade to the upper, left third molar, which is Tooth 16. The sequence then drops to the lower, left third molar as Tooth 17 and the lower, right third molar is Tooth 32. Determining Age Anyone who has had children or siblings or has lived through childhood knows that teeth grow and develop in a specific sequence. Through analysis of these aging (developmental) events, including changes after tooth eruption, it is possible to establish a chronological age. Aging events include: (1) changes that occur to the developing deciduous ( baby ) and permanent dentition (teeth) before eruption; (2) major changes in the tooth morphology caused by wear and dental pathology that occur after eruption; and, (3) histological changes that are related to the tooth s age. Crown calcification of the deciduous teeth begins between 20 and 28 weeks in utero. Permanent teeth actually begin calcification just before birth and continue throughout childhood until the third molars complete the progress. However, not all humans develop their third molars (or wisdom teeth). Nevertheless, because these patterns of development are generally predictable, it is possible to examine the rates of calcification in fetal individuals and estimate the chronological age. Understanding tooth eruption sequences requires an understanding of growth patterns. These sequences vary slightly between male and female, as well as between different ethnic groups. However, permanent dentition erupts in a general sequence that can be tied into general age classes, usually with a relatively narrow age range of 2 years or so. In 1963, Moorees, Fanning, and Hunt described age groups of dental development and wear based on stages of development of the crown, root, and apex (lip or terminal end of the tooth root). Tooth wear and tear can be related to many different factors outside of age.

111 103 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 2.3 Primarily, they focused on the deciduous mandibular canines and molars and permanent canines, premolars, and molars. While these were based on a large sample of white males and females in Ohio, these researchers established midpoints of age groups for each form of tooth development. Some researchers have attempted to estimate age based on tooth wear and pathological changes to teeth. However, tooth wear can be related to a variety of factors, including diet and the amount of grit in food, individual behavior (habitual or nervous tooth grinding), and genetic variation. Pathologies can also be related to environmental or dental factors as well as age. While wear and pathologies can be a general indicator of age, they should not be used for specific age assessment. What are some of the variables forensic odontologists consider when trying to estimate the age of an individual? CONCEPT CHECK ONE Process of Identification Using Teeth Through the use of various dental characteristics and structures, it is possible for forensic odontologists to determine an unidentified individual s age with a fair degree of certainty. As with any form of biological profile determination, it is best to use multiple lines of evidence. So teeth should be used with the other forms of age estimates discussed earlier. Forensic odontologists often work with skeletonized cases or cases where other forms of identification are not possible. For example, skeletonized remains, heavily decomposed bodies, and burned bodies usually do not have fingerprints that can be used for identification or the identification records may not exist. Most individuals in Western populations have visited a dentist in their life and, therefore, there will usually be some record of an examination or restorative work. However, in many areas of the world, the dental and medical records do not exist. While different teeth share the same characteristics, specific attributes

112 2.3 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 104 A comparison can be made between teeth and antemortem dental records for identification. Along with root and pulp cavity shapes, restorations can be used in individuating processes. Comparisons can be made between antemortem (before death) and postmortem (after death) radiographs (or x-rays). Similar to fingerprint comparison, radiographic comparisons are done with point-by-point comparison using these individuating characteristics. If there are enough identical characteristics, a positive match can be made between the two types of records. individuate one tooth from another. Root shape is reflected either by the alveolar channel that it occupies or the actual root itself. Additionally, the shape of the pulp cavity is specific to individuals. Restorations are another source of individual characteristics seen in dental materials. Restorations occur when a dentist or other trained personnel remove carious (cavities), or pathological, tissue from a tooth. Restorations are then filled using a metal amalgam or composite porcelain-like material. Other types of restoration include a complete covering, or crown, using metals or porcelain composites as materials. Restorative processes may also include various forms of dentures. Because these restorations are hand-made, they are considered unique and can be used to help identify individuals. Bite marks Unfortunately, bite marks occur in a many forms of abuse, particularly child neglect and sexual abuse. Victims of abuse and neglect are often tortured through biting. The biting can be habitual and victims often show a series of wounds in different stages of healing. A forensic odontologist can aid in the identification of the abuser through a com-

113 105 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 2.3 parison of the tooth patterns left in the victim s skin and muscle tissue. Due to the individuating aspects of tooth growth, breakage, and other attributes, biting can leave a very specific mark on skin. Photograph of a fresh bite mark on the skin. and an alleged abuser. It is important to photograph the bite mark in its earliest stages to allow for a better comparison. Photograph of a healed bite mark Bruising and scarring may obscure the specific patterns of the bite mark. Through photographic comparison of the actual dental arcade of a suspected abuser or a dental impression, it is possible to arrive at a positive match of a bite mark Why is bite mark analysis important in forensic anthropology? What are some key comparisons that can be made with existing dental records to help identify an individual? CONCEPT CHECK TWO Forensic odontology is the study of dentition, which includes the jaw, teeth, and any related injuries or diseases that can be used to profile remains. Each human being has a unique bite pattern, which can be used to make positive identification in cases where biting occurred. As with the other parts of the body, the teeth and jaw change as the person develops from a child to an adult. Age assessments can be aided if the teeth are available for examination. Also, because the teeth are in the skull, which is often found separated from any other parts of the body, the teeth are a key part of establishing the identity of the individual.

114 2.3 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 106 VOCABULARY ALVEOLAR CHANNEL This refers to the cavity in the maxilla and mandible that the tooth roots occupy. The term originates from the Latin alveus which means cavity or hollow. CANINES The large, single cusped teeth located between the incisors and the premolars, or bicuspids. CARIOUS Affected with cavities and/or decay. CHRONOLOGICAL In time. For example, age in years. CROWN CALCIFICATION Hardening and development of the crown of the baby, or deciduous, tooth. DECIDIOUS Early teeth that are shed as the individual develops and grows. DENTAL ARCADE The curved shape of a row of teeth. DENTAL PATHOLOGY Changes in the dentition as a result of use, age, trauma and disease. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY Forensic dentistry. HISTOLOGICAL Related to the study of the microscopic structures of bone, in this case. IN UTERO In the uterus. MANDIBULAR Related to the lower jaw. MAXILLARY Related to the so-called upper jaw or the lower part of the face.

115 107 Forensic Odontology or Forensic Dentistry 2.3 VOCABULARY MOLARS Grinding teeth located in the back of the mouth; the largest teeth in human dentition. PRE-MOLARS Also known as bicuspids due to the two large cusps that comprise the chewing surfaces of these teeth. These teeth are located between the molars and the canines. UNIVERSAL NUMBERING SYSTEM This is a system of tooth designation that numbers the teeth sequentially; it is the most common system used in North American dentistry.

116 2.4 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 108 Section Four: The Identification Process: Creating a Biological Profile Defi ne individuation person s report Explain how different types of evidence are combined to create a biological profi le Describe how DNA fi ngerprinting is used in the identifi cation process Discuss the pertinent information that is needed in a missing 4 Introduction After all of the analyses are complete, it is up to the forensic anthropologist to develop a cohesive picture that creates an identification that can be presented to local or federal authorities, such as the coroner, medical examiner, or police. This packet will usually contain all analytical reports as well as comparison of the postmortem (after death) analysis to antemortem (before death) records. Each step detailed in earlier chapters was done in order to obtain A forensic anthropologist examining skeletal remains to create a biological profile. information that can be compared to missing persons reports as well as medical or personnel files. Forensic anthropology s main goal in the majority of cases is to create a pattern of individuation. In other words, we are attempting to obtain enough information on a set of skeletal materials that can lead to an identification of a specific individual. Individuating characteristics are those that can distinguish between specific individuals. While the majority of skeletal morphology is general in nature, we are attempting to isolate those characteristics that help us identify a missing individual.

117 109 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 2.4 Missing Person Reports Missing Person Reports are often filed locally and can be input into much larger databases that are used by international agencies to find missing persons, such as the missing persons files for the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), operated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Other similar databases are operated by INTERPOL in Europe. Missing person reports contain information that can be based on the recollection of friends or relatives of the missing. Information such as height, weight, hair color, etc. is included. However, some of this information may be inaccurate, as we have discussed in earlier sections. The most pertinent records are the medical records that list an individual s accurate height and weight, as well as dental records, particularly radiographs (x-rays). Often times, due to patient privacy concerns and related laws, physicians or dentists will only release these records with a court order. This order must be based on a specific legal need from the local police, medical examiner, or coroner s jurisdiction. Bringing It All Together There are several overlapping lines of evidence that should come together to form a comprehensive package that represents a single individual or small group of individuals. Information based on the examination and recording of a recovering scene may include activities that we have not discussed earlier, particularly in cold cases. Witness interviews may prove invaluable in understanding the activities that have occurred at a scene. These activities can actually lead an investigator to a physical landscape (location) to examine as a potential crime scene. The Context Any identification begins with the recovery and examination of the scene and the collection of appropriate biological and material evidence. If the evidence recovery is done in an unprofessional and careless manner, these actions will directly impact the ability of later analysts to identify an individual or help put evidence forward for prosecution. Thus, care and professionalism with high ethics involved in the collection and protection of evidence must be maintained throughout the life of the case. This begins at the original investigation and the original scene. The context

118 2.4 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 110 lends itself to understanding what has happened at a scene as we attempt to reconstruct the activities and human behaviors that have occurred at a scene. Examination of material evidence and trace evidence may provide vital links between a scene, a victim, and other individuals or places. Additionally, examination of biological evidence may determine or confirm the identification of a missing person. This is done through a variety of means, particularly the use of forensic anthropology, forensic odontology, and possibly, DNA fingerprinting. Thus, multiple lines of evidence are needed in order to present evidence that can be used in identification as well as for prosecution if a crime has been committed. These different spheres of analysis can be thought of as a Venn diagram, where the converging analyses center on a single conclusion. Why is it important to process a potential crime scene with care and precision? CONCEPT CHECK ONE Forensic anthropologists are primarily concerned with creating biological profiles. Although this profile may not be unique to a specific individual, it may assist in narrowing down the possibilities. This is why ancestry is such a difficult topic. Because ethnicity is often self-defined, some discrepancies may exist. For example, if a person considers himself a Hispanic male and the skeletal analysis establishes a Caucasian male, the connection may or may not be made within the search of the pertinent records. However, certain characteristics of past trauma or unique pathologies may help establish a positive identification from skeletal materials. If a unique pathology exists or unique characteristics of bony tissue exist and these can be matched to radiographs or x-rays, a positive match can be made, much like what is done with dental work. Specific examples include the shape of the frontal sinuses in the cranium as well as any anomalies that occur in bony structures. In one case, it was possible to identify a U.S. service member based on the occurrence of a bifurcated first rib; that is, the first rib was split or forked at the distal end. This occurrence was matched to a chest x-ray found in this individual s medical records and used to positively identify this service member. Forensic odontology allows one to directly compare individuating char-

119 111 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 2.4 acteristics that are found in dental evidence. The shape of an amalgam/composite filling or crown is unique as these items are handmade by dentists and dental technicians. Because these items are unique in manufacture, they can be considered unique and specific to an individual. These restorations can be compared in a point-bypoint comparison, much like friction ridge comparison in fingerprint analysis. Dentures, partial dentures, and other dental devices may be labeled with a name or social security number as well as being recorded in the dental records. These are considered unique enough that radiographic match between post-mortem and ante-mortem records is a type of positive identification. Additionally, due to biological variation, the shape of tooth roots and the pulp cavity are also unique to individuals. How is bone used to help with identifi cation of individuals? CONCEPT CHECK TWO DNA Fingerprinting. This type of analysis can assist in a positive identification (actually a statistical match given a high probability); however, if no dental remains are present or the biological profile is too general to be matched with a specific missing person within an area, DNA testing may be necessary. For individual DNA comparisons, an appropriate sample from the missing individual may be necessary for comparison. In some cases, this has included a strand of hair with the root follicle still present (this is the portion that is likely to have DNA), blood samples, saliva, tissue samples, semen samples, etc. Most of us do not have readily available DNA samples, which is why some investigators will look for saliva samples on letters (the new self-adhesive stamps may put an end to this type of evidence!) or hair samples in brushes. The US military maintains the Military DNA Registry that maintains a blood smear for every military service member that is currently serving. This Registry was established after the first Gulf War to assist in the DNA identification of US service members that may be lost during a conflict.

120 2.4 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 112 The FBI recently established the Missing Persons DNA Database Program in order to provide a comparative database that allows links to be established between unidentified remains throughout the country and the world and known missing persons. However, it should be noted that this includes only those missing persons that have been reported. Many persons have gone missing and are not reported, particularly those individuals that may have been involved in criminal activity themselves or have died as a result of drugs, particularly methamphetamine. However, what if there is no appropriate tissue available for a nucleic DNA match? Remember, it is difficult to sequence nucleic DNA from skeletal materials, although mitochondrial DNA is available. This type of DNA matching is not considered a positive match to a specific individual because individuals can share the same basic mtdna sequence based on a maternal (through the female line) relationship. How is DNA fi ngerprinting used to identify missing persons and US service members who are lost during a confl ict? CONCEPT CHECK THREE

121 113 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 2.4 The tables below show the relationships between antemortem record and how they support postmortem analysis of remains. As you can see from the comments, each of these types of records contributes significantly to the identification efforts of investigative team. Comparisons of Antemortem Records and Postmortem Analysis Antemortem Records Postmortem Analysis Comments Birth Date Age From the birth date, one can reconstruct the age at the rough time of death. Sex Biological Sex If enough of the skeletal remains are present, the biological sex of the individual may be determined. Height Stature The reconstructed stature from different skeletal elements can be compared to the recorded height at or near the time of death. Race Ancestry Based on photograph evidence or personnel/medical information, we may be able to access the ancestry. However, remember ancestry is often self-reported and may vary from the way in which one appears skeletally. ENRICHMENT SECTION

122 2.4 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 114 ENRICHMENT SECTION Injuries Circumstances/ Mode of Death Antemortem Trauma Perimortem Trauma Antemortem (before death) trauma or injuries may be indicated on the skeletal remains. If medical treatment was sought for these injuries, it may be possible to correlate these to specific medical or personnel records. Perimortem injuries (pan or during death) may have resulted from criminal activity that may be correlated to the death of the individual. These types of injuries are important in order to understand the circumstances and/ or mode of death. We have talked about a few types of methods used to identify individuals found at a site. Biological profile provides the starting point for identification, but it does not allow the investigator to identify a specific individual. DNA fingerprinting using mtdna is also not individuating because there can be more than one individual with the mother s DNA (mtdna). There are some techniques that do allow for positive matches, however, including the structure of the frontal sinuses, x-rays, and nucleic DNA analysis.

123 115 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 2.4 Types of Identification Discipline Method Type of Identification Forensic Anthropology Biological Profile Not Individuating Forensic Anthropology Forensic Odontology Frontal Sinuses or Structural Match Radiographic Match Positive Positive DNA Fingerprinting Nucleic DNA Match Positive DNA Fingerprinting mtdna Not Individuating One of the big challenges of forensic anthropology is identifying the individuals whose remains are recovered. The biological profile is the beginning of this process, but does not identify the individuals specifically. There are many types of ante-mortem and post-mortem records that are used to help identify the individuals, including medical records, x-rays, and DNA fingerprinting. ENRICHMENT SECTION

124 2.4 The Identifi cation Process: Creating a Biological Profi le 116 BIFURCATED Split. VOCABULARY ANTEMORTEM Before death. COLD CASE A case that has been investigated with no success for a long time. IDENTIFICATION A collection of information, samples, bones, that identify an individual or group. INDIVIDUATION Identification of individuals using forensic techniques. POSTMORTEM After death. RADIOGRAPHS X-ray images. VENN DIAGRAM A diagram composed of intersecting circles, where the overlapping portions of the circles indicate commonalities between the data found in each circle.

125 117 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.5 Section Five: Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 5 Explain the development of forensic anthropology programs within the university system of the U.S. Describe the wide variety of the type of work and research conducted at two public facilities within the U.S. Introduction Most civilian forensic anthropology laboratories are associated with university level facilities. For the most part, when local law enforcement are looking for help in the identification of possible human remains or help in a recovery operation, they look to a local college or university s anthropology department. However, in the last couple of decades, the need for properly trained forensic anthropologists has spurred the development of several top-notch programs. One of the earliest and most prestigious programs in the United States is the University of Tennessee-Knoxville. Training of generations of current and past forensic anthropologists has been the focus of the recently retired Dr. William Bass. The breadth of the research conducted at UT-Knoxville is so large that only a small part of that work can be profiled here, so we will focus on the Anthropological Research Facility. Following this review, we profile a laboratory at the University of Florida, Gainesville, currently under the direction of Dr. Anthony Falsetti. Anthropological Research Facility The Anthropological Research Facility can certainly be considered one of the more grisly aspects of the program at the University of Tennessee- Knoxville. This unique undertaking was begun in 1972 by Dr. William M. Bass to document and scientifically study postmortem change and decomposition of human bodies in a variety of conditions. This outdoor field setting and laboratory allows investigators to observe and control a variety of parameters (including temperature, setting, body type, etc.) in order to derive and understand the variables important in determining time since death. Remains are donated by individuals, families, and various state agencies in order to study these parameters. Additionally, these remains are used to provide a modern osteological teaching and research collection. Currently, over 400 sets of human remains are available for study and research.

126 2.5 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 118 The Research Facility was one of the first institutions of its type when Dr. Bass began conducting research there in Since then, many institutions have modeled various facilities on its success. This is important as the UT-Knoxville facility provided a great deal of information, but only within the micro-environment of Knoxville, Tennessee. With the success of this team in understanding postmortem death estimates, many other facilities throughout the country have been set up. These facilities will provide a much wider range of variation based on the differing local conditions and, therefore, provide a much wider range of understanding of decomposition in various settings and environments. Describe why forensic anthropology programs are important and the role they play in law enforcement. CONCEPT CHECK ONE ENRICHMENT SECTION Since 2003, the Department of Defense s Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command has maintained the standard of the first (and only) American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB) accredited laboratory. ASCLD/ The Joint POW/MIA Accounting LAB is dedicated to Command in Hickam AFB, Hawaii promoting excellence in forensic science through leadership, innovation, and a prestigious accreditation program. This program is completely voluntary. Any crime laboratory may participate to demonstrate that its management, personnel, operational and technical procedures, equipment and physical facilities meet established standards. Accreditation is one part of a laboratory s quality assurance program which should also include proficiency testing, continuing education, and other programs to help the laboratory provide better overall service to the criminal justice system. Currently, ASCLD/LAB is

127 119 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.5 the primary accreditation body for forensic sciences and is recognized as the national and international standard. Two programs exist under the ASCLD/LAB program the Legacy Program (or US National Standards) and the International Program (established under International Standards Organization criteria). Currently, 337 laboratories are accredited by ASCLD/ LAB; 57 of these are accredited under the International Program and 230 are accredited under the Legacy Program. Many skeletal identification and forensic anthropological laboratories are undergoing development of standard operation procedures (SOPs) to undergo the process of accreditation. These programs inform customers or clients that these laboratories follow national and international standards and have a strict quality assurance program that can guarantee the validity of the results produced. This is important in presenting evidence in a court of law because it may have direct bearing on the acceptance or rejection of evidence. If a laboratory can state that it has been independently inspected and accredited, this can aid in establishing the credibility of the laboratory, the staff, and, especially its handling and analysis of evidence. ENRICHMENT SECTION C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory The C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory has a two-fold mission firstly, it provides state-of-the art anthropological, legal, and laboratory-based training for graduation students and professionals in various scientific and forensic fields; secondly, the Laboratory provides clinical anthropological services to a variety of individuals and agencies within state, federal, and international areas. The Laboratory was named after C. Addison Pound, Jr., in recognition for generous donations, and was built on the Gainesville campus of the University of Florida as an extension of the Florida Museum of Natural History.

128 2.5 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 120 The first director of the Laboratory, Dr. William R. Maples, was involved in the investigations surrounding the deaths of many historical figures, including President Zachary Taylor, the family of Czar Nicholas II, civil rights advocate Medgar Evers, and the conquistador Francisco Pizzaro. Currently, the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory is one of the busiest in the country and handles between 100 and almost 200 cases annually. The Laboratory performs all the analyses for skeletal remains from all the medical examiner districts in the State of Florida. Additionally, the Laboratory provides forensic services to other state agencies in Florida as well as federal agencies, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation. List the two public facilities described in this section and the key mission of each. CONCEPT CHECK TWO Civilian forensic anthropology labs have played a crucial role in developing the techniques and knowledge that are now standard tools in the forensic anthropologists tool kit. The Anthropological Research Laboratory is a facility that exposes cadavers to different environmental conditions, typically outdoors, to study the factors that affect decomposition of the body. The CA Pound Human Identification Laboratory is a leading laboratory for the identification of skeletal remains, having working on high profile cases including US Presidents, civil rights advocates, and other famous figures in history. This lab provides services to federal and other agencies requiring expertise in identifying skeletal remains.

129 121 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.5 Section Six: Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Military 6 government in the identifi cation of all U.S. service members Explain the primary work of JPAC Discuss the history and commitment of the U.S. Describe the role of a forensic anthropologist in a recovery mission Introduction The U.S. government has as one of its highest goals to search for, recover, and identify all U.S. service members who have made the ultimate sacrifice and not returned home due to service to their country. The U.S. government has been involved in the identification of U.S. casualties since the Revolutionary War in the late 1700s. Since the end of the Civil War in 1865, the U.S. government has set up central identification facilities. As the science of identification became more and more sophisticated, the U.S. military incorporated scientific staff into these endeavors. Currently, the field operations and scientific command that represents this goal is the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC), headquartered on Hickam AFB, Hawaii. The primary mission of JPAC is to achieve the fullest possible accounting of all Americans that are missing-in-action due to our nation s past conflicts. To date, no evidence has been uncovered that American POWs are being held in captivity from past conflicts. However, our nation s highest priority is the return of any living American that may be still held as a prisoner of war. JPAC was activated on Oct. 1, 2003, created from the merger of the 30-yearold U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, and the 11-year-old

130 2.5 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 122 Joint Task Force - Full Accounting. This unique military command is overseen by a flag officer (one-star general/admiral or higher) and includes approximately 400 Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen, Marines, and Department of Navy Civilians. The Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) of JPAC is the largest forensic anthropology and skeletal identification laboratory in the world. Currently, this facility is the only ASCLD/LAB accredited skeletal identification laboratory (see Section 2.5 Enrichment Section). Describe the history of the commitment of the U.S. government s efforts in the identifi cation of American war dead. CONCEPT CHECK ONE JPAC maintains three permanent overseas detachments, each commanded by a lieutenant colonel, to assist with the command, logistics and in-country support during investigation and recovery/excavation operations. Detachment One is located in Bangkok, Thailand, Detachment Two is in Hanoi, Vietnam, and Detachment Three is in Vientiane, Laos. JPAC has a fourth detachment, Detachment Four, located at Camp Smith, Hawaii, responsible for recovery team personnel (those who recover remains once a site has been discovered) when they are not deployed. The core of JPAC s day-to-day operations involves investigating leads and recovering and identifying Americans who were killed in action but were never brought home. This process involves close coordination with other U.S. federal agencies involved in the POW/MIA issue, including the Defense POW/Missing Personnel Office, Department of State, the Joint Staff, U. S. Pacific Command, Defense Intelligence Agency, the Armed Forces Medical Examiner, and Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. On average, the CIL identifies about six MIAs each month. To date, the U.S. government has identified over 1,300 individuals. The search for unaccounted-for Americans starts with in-depth research. JPAC historians and analysts gather information such as correspondence, maps, photographs, unit histories, medical and personnel records about POW/ MIAs from many sources. At any given time, there are more than 1,000 active case files under investigation. JPAC has 15 Recovery Teams whose members travel throughout the world to recover missing from the Vietnam War, the Korean War, World War II, the Cold War and the Gulf War. JPAC s recovery missions can last

131 123 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.5 from 35 to 60 days, depending on the location, terrain and nature of the recovery. Reaching a site can be a challenge in itself. Team members routinely walk through jungles, traverse difficult terrain in 4x4 vehicles, rappel cliff-sides, climb mountains, and ride on horseback, boats, or trains to reach sites. The most common method of reaching remote sites is via helicopter. Adding to the difficulty, teams travel with up to 10,000 pounds of survival and Locating a site on a high mountain top in Irian Jaya, Indonesia excavation equipment. To date, teams have traveled to locations as diverse as rice paddies in Southeast Asia, cliff-sides in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, 16,000 foot mountaintops in the Himalayas, and underwater sites off the coasts of Tunisia and England. At any given time, JPAC has a queue of over 200 sites that have already been investigated and validated, and are ready for recovery. Overall, a forensic anthropologist is responsible for the scientific aspects of the recovery and excavation of each site or recovery scene. The forensic anthropologist, or recovery leader, is responsible for the proper scientific treatment and excavation of the scene and the evidence that is recovered. Upon arrival at the laboratory, the recovery leader signs over all biological and material evidence recovered from a site to the custody of the evidence custodian. All evidenced is stored in a secure area, with only a small percentage of CIL personnel having access to the remains to maintain the highest level of security. Depending on the amount and condition of recovered remains, the CIL s staff of forensic anthropologists first produces a biological profile from recovered skeletal remains that includes sex, race, age at death, and height of the individual. Anthropologists may also analyze trauma caused at or near the time of death and pathological conditions of bone such as arthritis or previous healed breaks. A major tool used in identification is mtdna sampling. The CIL staff routinely samples bones and submits samples to the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory for analysis and comparison to appropriate family reference samples. Since 1996, this tool has been a major source of identification for remains that would have earlier been difficult, if not impossible, to identify using conventional methods. Ultimately, with a combination of historical research, investiga-

132 2.5 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 124 tion, excavation, and scientific analyses, the remains can be identified and returned home to their families. What is JPAC s Area of Responsibility (AOR)? CONCEPT CHECK TWO U.S. Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL) The U.S. Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL) is located in Rockville, Maryland and represents one of the most technical aspects of the identification process for the U.S. military. AFDIL provides worldwide consultation, research, and education services for forensic DNA analysis to the Department of Defense and other federal agencies. Their primary goals are to collect DNA reference specimens as well as accession and storage of those samples of U.S. military and other authorized personnel. ENRICHMENT SECTION In 1988, the Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner (OAF- ME) was established at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) to provide the Department of Defense and other Federal agencies with the latest advances in forensic medicine. Since the early 1980s, new technologies have been incorporated into the field of forensic medicine. However, it was evident that the use of DNA in forensic casework was becoming the standard of practice with the development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process in In 1989, Richard Froede, M.D., the first Armed Forces Medical Examiner, pursued the idea of incorporating DNA into the identification arena for current death cases. However, it was not until the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2, 1990, and the onset of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, that DNA moved to the forefront of the human remains identification field. In the early 1990s, DNA came on-line for use in the identification of U.S. military casualties. DNA continued to be used by the OAFME in current death cases where traditional identification methods were not possible. Currently, the U.S. government maintains DNA collections of each U.S. service member at the

133 125 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.5 Armed Forces Repository of Specimen Samples for the Identification of Remains. These samples are to be used only for the identification of individuals if no other means of identification is possible. AFDIL has been instrumental in the development of the use of mtdna sampling and analysis. These specific samples are important for the identification of MIAs (see Section 1.1). The accurate and timely identification of service members from the Vietnam Conflict continues Excavating along a river in North Korea to be a sensitive and emotional issue for our nation. In the mid- 1990s, mtdna analysis began to be one of the more important tools in the identification of Vietnam-era casualties and increase in use for other conflicts, particularly the Korean War. Beginning of an excavation in the jungles of Vietnam On May 14, 1998, the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were disinterred in a solemn ceremony, and transported to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, where a team of CILHI anthropologists evaluated the skeletal material and cut specimens that were brought to the AFDIL facility in Rockville, MD. Over the next three weeks, using recovered mtdna sequence from the skeletal material and family references. On June 30, 1998, Secretary of Defense William Cohen announced to the world that a match had been made with maternal references of ENRICHMENT SECTION

134 2.5 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 126 the Michael Blassie family. On July 11, 1998, the remains identified as llt Michael J. Blassie, USAF, lost on May 11th, 1972, near An Loc, Vietnam and since 1984 had rested in honored glory as the Vietnam Unknown, were returned to his family and interred at the Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery in St. Louis, MO. Although the mission of AFDIL is complex and requires the talents of many dedicated individuals, the focus and mindset of personnel is simple to never have an American service man or woman buried under the inscription: Here Rests in Honored Glory An American Soldier Known But To God. Military laboratories are responsible for recovering the remains of US service members who have died while in the service of the country. Forensic anthropologists are key members of the recovery teams that go around the world to recover and identify the remains of US service members. The ultimate goal of these teams is to give the families of the service members they identify the peace of knowing that their loved ones have been brought home and identified. HONORING AND KEEPING THE FAITH WITH AMERICA S MISSING SERVICE MEMBERS TOMB OF UNKNOWN SOLDIER

135 127 Forensic Anthropology Laboratories: Civilian 2.5 AFDIL Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory. VOCABULARY CIL Central Identification Laboratory; the forensic anthropology laboratory section of JPAC. FULLEST POSSIBLE ACCOUNTING The U.S. government s policy concerning accounting for all missing U.S. service members. JPAC Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command on Hickam AFB, HI. KIA Killed in action. MIA Missing in action. MTDNA Mitochondrial DNA.

136 2.7 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 128 Section Seven: Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacific Discuss how standard archaeological practices are 7key to understanding the sequence of events at a recovery scene Describe the various techniques used for the identifi cation of individuals from a mass grave Introduction In the early part of World War II, the Allies, led by the U.S., wanted to lead a major strike against the Empire of Japan. Part of this strike would culminate in the Battle of Guadalcanal in August As a major diversionary tactic, a group of over 200 specially-trained U.S. Marines would attack a small Japanese seaplane base on an island then-known as Makin Island (now known as Butaritari Island in the Republic of Kiribati in the central Pacific Ocean). Marine Raiders emblem Map showing general location of Butaritari Island. It is a tiny island, in Northernmost area of the Republic of Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) Marine Colonel Evans Carlson led a very interesting life. Early in his military career, he had worked with Chinese guerilla forces working against Communist forces during the years following World War I. He was very impressed with these hit-and-strike tactics and when the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941, with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, O ahu, Hawaii, he formed two battalions of specially selected Marines that he would train to become an amphibious strike force. This strike force was known as the Marine Raiders. In late July 1942, over 200 of the Marine Raiders boarded two submarines, the U.S.S. Nautilus and the U.S.S. Argonaut, to set sail to their target on Makin Island. It took almost two weeks to sail to Butaritari Island. World War II-era submarines were very cramped with their normal crew

137 129 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 2.7 complement, yet alone with an additional 100 men on each submarine! The submarines arrived on August 16, 1942 and the Marine Raiders used rubber rafts to gain access to the shore. A fierce battle ensued between August 17 th and 18 th and the Raiders quickly subdued the Japanese forces. However, they had initially thought there were more Japanese and after U.S.S. Nautilus several attempts to retreat to the submarines over the barrier reef, they arrived safely at their submarines. The historical account is vague on what occurred; however, Col Carlson knew at least 14 men had been killed and their bodies were not retrieved. When they arrived back in Hawaii, it was discovered that 30 individuals were missing. U.S.S. Argonaut What they did not know, until after the war, is that nine men were captured and taken to another island called Kwajelin. In October 1942, these men were executed. The Return In May 1999, the U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory (the predecessor of JPAC, see Chapter 2.6), sent a team out to Butaritari Island to excavate an area that was possibly the site of a mass grave for the Makin Raiders that were killed. Several islanders indicated that they knew the approximate location of the mass grave and that when the Americans had left, the Japanese divided them into work parties to bury the Americans. After a month of work, the team departed with negative results. With additional interviews, another area of interest was located.

138 2.7 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 130 During World War II, the Pacific Theater was one of four theaters of war. Primarily, forces from the Empire of Japan fought forces from the United States and New Zealand. Other countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada contributed personnel and military materiel. The primary focus of the Makin Island raid was to gain intelligence and attempt to refocus resources from Guadalcanal and, thus, aid the main battle that was to occur a few days later on that island. ENRICHMENT SECTION After the attack on Pearl Harbor and Singapore, Imperial Japanese forces advance throughout the South Pacific and attempted to build a vast defensive system on the various islands leading to the Japanese home islands. These defenses would also serve to block lines of communication between the United States and Australia/New Zealand. During the month of May, 1942, the Imperial Japanese Forces reached Guadalcanal. Allied forces spotted construction of an airfield and support structures, which prompted the planning and execution of the first major amphibious landing of the war. This battle became one of the most contentious struggles for control of the land, sea, and air resources. While the battle at Makin Island did little to divert resources and little intelligence was gathered, Guadalcanal was a major turning point in the war as this battle stopped Japanese expansion throughout the Pacific. In February 1943, the Japanese forces evacuated the island and abandoned it. The Final Clue In December 1999, a massive storm swept through Southeast Asia, canceling CILHI s mission to that part of the world. This essentially freed up personnel, so a mission to return to Butaritari Island was quickly put together. Witnesses were interviewed again and this time, Mr. Baurimoe (pronounced Barry-moo-ah) was able to pinpoint an area where he remembered burying the lost Marines. This time, the team was success, just 20 meters to the east where the Mr. Berimouia was one of the last surviving members of the burial party from World War II. It took many sessions of interviews for him to remember the Burial area.

139 131 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 2.7 previous team stopped excavation! Twenty individuals were excavated in a large mass grave. During the reoccupation of the island by the U.S. Army in 1943, the land surface was extensively modified and a coral gravel road was laid over the top of the mass grave effectively sealing it and protecting it. The U.S. Marine Corps was contacted was contacted in Okinawa and they flew out The team used a method of pedestal excavation to exposed the bodies. a special C-130 cargo aircraft to take all twenty sets of remains back to Hickam AFB in Hawaii, the home of the U.S. Army s Central Identification Laboratory. The remains arrived several hours later and an arrival ceremony was conducted where the remains were brought back home to U.S. soil. What investigative techniques were used to locate the mass grave on Makin Island? CONCEPT CHECK ONE The Identification The identification work on these remains actually started months before the excavation. CILHI only has a small number of deceased personnel files. For most cases, particularly World War II and Korean War-era deaths, we must get records from the National Personnel Records Center, Military Personnel Records (NPRC, MPR) in St. Louis, Missouri or the National Archives in Washington D.C. One of the primary questions to be asked by the CILHI forensic anthropologists was how do we identify a group of individuals that are virtu-

140 2.7 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 132 ally identical in an anthropological sense? What this means is that the majority of the casualties were white males, about six feet tall, and in their early twenties. Our first stage of work was to build the biological profiles of each individual. Immediately, three individuals could be distinguished from the group. One individual was recovered along the edge of the mass grave and his biological profile indicated that he was a native Pacific Islander. During the investigation and excavation phase discussed above, several interviewees stated they thought one or two local people were executed by the Japanese as well. Another individual was identified initially based on his height his personnel records stated that he was about 6 feet, 5 inches tall. His skeletal remains reflected that as well. Finally, the interpreter for the Marine Raiders was born in Tokyo to missionary parents and spoke and read Japanese. He was substantially older than the majority of individuals, being in his early thirties. He also stood out from the group. So, the analytical team was left with 17 individuals to identify. Fortunately, someone had taken a lot of time to document their dental restorations. Usually, the only documents we have are coded with X s and O s indicating carious, extracted, and restored teeth. The records for these men were drawn such that they indicate the shape and extent of the restorations. It was almost like having a three-dimensional reconstruction of the teeth! From these we were able to confirm our initial identifications as well as identify an additional 12 individuals. However, now we were left with 5 individuals that we couldn t identify. What made these last individuals so difficult is that they either didn t have dental records or they had perfect sets of teeth! So based on this situation, these men were identical biologically. The analytical team went back to the medical and personnel files and found a small notation of a tooth extraction that occurred two weeks before these men boarded their submarines in July We had initially thought that one individual s tooth had been lost post-mortem or during excavation; however, upon closer microscopic examination, we could determine that bone remodeling or healing was present in the same position as indicated on the individual s dental records. The last four individuals were sampled for mtdna and samples were sent to AFDIL (see section 2.6) and good sequences were obtained for comparison. All but one individual was identified because we could not find an appropriate family donor for comparison. According to John McCarthy of the Marine Raiders Association, the likely candidate was adopted and had no living relatives.

141 133 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 2.7 At this point, we hired a forensic genealogist to track down an appropriate maternal relative. Finally, one was found and we had our match. Through the use of archaeology, we were able to obtain the remains of 20 individuals. All techniques for identification were used to reach resolution on this case: biological profiles were obtained for each individual and then a comparison of ante-mortem and postmortem dental records identified the vast majority of these casualties. Finally, mtdna was used to identify those individuals from this population that either had perfect sets of teeth or no dental records. What types of analyses were done to identify these twenty individuals from the mass grave found on Makin Island? CONCEPT CHECK TWO Home The identification was announced to the public in December of During the following months, various individuals were escorted to family cemeteries around the U.S. and the family members had a level of closure that they hadn t had for over 60 years. On August 17, 2001, the final thirteen members were laid to rest in Arlington National Cemetery. The local islander was turned over to government representatives from the Republic of Kiribati and returned to Butaritari Island for reburial.

142 2.7 Military Case Studies: August A Mass Grave in the Pacifi c 134 VOCABULARY AFDIL Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory; a division of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. FORENSIC GENEALOGIST A branch of forensics where professional genealogists tracked down relatives, usually for DNA sampling and comparison. MARINE RAIDERS Two battalions of elite commandoes that were trained under the command of Colonel Evans Carlson. NPRC-MPR National Personnel Records Center, Military Personal Records.

143 135 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 2.8 Section Eight: A Country in Conflict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia Defi ne an adversarial versus inquisitional legal system 8 Explain the coordination of the U.S. government in criminal investigation training and the implementation of new procedures Introduction In January 2006, the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) and the International Criminal Investigation Training and Assistance Program (ICITAP) of the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) entered in an agreement to create a unique course to train participants from various agencies involved in the homicide investigation in the Republic of Colombia. These materials were the focus of the DOJ ICITAP Forensic Archaeology Field School. In 2004, a new adversarial legal system was established in order to bring to trial alleged perpetrators of various crimes. This change is dramatic in terms of evidence collection and protocols and is very different from the inquisitional legal system. Of particular interest to the JPAC- CIL and ICITAP staff were crimes related to mass murders and violations of human rights. Drs. Andrew Tyrrell, William Belcher, Derek Benedix, and Eric Emery created a cohesive packet of training materials, including a series of graphic presentations as well as a manual or handbook that was provided to each student/attendee. What is the primary difference between the adversarial and inquisitional legal system? CONCEPT CHECK ONE In July 2006, Dr. Andrew Tyrrell and Dr. William Belcher, assisted by Ms. Jennifer Beatty, Esq. of ICITAP, went to Bogota, Colombia and set up the course for the following September. In addition to classroom presentations and exercises, the primary focus of the field school was

144 2.8 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 136 fieldwork and field exercises. Four series of mock graves were prepared; however, only three were used for the course. Each series moved from simple graves with single bodies to more complex settings of mass graves and disturbances. This provided a way to teach the students more complex systems of The Set-Up excavation and recording in order to present reports in an adversarial legal system. The advance team, along with some local laborers, dug several mock graves and set up a series of plastic skeletons in various positions and situations. The first set was single graves with no evidence. The second set of graves included a three-person grave or mutilated grave site with non-articulated body parts and a few pieces of evidence. The final set of graves included complex body positions, various pieces of evidence, and full sets of clothing over the bodies. Through the excavation of mock mass graves, Colombian Police and investigative forces learn the essentials to collect Evidence and proper excavation techniques, documentation, And chain of custody. The focus of the course is a fairly straightforward approach in teaching forensic archaeology. Classroom sessions include basics in archaeological theory and technique as well as classroom exercises emphasize the importance of documentation for evidence presentation and preservation.

145 137 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 2.8 The Republic of Colombia is located in the northwestern part of South America, bordered by Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Brazil, and the Pacific Ocean. It is a country of intense conflict and local people characterize it as a country in conflict, in the midst of a violent war. Guerillas continue to attack civilians and large areas of the countryside remain under guerilla control. Since the mid-1960s, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC - Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia) and the National Liberation Army have waged an intense guerrilla campaign against government forces. Despite periods of waning activity and perceived lack of interest, these guerilla armies still exist in some form and control substantial parts of the rural and rugged areas of Colombia. The various Colombian political regimes have continued to blame FARC for kidnappings, mass murders, and political extortion. In addition, throughout the last 40 years, but particularly within the 1990s and 2000s, several paramilitary organizations have been organized as shadow armies by various police and military organizations. Many of these organizations appear to be responsible for mass murders of families and large segments of villages. One of the things that have shocked visitors to Bogota is the number of signs of the Disappeared that are posted throughout the city. Kidnappings and disappearance of individuals who protest vocally against the military or police seem to be common throughout Colombia. The UN High Commission, the State Department, and numerous human rights groups routinely document human rights violations by the Colombian government and even note the close ties between the legitimate military and security forces of Colombia and various paramilitary organizations. There doesn t seem to be an end in sight to these crimes. Some individuals have estimated that over 40,000 people are missing and scattered in thousands of clandestine burials throughout Colombia. ENRICHMENT SECTION

146 2.8 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 138 Since September 2006, four classes have been taught to the basic agencies involved in the recovery of evidence related to mass murders, executions, and human rights violations. These include the federal government s Administrative Security Department (Departmento Administrativo de Seguridad DAS), Institute of Legal Medicine (Instituto Stratigraphy de Medicino Legal), the Central Directorate of Criminal Police, (DIJIN - Dirección Central de Policía Judicial), the National Attorney General s Technical Investigation Group (CTI Cuerpo de Technicos Investigaciones, including the Human Rights section) are all included in the course. Most of these individuals are directly involved in the recovery and identification of mass graves throughout the country and include anthropologists, odontologists, surveyors/ topographers, investigators, and criminalists. The ICITAP course has emphasized since its beginning the importance of coordinating several specialists to create a cohesive team. The primary focus of the course is the field work and exercises. Each individual is expected to master tasks ranging from using a metal trowel to clear a section to mapping and drawing soil profiles and sections drawings as well as more complex tasks such as recognizing the subtle soil differences of a grave that The Class has been dug and defining its boundaries. Other group tasks included processing the evidence and lifting/packaging the evidence and human remains. The culmination of the class is the writing of reports and the presentation of the evidence collected from the last set of graves in a mock trial. This is an important step and gives the team members much needed experience in presenting their results and evidence in a courtroom setting that may become more familiar to them in the future.

147 139 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 2.8 What types of skills were learned at the ICITAP Forensic Archaeology Field School? CONCEPT CHECK TWO The Importance This course provides a variety of levels of experience to the students. Primarily, it was designed to set an international standard through the Department of Justice s ICITAP program and train investigators, anthropologists, odontologists, and pathologists in recovery strategies and concepts used within forensic archaeology. As Colombia moves into their adversarial legal system, the use of evidence will become more important in the prosecution of alleged perpetrators. The training team now includes specialists trained to educate the prosecutors in the importance and use of forensic archaeology.

148 2.8 A Country in Confl ict: Capacity Building in Forensic Archaeology in the Republic of Colombia 140 VOCABULARY ADVERSARIAL LEGAL SYSTEM The system of law, generally adopted in common law countries, that relies on the skill of each advocate representing his or her party s positions and involves a neutral person, usually the judge, trying to determine the truth of the case. HUMAN RIGHTS These refer to basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled; these include civil/political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law. INQUISITIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM The inquisitorial system, usually found on the continent of Europe among civil law systems has a judge (or a group of judges who work together) whose task is to investigate the case.

149 141 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 2.9 Section Nine: Assisting in Identification and Investigation in Paradise Describe how a federal skeletal identifi cation laboratory 9can assist local law enforcement in a variety of cases Discuss how standard archaeological practices are key to understanding the sequence of events at a recovery scene Introduction Working as a federal employee and a forensic anthropologist in Hawaii allows me to work a variety of cases with the local law enforcement and medical examiners offices and other federal agencies, such as the Naval Criminal Investigation Service (NCIS). The Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) has worked as subject matter experts in recovery and identification, particularly with skeletal cases. Many of the types of cases we work with are criminal in nature, although the vast majority relate to missing persons. This section will summarize a range of the typical cases that we work within local settings. Where s Dad? In the spring of 2001, we received a call to help recover remains that were allegedly placed in the back yard of a residence on the west coast of O ahu, the primary political and population center of the State of Hawaii. Law enforcement became involved due to a complaint from a family member about the whereabouts of their father. One sibling lived off-island while the other took care of the father. The off-island sibling became concerned because they were never able to communicate with their father. Eventually, the O ahu sibling confessed that the father had died and they buried him in the backyard of a former residence. The CIL was contacted and forensic anthropologist, Dr. Bradley Adams, now of the New York City Medical Examiner s Office, investigated with the staff of the Missing Persons Division at the Honolulu Police Department. The former resident pointed to an area directly below the clothes line of the back yard. Dr. Adams excavated the area using standard archaeological techniques and documented the scene with photography and mapping. Eventually the body was recovered wrapped in a blue tarp that was tied together. Interestingly, several large cement blocks were placed over the top of the corpse for an unknown reason.

150 2.9 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 142 The remains were released by the Honolulu Medical Examiner s Office to the CIL to confirm the identification. Forensic odontology and anthropology identified the individual to be the father. The dental records and dental appliances helped identify the individual while the pathologies associated with advanced age (as well surgical implants in the cranium) specifically confirmed the identification. However, there was no indication of trauma that could have been associated with this individual s death. So, what happened? Based on interviews and the skeletal evidence, it seemed that the father had died a natural death however, the family wanted to keep receiving the Social Security benefits, so his death was not reported and the body was buried in the back yard. While no violent crime was committed, several laws were broken, including Social Security fraud. Describe how a federal skeletal identifi cation laboratory can assist local law enforcement in a variety of cases CONCEPT CHECK ONE The Ehime Maru On February 9, 2001 a US Navy attack submarine, the USS Greenville catastrophically collided with a Japanese fishing training vessel, the Ehime Maru. Within minutes, the Ehime Maru sank in water several thousands of feet deep. This tragic event strained relations with the US and Japanese governments. USS Greenville Eventually, the US Navy decided to attempt a recovery of the Ehime Maru and move it to more shallow water where the bodies could be recovered. In a series of attempts, the Ehime Maru was finally recovered and moved to a shallow reef on the south side of O ahu in October Nine crewmembers, including four high school students, were missing during this incident.

151 143 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 2.9 Once the wreck had been moved to shallower water, U.S. Navy divers from the Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit 1 from O ahu penetrated the ship and recovered all bodies and personal effects, except for one individual. Preservation of the bodies was incredible, considering the amount of time that they had spent in the water. But the depth of the water and temperature made decomposition much slower than it would have been on the surface or in warmer water. Flesh had been removed from areas exposed, probably by small invertebrates and crustaceans, while areas covered by clothing were in good condition. The bodies were taken to the Honolulu Medical Examiner s Office, which had jurisdiction over this case. Our forensic odontologists were called in to examine and identify the partially skeletonized remains. However, during recovery, some of the loose hand and feet bones became disarticulated and disassociated with the individual bodies. So, Drs. John

152 2.9 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 144 Random Skeletons One of the more interesting things that has occurred over the years is the steady number of skeletal cases that the CIL helps analyze as a result of consultations from the Honolulu Medical Examiner s Office. In the spring of 2005, a random leg was recovered from an area off Haneameua Bay on the southeast The Toilet Bowl at Haumana Park Reserve side of O ahu. The specific area where this leg was recovered, incidentally, was called The Toilet Bowl! Some fishermen found the leg while snorkeling and spear fishing in the area. ENRICHMENT SECTION Initially, the news media had reported this leg as part of a probable shark attack. There was evidence of shark tooth gnawing on the leg. The leg was brought to the CIL, where it was cleaned and analyzed. There was abundant evidence of carnivore/shark trauma along the shaft of the bone and the proximal end of the femur. The interesting thing about this case was there was no unaccounted for case of a shark attack. Dr. Robert Mann examined the leg and determined that it was likely a case of animal scavenging. It is likely that this individual was dumped into the ocean to dispose of the body, which in this case was almost successful. No other portions have been recovered nor has the DNA been matched to a known missing person. Why would this be the case? Often in cases of illicit activities or drug-related deaths, the individuals are never reported as missing by their friends or families. The Hawaiian Islands has such an itinerant population that is constantly moving both between and off the islands that some close family members and friends never know what happened to their loved ones.

153 145 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 2.9 Byrd and Bradley Adams used an innovative technique to reassociate these bones. By using a large comparative database, they were able to reassociate the bones based on size and morphometrics of the individual bones. Occasionally, random skeletons will be recovered from certain areas of O ahu most commonly, these are found in shallow graves along the North Shore area, the northwestern tip of the island on K eana Point, or in the old sugar cane or pineapple fields of the central highlands. Over the years, the CIL has received several complete skeletons recovered by the Honolulu Police Department, including an elderly male and a juvenile child. Decomposition in a tropical environment can be very rapid, so often our forensic odontologists and anthropologists will be needed to assist in the identification of cases that we have only just seen on the nightly news. Discuss how standard archaeological practices are key to understanding the sequence of events at a recovery scene. CONCEPT CHECK TWO The Central ID Laboratory in Hawai i has assisted local law enforcement on a number of cases. An unusual situation involved the discovery of skeletal remains of an elderly man, whose children continued to collect his social security benefits, a federal case of Social Security fraud. They have also assisted with recovery of sunken ships and skeletonized remains that are found on the island.

154 2.9 Assisting in Identifi cation and Investigation in Paradise 146 ITINERANT Without a home. VOCABULARY MORPHOMETRICS Measures of morphology, or physical characteristics.

155 147 The Hollywood Factor and Reality 2.10 Section Ten: The Hollywood Factor and Reality 10 Discuss the difference between reality and TV representation of forensics List the primary professional organizations for forensic scientists Introduction With the popularity of forensic mystery books by Kathleen Reichs and Thomas Holland, the public has had a seemingly insatiable appetite for all things forensic and criminal. The more scientific and high-tech they are, the more popular these books have been. Even more so now, the public appetite is increasing with television dramas like CSI, CSI: Miami/New York, and Bones. Most of these television shows have some basis in fact, although the science has been exaggerated, condensed, or abridged to fit within the 45-minute time slot. It seems that all mysteries can be solved in a few minutes. While these shows are entertaining, the fact is that science and forensics rarely work this quickly nor is the process that neat and tidy. The Hollywood Factor One of the most frustrating aspects of true forensic science is the presentation of information to juries or other non-forensic professionals. While some of the television programs have educated the general public, the fantastical and fictional nature of some of the science (three-dimensional reconstruction of skeletal remains using holograms or facial reconstruction of fetal remains) has caused juries or even family advocates to expect these kinds of products to be presented within a real-life courtroom situation. Sometimes it has been difficult to explain to the public that these kinds of reconstructions are not possible and the level of technol-

156 2.10 The Hollywood Factor and Reality 148 ogy presented just doesn t exist. The fact that DNA analysis can take a substantially longer period of time than they see it take on television can cause some frustration for anxious family members. The popularity of true crime television shows of TruTV (formerly Court TV) and crime scene investigation dramas has served the purpose of educating the public that acts as jurors. Several investigative organizations are now beginning to offer seminars in how to deal with this phenomenon. The use of DNA in identification and its reliability is now something that doesn t need to be explained, but some of the more fantastical aspects of television representations of DNA analysis have crept into public awareness, where it is a form of folklore or folk knowledge. I have spoken with many fans of these dramas and they have been very disappointed to find out that some of the work takes years to complete and is only done through very detailed scientific analysis. Until recently, I didn t carry a badge and I have never handled a weapon outside of a combat zone. I now carry a badge that assists me as a credential to transport skeletal and material evidence through airport security within the boundaries of the U.S.A. What are the primary ways in which the entertainment industry has affected crime scene investigation? CONCEPT CHECK ONE

157 149 The Hollywood Factor and Reality 2.10 Ms. Yvonne Price of the Science Communications College of Journalism and Communications at University of Florida is looking at how the popular drama, CSI and its descendents (CSI: Miami and CSI: New York) have affected the popularity of forensic sciences programs. Her surveys of forensic science enrollment statistics will enable her to examine the effect of these television shows on the real lives of professionals and students within the various forensic programs throughout the country. Anecdotally, I believe that there is a strong correlation of the popularity of these shows and the popularity of forensic sciences in universities and colleges. I receive many advertisements asking for a forensic scientist or forensic anthropologist to teach a course at a small college for a semester or so. There is a vast interest out there for this kind of study (a small example is the development of these lessons!) and very few qualified individuals to teach it. Unfortunately, many institutions believe that they can cobble together a program and attach the word forensic to it and it will achieve the popularity. Professionals need to examine the extent of these programs and the types of instruction that are being imparted to students. Students must also be aware that many instructors may or may not have the credentials to be teaching a forensic course. Of course, it doesn t help that, primarily due to the popularity of these programs and forensics, that universities and colleges are putting a lot of money into programs. While this may seem good for forensic sciences in the long run, the entertainment industry is a fickle one while genres and media waxing and waning in popularity. Currently, I don t see this wave of popularity crashing, but it will someday. ENRICHMENT SECTION Educational and Professional Organizations Most participants in forensic sciences have advanced degrees, particularly in the medical fields. Most analysts will have a post-bachelor degree, many with a master s degree in science or a related field; many more will have an M.D. degree or a Ph.D. Generally, forensic sciences are focused on mathematics, chemistry, and biochemistry, although the anthropological sciences can focus more on archaeological training as well as physical anthropology and human osteology. Other fields in forensics require extensive training in engineering and psychology. A high school student interested in going into any forensic field should have a solid grounding in upper level science and mathematics classes as well as English classes.

158 2.10 The Hollywood Factor and Reality 150 The ability to write and argue a point is critical because much of your analytical work must be presented in a written form. The importance of good written and verbal communication skills cannot be overemphasized. Several professional organizations assist in the dissemination of ideas, techniques, and general knowledge, as well as acting as conduits for continuing education. The premier organization for North America is the American Academy of Forensic Sciences ( This organization was found in 1948 and has professional sections including Physical Anthropology, Criminalistics, Engineering Sciences, General, Jurisprudence, Odontology, Pathology, Biology, Psychiatry/Behavioral Sciences, Questioned Documents, and Toxicology. Other related societies are boards that certify their members in forensic techniques. These include the American Board of Forensic Odontology, the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, the American Board of Forensic Toxicology, as well as the American Board of Forensic Psychology. The primary organizations that represent archaeologists include the Society for American Archaeology ( founded in The SAA s primary mission is to expand understanding and appreciation of humanity s past as achieved through systematic investigation of the archaeological record However, after the 9/11 attacks, a roster began to be maintained that could be used by various agencies, if archaeological expertise was needed with recovery operations related to mass disasters. What are some of the primary professional organizations for forensic anthropology, archaeology, and forensic odontology? CONCEPT CHECK TWO

159 151 The Hollywood Factor and Reality 2.10 AAFS American Association of Forensic Sciences. ABFA American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Inc. ABFO American Board of Forensic Odontology. SAA Society of American Archaeology. VOCABULARY

160

161 appendices APPENDIX A: APPENDIX B: APPENDIX C: Answer Key Glossary Human Bones

162 Appendix A: Answer Key cliv CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS Section 1.1 Concept Check One How does the term forensic differ in its use in a legal setting that the way it may be used in your school? Forensics in general is a form of argumentative discourse. This is why your high school debate team is often called a forensic team. How does this fit with criminal investigation? Well, it refers to the argumentative aspect of the legal system and refers to discussions that are suitable for discussion in a judicial format. Within the Forensics Module, we will use forensics in terms of this latter definition; that has to do with the scientific and medical methods used for legal questions. Concept Check Two What are the different types of evidence? Physical evidence and biological evidence. Concept Check Three Give some examples of trace evidence and the ways in which they are analyzed. Fibers are another important form of trace evidence. Fibers can originate from various sources either at the scene or on a person. The primary goal is to link a victim or alleged perpetrator to a scene through fibers found on or in areas associated with either person or scene. Through the use of a comparison microscope (or stereomicroscope), it is possible to compare physical attributes. Toxicology is the analysis of foreign substances that are found in biological samples. It can include the use of chemical analyses (including analytical chemistry and clinical chemistry) and pharmacology. Fingerprint analysis concerns the analysis of ridges that occur on finger pads, toe pads, and over most surfaces of the palms and soles of the hands and feet. These are thought to be specific to individuals.

163 clv Appendix A: Answer Key Concept Check Four Discuss the differences between genomic DNA and mitochondrial DNA and where they might be used in forensic analyses. Within the cell, the DNA that controls individual characteristics and has components contributed from both parents occurs in the nucleus. This is usually referred to as nucleic or genomic DNA. The mitochondria contain short strands of DNA that are not involved in the reproductive process. In fact, mitochondrial DNA (mtdna) only comes from the maternal line or from the mother. Concept Check Five Ballistics and tool mark analysis are similar in what ways? Ballistics is the science that deals with the physical characteristics of projectiles (including, but not limited to motion, behavior, and effects). Tool marks include unique aspects of tools that leave trace evidence at a scene. These tools may be used to create a clandestine burial, create blunt force or sharp force trauma on a body, or create any sort of mark at a scene. Both deal with the identification of macroscopic and microscopic differences in physical markings left on an item or victim. Section 1.2 Concept Check One What are the main types of modes of death? Natural refers to conditions that are naturally occurring and are usually related to age or disease. Suicide refers to those deaths that are related to a victim causing their own death through either direct or indirect means. Homicide refers to a victim s death related to the direct and deliberate actions of others. Accidental refers to deaths that are related to various causes that cannot be related directly or indirectly to specific individuals. Finally, unknown refers to those deaths that are related to factors that cannot be determined. Concept Check Two What is a biological profile? This is the reconstructed life and death of the individual, including biological sex, chronological age, ante mortem trauma, ancestry, and stature.

164 Appendix A: Answer Key clvi Concept Check Three Define the terms forensic anthropology and forensic odontology. Summarize how they are similar and how they are different from one another. Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology and its techniques to assist in the investigation of human (and often non-human remains) in order to provide more information to a medical examiner or coroner s office. Forensic odontology (or dentistry) includes the analysis of materials related to dentition in a legal setting. Section 1.3 Concept Check One Describe the differences between forensic anthropology and forensic archaeology. Forensic anthropology includes the analysis of human skeletal remains to derive a biological profile. Forensic archaeology is a form of crime scene investigation involving the principles of archaeology and archaeological analysis. Concept Check Two Why is it important to protect a forensic/crime scene until the investigation is completed? Evidence and their physical relationships to each other and the landscape can be modified if movement of unauthorized people into the crime scene is not kept in check. Concept Check Three Discuss how archaeological methods are used to support crime scene analyses and why use of proper methodology is important to maintain the integrity of the findings? The crime scene investigators may be the only individuals who ever see the actual physical relationships of various pieces of evidence to each other and the landscape. If those relationships are not recorded, that information may be lost.

165 clvii Appendix A: Answer Key Section 1.4 Concept Check One Why must a chain of evidence or chain of custody be maintained for materials recovered at a forensic/crime scene? The chain of custody or similar documents tracks the movement of evidence and who has been in contact with an assemblage of evidence from the time of its recovery, through various series of testing, and finally, to presentation in a court of law. Concept Check Two List some of the instruments and other tools that a forensic archaeologist might use to excavate a crime scene and gather evidence. These tools include: satellite imagery, aerial photography, soil resistivity meters, ground-penetrating RADAR, bulldozers, belly scrapers, etc. Other tools include utilizing the experts in appropriate disciplines, such as ballistics or entomology. Section 1.5 Concept Check One What are the five main categories of bones? Give examples of each. Long, including the bones of the arms and legs. Flat, including bones such as the scapula or shoulder blade. Short, including the bones of the hands and feet. Irregular, including bones such as bones of the wrist, ankle, and pelvis. Sesamoid, small bones that are inside a tendon, where it passes over a joint (such as the patella or knee cap). Concept Check Two What are the six specific functions of bone? Support Protection Movement Mineral storage Production and storage of blood cell-producing cells Storage of energy

166 Appendix A: Answer Key clviii Concept Check Three Discuss the different groupings of bones in the skeleton. Cranial Postcranial Axial Appendicular Concept Check Four Discuss the reference directions for describing the body and bones of the skeleton. Superior: toward the head end of the body Inferior: toward the foot (caudal) end of the body Anterior: toward the front of the body Posterior: toward the back of the body Medial: toward the midline Lateral: away from the midline Proximal: nearest the axial skeleton Distal: farthest from the axial skeleton Section 1.6 Concept Check One What are some of the considerations when assessing evidence? During the initial assessment of evidence, the analysts want to look at the assemblage of materials as a collection. The first levels of examination are that the analyst wants to determine if the biological materials that we are looking at are bone; secondly, the analysts want to determine whether the bone we are examining is of human origin.

167 clix Appendix A: Answer Key Concept Check Two What are the primary ways of determining whether bones are human or non-human? The two primary methods of determining the difference between human and non-human bone are visual and histological. Visual determination includes examining the morphology of bone and its general structure. Because humans are very different kinds of mammals, our bones look very different from those of other mammals. Additionally, analysts use histological techniques to look at the microscopic structure of the bones. Histology is the study of looking at microscopic differences in bone structure. Section 1.7 Concept Check One What constitutes forensic significance? A general rule for forensic interest is that if the situation that created the scene is over 50 years old, it is probably not of forensic interest. Thus, the context in which these items were found and the recovery done by crime scene investigators and forensic archaeologists are extremely important. Concept Check Two Why is it sometimes difficult to determine minimum number of individuals in a mass grave or a commingled assemblage? If the bodies were laid out in a linear fashion in a mass grave, these individuals would be easily ascertained. However, usually in the case of many types of mass graves with multiple individuals, bodies can be mixed up (commingled) or shift through decomposition or even deliberate acts. Deliberate acts include the butchery and violent disarticulation of bodies in an attempt to hide the identities of individuals and criminal acts. Skeletons can become disarticulated (bones no longer in anatomical position or connection) and mixed with those bones from different individuals. Additionally, concerned family members can unintentionally mix remains in their hurry to obtain the remains of their loved ones.

168 Appendix A: Answer Key clx Section 1.8 Concept Check One How is biological sex determined? There are two different approaches to determining biological sex. The easiest, yet most difficult to master, is the examination of the shape (or morphology) of specific skeletal elements, particularly the pelvis and the skull, although other postcranial bones can be used. The other approach is through the use of osteometrics (bone measurements) and discriminant function analysis (a statistical method that determines which variables or measurements discriminate between two or more groups) that emphasizes bone size and shape of various human populations. Concept Check Two Why is the pelvis important in human development? Why are there differences between the male and female adult pelvis? The pelvis is a combined adaptation to bipedalism (a form of locomotion of walking on two limbs). Additionally, specific characteristics of the female pelvis are related to the carrying of and giving birth to a large-brained child. The evolution of the female pelvis and the gestation period of a human pregnancy are all tied in together to create a system of birthing a large-brained child and the mother s ability to walk erect. These various selective pressures have created some distinctive differences in the pelvis between males and females. Concept Check Three Is the skull the most useful bone for determining biological sex? Why is it used so frequently for this purpose? The skull is not the most diagnostic part of the skeleton for determining biological sex; however, it is commonly preserved and is usually one of the most common areas of the body used by forensic anthropologists. Additionally, skulls are often found in isolated situations. Many forensic laboratories will receive skulls as isolated items for analysis. This is probably due to the highly diagnostic nature of the skull; that is, most non-specialists will recognize it and, therefore, collect it.

169 clxi Appendix A: Answer Key Section 1.9 Concept Check One List the two primary skeletal indicators used to assess age. Stage of development; degeneration Concept Check Two List the three segments of bone development and how the segments change as development progresses Long bones consist of a diaphysis (shaft) with two epiphyses (ends), separated by a thin layer of cartilage. At a certain age, the epiphyses fuse with the diaphysis and stop bone growth. Concept Check Three List the three key areas used to assess age by looking at bone degeneration and why each area provides good information on age. Pubic Symphysis: Surface composed of ridges and furrows shows age as the furrow are filled in and show pitting and erosion. Auricular Surface: The sacroiliac joint shows age-related wear and tear because it is the center of gravity for bipedal humans. Sternal Rib Ends: The formation of the ribs changes over time, with specific changes linked to age. Section 1.10 Concept Check One What is the most used measure of stature? What are the best bones to use to measure stature of skeletal remains? However, the predominant method is based on bone length. This is based primarily on the fact that taller people have longer limbs and, therefore, longer bones. While formulae exist for a variety of long bones, the leg bones represent the majority of contribution to individual stature. Therefore, a forensic anthropologist will derive a more accurate stature estimate by using both the femur and the tibia.

170 Appendix A: Answer Key clxii Concept Check Two Does stature remain the same during adult life? What are some things that influence stature? Loss in stature is due to a variety of mechanisms, usually related to bone degradation as well as collapsing and degeneration of vertebral discs. This begins to occur for both sexes around age 45 and continues well into an elderly age. Additionally, pathologies such as degenerative diseases and osteoporosis can result in extensive stature loss. However, these types of pathologies should be easily recognized in a forensic assemblage. Concept Check Three Why would the large standard errors for regression equations used to estimate stature based on measurements of the metacarpals make the utility of those analyses questionable? Large standard errors indicate that the confidence in the analysis is lower than for an analysis with a small standard error (i.e +/- 5%), or 95% confidence interval. Section 2.1 Concept Check One List the 3 primary ancestry categories. Asian, Black, White/Caucasian Concept Check Two State the area of the skull most critical to determining the ancestry category of the individual and why. Mid-facial area. The shape and characteristics of the face provide the most information on ancestry.

171 clxiii Appendix A: Answer Key Concept Check Three Explain the importance of having a database that represents wide variation in population characteristics when assessing ancestry. Blending of the various ancestry categories has resulted in a very broad range, or continuum, of combinations of these categories. The more information available to forensic scientists regarding the morphological characteristics resulting from various combinations of ancestry, the more likely they are to be able to accurately identify the correct ancestral category(ies) for an individual. Section 2.2 Concept Check One List the various types of fractures and describe their characteristics. Simple Fracture - a single break that results in two sections of bone Green Stick Fracture - a break in the surface of the bone that does not extend all the way through the bone. Comminuted Fracture - a compound fracture that may include crush injury Hinge Fracture - when a bone is partially attached to the original surface Infraction - an incomplete fracture Concept Check Two Discuss beveling and the characteristics of projectile damage to bone. Beveling is the funnel-shaped deformity caused in bone when a projectile enters it. Inward beveling indicates the entry point for the projects. Outward beveling indicates the exit point. Bullets can produce round entrance wounds when the trajectory is virtually perpendicular (90 o angle) to the surface of the bone. Oval entrance wounds suggest that the trajectory is either slightly angled (less than 90 o to the surface of the bone or the bullet was tumbling when it struck. Keyhole shaped entrance wounds are usually caused by bullets that graze bone, or strike at an acute angle.

172 Appendix A: Answer Key clxiv Concept Check Three List the four primary types of trauma and the characteristic signs of each in bone. Blunt Force Trauma: an impact injury that is caused by force from a wide, blunt surface. Compression usually occurs, along with bending of the bone tissue. Blunt force injuries exhibit many different types of fractures with simple fracture lines predominant. Comminuted fractures are common as the blunt force can cause crushing and shattering through extreme force. Sharp Force Trauma: created by compression and shearing forces applied over a very narrow focus. Punctures or chop marks can occur when the force is applied perpendicular to the bone surface. Cut marks or chatter marks can result if the force glances off the cortical (hard) bone tissue. Projectile Trauma: typically inflicted by a bullet, but other projectiles may also be involved. Discontinuities and displacement fractures are common with fracture lines, particularly radiating fracture lines on cranium tissue. Entry (penetrating) wound and an exit wounds are formed Initially a wound is formed in, and sometimes through, bone. Fracture lines will radiate out from the point of impact, sometimes so the bone breaks and shatters. Beveling will occur, depending upon the angle of impact. Miscellaneous Trauma: trauma that does not fit neatly into any of the previous categories, including strangulation, sawing, explosions, and even chemical or heat. Concept Check Four List the three types of traumatic events and a key characteristic of each that differentiates it from the others. Antemortem trauma refers to injuries that occurred before death. These can be distinguished from other times of trauma in that there is partial or complete healing of the bone tissue. Remodeling and smoothing of the blunt edges occurs along fractures. Additionally, in some cases, a raised callous area may exist over fractures.

173 clxv Appendix A: Answer Key Perimortem trauma is related to injuries that occur around the time of death. Because of the timing of this event, this type of injury may be of tremendous importance to determining the mode of death. Because these injuries occurred so close to the time of death, they do not reveal any form of healing. Postmortem trauma refers to injuries to bone tissue that have occurred after death. Few changes occur to skeletal tissue during the immediate postmortem interval; therefore, postmortem injury to bone that is still relatively fresh can be difficult to distinguish from perimortem injuries. However, when the soft tissues have decomposed and the bone dries, the physical characteristics will change and how the bone reacts to force will change. For example, when bone is dry, bones rarely exhibit radiating fractures. Green-stick fractures are rare with dry bone. Postmortem trauma is of interest to the forensic anthropologist as it may reflect changes in the scene after the death of the individual. Postmortem injury to bone can also occur during recovery and transport of the remains to a forensic laboratory. When dry bone breaks, the fracture areas are usually a lighter color than of the out surfaces of the dry bone. This is particularly true if the bones are covered with sediment or soil. Section 2.3 Concept Check One What are some of the variables forensic odontologists consider when trying to estimate the age of an individual? Understanding tooth eruption sequences requires an understanding of growth patterns and to realize that these sequences vary slightly between male and female, as well as between different ethnic groups. However, permanent dentition erupts in a general sequence that can be tied into general age classes, usually with ranges of 2 years or so.

174 Appendix A: Answer Key clxvi Concept Check Two Why is bite mark analysis important in forensic anthropology? What are some key comparisons that can be made with existing dental records to help identify an individual? Victims of abuse and neglect are often tortured through biting. The biting can be habitual and victims often show a series of wounds in different stages of healing. A forensic odontologist can aid in the identification of the abuser through a comparison of the tooth patterns left in the victims skin. Due to the individuating aspects of tooth growth, breakage, and other attributes, biting can leave a very specific mark on skin. Section 2.4 Concept Check One Why is it important to process a potential crime scene with care and precision? If the evidence recovery is done in an unprofessional and careless manner, these actions will directly impact the ability of later analysts to identify an individual or help put evidence forward for prosecution. The context lends itself to understanding what has happened at a scene as we attempt to reconstruct the activities and human behaviors that have occurred at a scene. Examination of material evidence and trace evidence may provide vital links between a scene, a victim, and other individuals or places. Concept Check Two How is bone used to help with identification of individuals? However, certain characteristics in trauma or unique pathologies may help establish a positive identification from skeletal materials. If a unique pathology exists or unique characteristics of bony tissue exist and these can be matched to radiographs or x-rays, a positive match can be made, much like what is done with dental work. Concept Check Three How does forensic anthropology lead to identification of missing persons and US service members who are lost during a conflict? DNA comparison of an appropriate sample from the missing person and the remains can be done through an analysis of antemortem

175 clxvii Appendix A: Answer Key samples. The FBI recently established the Missing Persons DNA Database Program in order to provide a comparative database that allows links to be established between unidentified remains throughout the country and the world and known missing persons. The US military maintains the Military DNA Registry that maintains a blood smear for every military service member that is currently serving. Section 2.5 Concept Check One Describe why forensic anthropology programs are important and the role they play in law enforcement. Forensic anthropology programs train people in proper techniques for analyzing time and mode of death for remains found at crime scenes, such as burial sites that include one or more individuals. Concept Check Two List the two public facilities described in this section and the key mission of each. The Anthropological Research Facility at the University of Tennessee- Knoxville allows forensic anthropologists to study decomposition of remains in natural conditions to better understand postmortem change, decay processes and rates. The C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory at the University of Florida-Gainesville has a two-fold mission firstly, it provides stateof-the art anthropological, legal, and laboratory-based training for graduation students and professionals in various scientific and forensic fields; secondly, the Laboratory provides clinical anthropological services to a variety of individuals and agencies within state, federal, and international areas. Section 2.6 Concept Check One Describe the history of the commitment of the U.S. government s efforts in the identification of American war dead. The U.S. government has been committed to the identification and return of casualties to their native soil and their families since the Revolutionary War; however, Central Identification Facilities have

176 Appendix A: Answer Key clxviii been in place since the end of each major conflict since the Civil War. Since 1973, the U.S. Department of Defense has set up and established a permanent forensic anthropology facility, originally based in Thailand and now based on Hickam AFB, HI. Concept Check Two What is JPAC s Area of Responsibility (AOR)? The Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command s AOR includes all areas that the US fought during past conflicts. This includes most areas of the world and includes most time periods of the 20th century and earlier. Section 2.7 Concept Check One What investigative techniques were used to locate the mass grave on Makin Island? The investigative teams of the US Army Central Identification Laboratory used archival, witness testimony, and historical documentation to initially investigate this case. Additionally, persistent interviews with aging islanders that were involved with the burial of the U.S. Marines. One of the main problems was the advanced age and failing memories of these individuals. Once a rough area was located, standard archaeological search patterns were conducted. Eventually, when the mass grave was located, it was excavated using a pedestal system to record body position. Concept Check Two What types of analyses were done to identify these twenty individuals from the mass grave found on Makin Island? Through the use of archaeology, we were able to obtain the remains of 20 individuals. All techniques for identification were used to reach resolution on this case: biological profiles were obtained for each individual and then a comparison of ante-mortem and postmortem dental records identified the vast majority of these casualties. Finally, mtdna was used to identify those individuals from this population that either had perfect sets of teeth or no dental records.

177 clxix Appendix A: Answer Key Section 2.8 Concept Check One What is the primary difference between the adversarial and inquisitional legal system? The primary difference between these two legal systems is the use of evidence. In the adversarial system, a neutral party, the judge determines the validity of the case and the accusations, while in an inquisitional legal system, the judge or group of judges investigate the case and are an integral part of the proceedings. Concept Check Two What types of skills were learned at the ICITAP Forensic Archaeology Field School? Each individual is expected to master tasks ranging from using a metal trowel to clear a section to mapping and drawing soil profiles and sections drawings as well as more complex tasks such as recognizing the subtle soil differences of a grave that has been dug and defining its boundaries. Other group tasks included processing the evidence and lifting/packaging the evidence and human remains. The culmination of the class is the writing of reports and the presentation of the evidence of the last set of graves in a mock trial. Section 2.9 Concept Check One Describe how a federal skeletal identification laboratory can assist local law enforcement in a variety of cases. A federal skeletal identification laboratory can assist local law enforcement in determining identity of victims, cause of death, and cause of destruction of a body.

178 Appendix A: Answer Key clxx Concept Check Two Discuss how standard archaeological practices are key to understanding the sequence of events at a recovery scene. Standard archaeological practices allow a scene to be excavated and documented at a level of detail that allows the investigators to determine, in many cases, what actually happened to the victim of the crime. If is important to document each step of an excavation, as well as the variables associated with the excavation. Section 2.10 Concept Check One What are the primary ways in which the entertainment industry has affected crime scene investigation? The fantastical and fictional nature of some of the science (threedimensional reconstruction of skeletal remains using holograms or facial reconstruction of fetal remains) has caused juries or even family advocates to expect these kinds of products to be presented within a real-life courtroom situation. Concept Check Two What are some of the primary professional organizations for forensic anthropology, archaeology, and forensic odontology? American Academy of Forensic Sciences Society for American Archaeology American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Inc. American Board of Forensic Odontology, Inc.

179 clxxi Appendix B: Glossary GLOSSARY AAFS American Association of Forensic Sciences. ABFA American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Inc. ABFO American Board of Forensic Odontology. ACCIDENTAL Refers to deaths that are related to various causes that cannot be related directly or indirectly to specific individuals. ADULT An individual with a chronological age of 18 years or more. ADVERSARIAL LEGAL SYSTEM The system of law, generally adopted in common law countries, that relies on the skill of each advocate representing his or her party s positions and involves a neutral person, usually the judge, trying to determine the truth of the case. AFDIL Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory; a division of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. ALVEOLAR CHANNEL This refers to the cavity in the maxilla and mandible that the tooth roots occupy. The term originates from the Latin alveus which means cavity or hollow. ANCESTRY CATEGORY The three primary categories are White, Black and Asian. ANTEMORTEM Before death. ANTEMORTEM TRAUMA Injuries that occurred before death. ANTERIOR Front.

180 Appendix B: Glossary clxxii ANTEVERSION Torsion twisting toward the front of the bone. ANTHROPOLOGY The study of human diversity, both cultural and social as well as physical. APPENDICULAR SKELETON The paired bones that comprise the limbs of the skeleton/body. ARCHAEOLOGY The reconstruction and interpretation of past human behavior based on the materials remains of that behavior. ASSEMBLAGE A collection of evidence that is found together. AURICULAR SURFACE The surface defined by the sacroiliac joint. BALLISTICS The science that deals with the physical characteristics of projectiles (including, but not limited to motion, behavior, and effects). BEVELING The funnel-shaped deformity caused in bone when a projectile enters it. BIFURCATED Split. BILATERAL SYMMETRY Characteristic of most animal skeletons; this refers to the fact that there is a left and right side that create mirror images of most skeletal elements. BIOLOGICAL ADULT An individual who has reached biological maturity, typically aged 25 years or older. BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Any item of evidence that originate from the biological world. BIOLOGICAL SEX Biological expression of sex; this includes the genetic components of male, female, or hermaphrodite. BIPEDALISM A form of locomotion - walking erect on two legs.

181 clxxiii Appendix B: Glossary BLIND SAMPLES Samples of evidence submitted for examination that are not identified in such a way that the analyst knows where they came from. This minimizes the introduction of bias into the analysis. BLUNT FORCE TRAUMA An impact injury that is caused by force from a wide, blunt surface. BONE REMODELING Reshaping of the bone that occurs due to wear, injury, or disease. CANINES The large, single cusped teeth located between the incisors and the premolars, or bicuspids. CARIOUS Affected with cavities and/or decay. CHAIN OF CUSTODY Documents all individuals that have had access to evidence from the time of its collection to its possible presentation to a jury or other legal body in a court of law. CHAIN OF EVIDENCE OR CHAIN OF CUSTODY This document details the movement of evidence from its initial recovery, through analysis, and, if necessary, to presentation in a court room. This document is signed by an individual releasing the evidence to a responsible person. CHONDROGENESIS Formation of the cartilaginous scaffolding from which bone arises. CHRONOLOGICAL In time. For example, age in years. CHRONOLOGICAL AGE Age in years. CIL Central Identification Laboratory; the forensic anthropology laboratory section of JPAC. CLAVICLE Collar bone. COALESCE To join or grow together.

182 Appendix B: Glossary clxxiv COLD CASE A case that has been investigated with no success for a long time. COLLUVIAL Movement of materials through processes related to gravity, such as sliding down a hill slope from an original location. COMMINGLING Involving a mixed skeletal assemblage that involves bones of more than one individual that are no longer in articulation. COMMINUTED FRACTURE A fracture that is compound and may include crush injury. CONTEXT The physical setting of evidence and the spatial relationships between those items; how the items relate to each other and their environmental setting. CONTEXTUAL EVIDENCE This is the group of evidence that is based more on the association of objects to their landscape or to each other. These include the physical relationships between other types of evidence and their landscape. CORTICAL BONE Bone tissue is dense and forms the rigid outer structure/surface of all bone. COSTAL CARTILAGE The cartilage that joints the ends of the ribs to the sternum. CRANIAL BONES The bones that form the skull and jaw. CRANIUM Skull. CREMAINS Burned bones in general; specifically, cremated or burned human remains. CROWN CALCIFICATION Hardening and development of the crown of the baby, or deciduous, tooth. DECEDENT This refers to the individual that is deceased.

183 clxxv Appendix B: Glossary DECIDIOUS Early teeth that are shed as the individual develops and grows. DENTAL ARCADE The curved shape of a row of teeth. DENTAL PATHOLOGY Changes in the dentition as a result of use, age, trauma and disease. DESECRATION These include acts of a blasphemous nature that deprives a place or object of its sacred nature. In this context, it includes the digging up and disturbance of graves or burials. DIAPHYSES Shaft (long part) of a bone. DISCONTINUITY A break in the bone that may or may not be complete. Not all discontinuities constitute fractures in forensic anthropology. DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS A statistical method that determines which variables or measurements discriminate between two or more groups. DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS A method used to determine the variables that allow one to determine the differences between two naturally occurring groups. DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a complex, nucleic acid that contains genetic material or information that is used in the development growth, and maintenance of all living things. DNA FINGERPRINTING Using any form of body fluid or biological tissue was left at a site to identify the individuals who were at the site by analyzing their DNA. DNA evidence is now used routinely to link individuals to a scene. ECTOCRANIAL Outside the cranium. ENDOCHONDRAL BONE Forms from a cartilaginous model and is characterized by the long bones of the appendicular skeleton.

184 Appendix B: Glossary clxxvi ENDOCRANIAL Inside the cranium. ENTOMOLOGIST An entomologist studies the behavior and life-cycles of insects. Forensic entomologists study the life cycles of insects that feed on or use decaying tissue in their life cycles. This allows one to reconstruct the time of death or the post-mortem interval (how much time has passed since death). EPIPHYSEAL UNION The final fusing of the diaphyses and epiphyses that stops the bone from growing further. EPIPHYSES Ends of a bone. ERROR RANGE A measure of the uncertainty associated with a calculated number; often based on statistical sample size. ETHICS STATEMENT This is usually a signed document by a member of a professional society. This helps codify certain professional acts and verifies the commitment of the membership to abide by these rules. ETHNICITY A cultural category associated with race, but which reflects specific cultural characteristics. This is separate from ancestry. EUKARYOTIC An organism that has internal membranes and a cytoskeleton, including a membrane-bound structure called the nucleus. EVIDENCE Something that exists in a physical sense that is used in a court of law or criminal investigation that will be used in an argument to determine the matter of truth. FAUNAL Of non-human animal origin. FEMORA Multiple of femur, a long bone in the leg.

185 clxxvii Appendix B: Glossary FIBER Another important form of trace evidence. Fibers can originate from various sources either at the scene or on a person. FINGERPRINTING Based on the patterns seen in friction ridges in the skin on the hands and used to identify individuals. FLUVIAL Movement of materials through processes related to flowing water, such as sheet wash after a rain storm or a stream/river. FORENSIC ANALYSIS Has the primary goals of examining, identifying, and comparing evidentiary items using a wide scope of scientific techniques and procedures. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY The application of physical anthropology and its techniques to assist in the investigation of human (and often non-human remains) in order to provide more information to a medical examiner or coroner s office. FORENSIC ARCHAEOLOGY The application of archaeological techniques and strategies to sites or scenes in a medical or legal setting. FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY The study of insects and their growth cycles related to medical and legal investigations; this is usually done to determine the postmortem interval at a scene. FORENSIC GENEALOGIST A branch of forensics where professional genealogists tracked down relatives, usually for DNA sampling and comparison. FORENSIC INVESTIGATION Uses a wide variety of techniques ranging from visual observation and recording these ideas into a notebook to the most sophisticated form of DNA analysis. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY Forensic dentistry. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY (OR DENTISTRY) includes the analysis of materials related to dentition in a legal setting.

186 Appendix B: Glossary clxxviii FORENSIC SIGNIFICANCE This refers to the use of evidence in a legal case or if the evidence even refers to a legal case. FORENSICS The use of a variety of investigation and scientific procedures used to assist the legal community. FRACTURE LINES Fracture lines are lines associated with a form of trauma; simple fracture lines tend to be linear and originate from a point of impact. FULLEST POSSIBLE ACCOUNTING The U.S. government s policy concerning accounting for all missing U.S. service members. GENDER May include a variety of behaviors that are not related to biological expressions of sex. GENOTYPE The genetic makeup of an individual. GRACILE Graceful or slender. GREEN STICK FRACTURE A fracture at the surface of the bone that does not go all the way through. Similar to the effect of twisting a green twig until the surface breaks. HAVERSIAN CANALS (OSTEON) Haversian canals are the center canal of an osteon. HEMATOPOIESIS Formation of blood cells. HINGE FRACTURE When a bone is partially attached to one of its original surfaces. HISPANIC An ethnic category that consists of Spanish speaking cultures from around the world. HISTOLOGICAL Related to the study of the microscopic structures of bone, in this case.

187 clxxix Appendix B: Glossary HISTOLOGY The anatomical study of the microscopic structure of animal and plant tissues. HOMEOSTATIC CELLULAR FUNCTION Normal cellular feedback functions often maintained by calcium. HOMICIDE Refers to a victim s death related to the direct and deliberate actions of others. HUMAN RIGHTS These refer to basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled; these include civil/political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law. IDENTIFICATION A collection of information, samples, bones, that identify an individual or group. IN SITU A Latin term that means in place. In archaeology, this implies that the evidence is still in its original place and context as it was upon discovery and that it has not been moved prior to its documentation. IN UTERO In the uterus. INDIVIDUATION Identification of individuals using forensic techniques. INFRACTION An incomplete fracture. INQUISITIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM The inquisitorial system, usually found on the continent of Europe among civil law systems has a judge (or a group of judges who work together) whose task is to investigate the case. INTER-OBSERVER VARIABILITY Differences in observations noted between two analysts. INTRAMEMBRANOUS BONE Formed by a matrix of woven fibers that mineralize. ITINERANT Without a home.

188 Appendix B: Glossary clxxx JPAC Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command on Hickam AFB, HI. KIA Killed in action. LAMELLAR BONE Bone from that is layered. LANDMARKS Skeletal landmarks are specific morphological spots on bones that help identify fragments as originating from specific skeletal elements. These landmarks include nutrient foramina, areas of muscle attachments, and other morphological indicators. LATENT PRINTS Are left on a surface at a scene by chance or random act. LIGHT MICROSCOPY Investigation involving the use of an optical microscope using a reflected or direct lighting source. LONGITUDINAL STUDY The examination of the growth and development of an individual or group over a period of years. MANDIBULAR Related to the lower jaw. MARINE RAIDERS Two battalions of elite commandoes that were trained under the command of Colonel Evans Carlson. MAXILLARY Related to the so-called upper jaw or the lower part of the face. MAXIMUM LENGTH OF THE TIBIA As defined by Trotter and Gleser, this is the maximum length of the tibia extends from the lateral condyle to the end of the medial malleolus. MEIOSIS Process of producing sex cells, or gametes, which are various combinations of half of the genetic complement needed for life. MESENCHYMAL Embryonic connective tissue from which bone develops.

189 clxxxi Appendix B: Glossary MIA Missing in action. MID-FACIAL AREA The part of the skull that includes the forehead, eyes, cheeks, jaw and nose. MINIMUM NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS the minimum number of individuals estimated to have been buried in a mass grave. This estimate is obtained by counting the number of specific bones in a grave and assessing other morphology to determine age or gender. MISCELLANEOUS TRAUMA Any trauma that does not fit neatly into the blunt force, sharp force or projectile trauma categories. It can include strangulation, sawing, explosions, chemicals, heat and other traumas. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (MTDNA) Is found in the mitochondria and only comes from the maternal line or from the mother. MITOSIS Simple cell division occurs that allows the cells to replace those that are needed or lost during growth and injury. MOLARS Grinding teeth located in the back of the mouth; the largest teeth in human dentition. MORPHO-METRIC TRAITS These are traits related to the shape of bones that can be described using empirical measurements. MORPHOLOGY Shape. MORPHOMETRICS Measures of morphology, or physical characteristics. MTDNA Mitochondrial DNA. MULTIVARIATE STATISTICS A collection of procedures that involve observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time.

190 Appendix B: Glossary clxxxii NATURAL DEATH Natural refers to conditions that are naturally occurring and are usually related to age or disease. NPRC-MPR National Personnel Records Center, Military Personal Records. NUCHAL Related to the neck area of the cranium. NUCLEIC (GENOMIC) DNA The DNA that controls individual characteristics and has components contributed from both parents occurs in the nucleus. OSSIFY/OSSIFICATION The process by which cartilage is replaced by bony tissue. OSTEOBLAST Type of bone cell responsible for the formation of bone tissue. OSTEOCLAST Type of bone cell responsible for the removal of bone tissue. OSTEOGENESIS Formation of bone cells. OSTEOLOGY The study of bone and skeletal elements. OSTEOMETRICS Bone measurements. OSTEON Miscropic structures in bone that deliver of nutrients and remove metabolic waste. OSTEONS The basic unit of structure of compact bone, comprising a haversian canal and its concentrically arranged lamellae. PAIR-MATCHING This involves the comparison of bones to determine their size and morphology to assess if they came from the same individual. Usually pairmatching involves bilateral bones, such as leg and arm bones from the left and right sides.

191 clxxxiii Appendix B: Glossary PATENT PRINTS Are left at a scene through the transfer of the print by a foreign material (such as blood) on the friction ridge. PELVIS The pelvic girdle, which includes the two ox coxae, the sacrum, and the coccyx. PERIMETER A perimeter is the boundary or border of a geographic space or territory. In this case, it is the edges of a scene or site that contains evidence. PERIMORTEM TRAUMA Injuries that occur around the time of death. PHENOTYPE A combination of physical characteristics that apply, in general, so a specific population. PLASTIC PRINTS Occur when a friction ridge is preserved in a plastic material such as clay or sediment. PLEXIFORM BONE Bone form that is similar to a plexus, or an interlaced network. POINT ESTIMATE This is a single value based on a use of sample data from a population that serves as an estimate for an unknown (fixed or random) population parameter (measure). POPULATION A group of individuals where mates are most likely found. POSTCRANIAL BONES The bones that form the torso, arms and legs of the body. POSTMORTEM After death. POSTMORTEM INTERVAL The time period that has occurred since the time of death and the time of discovery. POSTMORTEM TRAUMA Injuries to bone tissue that have occurred after death.

192 Appendix B: Glossary clxxxiv PRE-MOLARS Also known as bicuspids due to the two large cusps that comprise the chewing surfaces of these teeth. These teeth are located between the molars and the canines. PROJECTILE TRAUMA Damage caused to the bone because of a projectile impact, typically from a bullet. PUBIC SYMPHYSIS The symphysis or joint between the two pubic bones of the os coxae or innominate (pelvis). RACE A social construct based on phenotye and culture that differentiates different populations. Examples include black, white, Asian, Native American, etc. RADIATING FRACTURE LINES Radiating fracture lines tend to radiate, like a net or spider web, away from a point of impact. These are especially common in projectile trauma. RADIOGRAPHS X-ray images. RANGE The lowest and highest value. REGRESSION EQUATION This is an equation produced through regression analysis. Regression analysis is a technique used model results. It involves the analysis of numeric data that consists of dependent variable (response variable) and independent variables (explanatory variables). RIM A descriptive term for a development stage of the sternal rib end; particularly describes the most distal end. RIM CONTOUR The contour or shape of the rim; as one ages the rim becomes more irregular in shape and, thus, has a more irregular contour. SAA Society of American Archaeology.

193 clxxxv Appendix B: Glossary SACROILIAC JOINT The joint that exists between the sacrum and the os coxae or innominate bones. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM Different appearance between the sexes. SHARP FORCE TRAUMA Created by compression and shearing forces applied over a very narrow focus. SIMPLE FRACTURE A bone break that results in two sections of bone. SKELETAL ASSEMBLAGES Groups of skeletons from more than one individual, often with the bones mixed up. SKELETAL INDICATORS Specific characteristics of bones that can be used to infer information on age and other specific measures. SPATIAL ANATOMY The location of different biological structures in relation to their function and other such structures. STATURE The living height of an individual. STERNAL RIB ENDS The end of the rib that joins the sternum, or breastbone, via the costal cartilage. STERNUM Breast bone the bone that goes down the center of your chest that your ribs connect to. STRATIGRAPHY These are the layers in the ground that are formed by either natural processes or artificial/human activities. Most of these layers are formed from sediment or dirt, but can include garbage, trash, etc. STRATUM A sheet-like mass or individual collection of sedimentary materials of one kind lying between layers of similar materials. These layers can be the result of both natural and human activities.

194 Appendix B: Glossary clxxxvi SUB-ADULT An individual with a chronological age of less than 18 years. SUBPERIOSTEAL Found below the periosteum tissue that sheaths hard bone tissue. SUICIDE Refers to those deaths that are related to a victim causing their own death through either direct or indirect means. SURFACE CONTOUR The shape and configuration of the bone surface, particularly in reference to the sternal rib ends. TOOL MARKS These are the marks left in dirt or on a body that originates from a tool such as a shovel, spade, or other time used in blunt force trauma. TORSION Twisting force. TOXICOLOGY The chemical analyses of chemicals that are found in biological samples. TRABECULAR BONE forms the internal three-dimensional lattice that fills the hollow space at the center of bones. This type of bone is highly porous and light. TRACE EVIDENCE Very small pieces of evidence used to investigate alleged crimes. TRAUMA A pathological condition of bone that is caused by injury to living tissue by some form of force. UNIVERSAL NUMBERING SYSTEM This is a system of tooth designation that numbers the teeth sequentially; it is the most common system used in North American dentistry. UNKNOWN Refers to those deaths that are related to factors that cannot be determined.

195 clxxxvii Appendix B: Glossary VENN DIAGRAM A diagram composed of intersecting circles, where the overlapping portions of the circles indicate commonalities between the data found in each circle. VOLKMANN S CANALS Microscopic structures that run perpendicular to Haversian canals in an osteon. Blood vessels in the periosteum or the marrow cavity send branches to the Haversian canals through the Volkmann s canals.

196 Appendix C: Human Bones clxxxviii HUMAN BONES Cranial Bones Frontal: This single, cup-shaped bone is located at the front of the neurocranium. The frontal bone articulates with parietals, nasals, maxillae, sphenoid, ethmoid, lacrimals, and zygomatics. This is one of the largest cranial bones. Parietals: These bones are a pair of square shaped bones that form the sides and roof of the cranial vault. The parietals are the largest bones of the cranial vault and articulate with each other, as well as the frontal, temporal, occipital, and sphenoid. These, along with the frontal, are the most recognized bones by non-specialists. Temporals: This pair of irregularly shaped bones is located between the cranial wall and base. The ear bones (auditory ossicles) are found within temporals. The temporals articulate with the parietal, occipital, sphenoid, zygomatic, and mandible. Occipital: This single bone forms the back (portion) of the cranial vault. The occipital bone is broad and cup-shaped; when complete, the foramen magnum - a large aperture allowing the spinal cord to enter the skull from the vertebrae is visible. This bone articulates with the temporals, sphenoid, parietals, and the first cervical vertebra. Maxillae: These bones are a pair of irregularly-shaped bones with both robust and delicate portions that form the main part of the face. The maxillae contain the tooth crypts (alveoli) which hold the tooth roots of the maxillary (upper) dentition. These bones also form most of the nasal opening, nasal floor, a large portion of the hard palate, and the bottom, interior of the eye orbits. Maxillary articulations articulate and touch with the frontal, nasals, lacrimals, ethmoid, inferior nasal conchae, palatines, vomer, zygomatics, and sphenoid. Palatines: This pair of L-shaped bones form the posterior portion of the hard palate and the floor of the nasal cavity. These delicate bones articulate with each another as well as the vomer, inferior nasal conchae, and ethmoid.

197 clxxxix Appendix C: Human Bones Vomer: This is a very small, very thin, plow-shaped bone that sits inside the cranium and divides the nasal cavity. This bone articulates with the maxillae, palatines, sphenoid, and ethmoid. Inferior nasal conchae: These paired small bones are extremely delicate and scroll-shaped bones, and are housed within the nasal cavity. They articulate with the maxillae, palatines, ethmoid, and lacrimals. Ethmoid: This single bone is housed within the cranium along the midline of the eye orbits. It is very light and delicate, and has a spongy appearance. The ethmoid articulates with numerous cranial elements, including the frontal, sphenoid, nasals, maxillae, lacrimals, palatines, inferior nasal conchae, and vomer. Lacrimals: This pair of small, fragile, rectangular-shaped bones are located on the medial walls of the eye orbits. They articulate with the frontal, maxillae, ethmoid, and inferior nasal conchae. Nasals: This pair of small, thin, bones form the anterior and superior portion of the nasal aperture. Along their upper (superior) portion, the nasals are thick, while the lower portions (inferior) are somewhat flared and thin. These bones articulate with one another, the maxillae, ethmoid, and frontal. Zygomatics: These prominent bones are often referred to as cheek bones and appear as cross-shaped, wing-like structures. The zygomatics articulate with the frontal, sphenoid, temporals, and maxillae. Sphenoid: To some analysts, the sphenoid is one of the most complex bones of the cranium; it forms the floor and lateral sides of the cranial vault. The sphenoid appears butterfly-like in shape. The sphenoid articulates with many bones of the cranium: the vomer, ethmoid, frontal, occipital, parietals, temporals, zygomatics, and palatines. Mandible: This bone is the lower jaw that houses the lower teeth. The mandible articulates with the cranium (at the temporal bones, the tempro-mandibular joint or TMJ).

198 Appendix C: Human Bones cxc The Appendicular Skeleton Hyoid: This U-shaped bone is located in the throat and is the only bone in the human body that does not directly articulate with any other bone. The hyoid serves as an attachment site for a variety of muscles and connective tissue of the head and neck. Vertebral column: The vertebral column is usually comprised of 33 segments that form the spinal column. There are five types of vertebra of various numbers: 7 cervical (or neck) vertebrae; 12 thoracic (for attachment of the rib cage) vertebrae; 5 lumbar (lower back region) vertebrae, the sacrum normally perceived as one bone (usually consisting of five segments that have fused together); and the coccyx (the tail bone) vertebrae, which are small and highly variable in shape. The coccyx is usually made up of four small segments that are fused together. These various classes of vertebrae have different functions and, thus, have slightly different shapes and sizes. Innominate or Os coxa: This pair of bones, together with the sacrum, form the bowl-shaped pelvic girdle. The os coxae (plural of os coxa) articulate with one another (at the pubic symphysis joint anteriorly) and the sacrum (at sacro-iliac joint or the aurticular surface posteriorly). The pelvic girdle acts as housing for the soft tissue of the lower body, including the intestines and bladder, as well as provides anchor points for the lower limbs. The os coxae are irregularly shaped bones that include a large flaring blade-like portion called the ilium (this is the portion that form the hip bones ), a robust concentrated section of bone called the ischium (the posterior portion forms what you sit on), and forward (anterior) portion called the pubis (which forms the front part of the groin). Sternum: This bone is comprised of three fused segments: the manubrium, the corpus sterni (or sternal body), and the xiphoid process. The sternum is flat and has the appearance of a small, broad sword. The front (anterior) portion of the sternum is found at the thorax and is commonly known as the breastbone. The manubrium and body of the sternum serve as the anterior anchor points for the first seven ribs. The upper portion of the sternum articulates with the clavicles. Scapula: A pair of large, flat bones located in the superior and lateral portion of the thorax; these bones comprise a portion of the shoulder girdle. The scapulas are triangular in shape and articulate with the clavicles and the humerus. Clavicle: A pair of tubular, S-shaped bones are located in the superior

199 cxci Appendix C: Human Bones and anterior area of the chest (thorax), making up another portion of the shoulder girdle. The clavicles articulate in the midline with the manubrium of the sternum and laterally with the scapula. Ribs: These are paired bones that form a cage in the upper (superior) portion of the thorax and are generally C-shaped in appearance. The human skeleton has 24 ribs that all share a similar anatomy with a head, neck, tubercle, shaft, and a sternal extremity. The ribs protect many of the vital internal organs, such as the heart, lungs, and liver. Along the back (posteriorly), the head of ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae. In the front (anteriorly), the sternal end of the ribs extremity articulates through cartilage with either the manubrium (the first and second rib) or the corpus sterni (Ribs 3 10). However, Ribs 11 and 12 are unique because they are free floating and only articulate with the thoracic vertebrae. Paired Bones of the Arm Humerus: The humeri (singular humerus) are a pair of the longest and largest bones of the arms and comprises the upper arm. The humerus is classified as a long bone and possesses a round head at its proximal end, a long diaphysis (or shaft), and an irregularly shaped distal end that forms part of the elbow joint. The humeri articulate with the scapula, radius, and ulna at the proximal end. The distal portion of the humerus articulates with the radius and ulna, the lower arm bones. Radius: The radii (singular radius) are a pair of long bones and are the shortest bones of the forearm. The radius possesses a rounded head and a triangular-shaped distal end. These bones articulate with the humerus, the ulna, and two carpal (or wrist) bones: the scaphoid and the lunate. Ulna: The ulnae (singular Ulna) are a pair of long bones that make up the other portion of the forearm. These bones possess an irregular shape with a robust proximal portion moving to a thin distal portion. The robust proximal portion is thickened and possesses a C-shape for articulation with the distal end of the humerus and, thus, forms the other portion of the elbow joint. The ulnae articulate with the humerus and radius. Carpals: Eight carpal bones comprise the wrist. All of the carpal bones are small in size and differ widely from one another in shape. These bones form two rows: four in the distal row, which is the closest row toward the metacarpals and phalanges, and four in the proximal row,

200 Appendix C: Human Bones cxcii the row closest to the radius and ulna. The carpals of the proximal row include the scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform. The carpals of the distal row include the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate. Scaphoid: The scaphoid is boat-shaped and possesses both concave and convex surfaces. Articulations of the scaphoid include the radius, trapezium, trapezoid, and capitate. Lunate: The lunate is shaped like a crescent moon (hence the name!) and has a deep concave surface. It articulates with the radius, triquetral, capitate, and hamate. Triquetral: The triquetral has three articular surfaces (or facets) for the lunate, pisiform, and hamate bones. This bone is somewhat triangular in shape. Pisiform: The pisiform possesses a single articular surface to accommodate the triquetral bone. This bone has a flattened pea shape. Trapezium: The trapezium is an irregularly-shaped wrist bone that articulates with the scaphoid, trapezoid as well as the first and second metacarpals. This bone has a saddle-shaped articular surface. Trapezoid: The trapezoid is a boot-shaped bone of the wrist and articulates with scaphoid, trapezium, capitate, and the second metacarpal. Capitate: The capitate, as the name suggests, has a large, rounded head. It is one of the largest wrist bones and articulates with the scaphoid, lunate, trapezoid, hamate, the second and third metacarpals, and sometimes with the fourth metacarpal. Hamate: The hamate possesses a hook-like projection and a bilobate (2-lobed) concave, articular facet. This bone articulates with the lunate, triquetral, capitate as well as the fourth and fifth metacarpals. Metacarpals: The metacarpals form the palm portion of the human hand. The five metacarpals are usually referred to as Metacarpal 1 (MC1) through Metacarpal 5 (MC5). The acronym MC1 refers to the thumb, MC2 refers the index finger, and so on. The metacarpals are smaller versions of the long bones because these bones possess a proximal base, a diaphysis, and a distal end. Morphologically, the proximal bases each possess distinct shapes that aid in their identification.

201 cxciii Appendix C: Human Bones Digital phalanges: The digital phalanges represent a large number of bones that comprise the fingers of the hand. Each finger has three phalanges and the thumb only has two phalanges. Thus, each hand contains a total of 14 phalanges. There are three types of phalanges, namely, proximal, intermediate, and distal. Each phalanx (singular of phalange) type has a distinct morphology. The proximal phalanges possess a singular concave articular facet at the proximal base, while the intermediate phalanges have a bi-lobed concave articular facet at the base. The distal phalanges also possess a bi-lobed concavity at their base, but are differentiated from the intermediate phalanges by a spear-like shape at their distal ends. Paired Bones of the Legs Femur: The femur, or upper thigh bone, is a paired bone. The femur is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the human skeleton. You often see these bones used as clubs in horror movies! These bones are distinct because of size and have a very large, proximal head and large dual condyles at the distal end. The femur articulates with the os coxae, the patella (kneecap), and the tibia. The proximal portion of the femur articulates with the os coxae and the distal portion forms part of the knee joint. Patella: This sesamoid bone is commonly called the kneecap. This bone is triangular with a roughened anterior portion and a bi-lobed concave posterior, articular surface. The patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the body and only articulates with the patellar surface of the distal femur. Tibia: The tibia is the large weight-bearing bone of the lower leg. This bone has a large triangular-shaped proximal portion and is roughly triangular in cross section along the shaft. The tibia articulates with the femur, fibula, and talus. Fibula: The fibula is a thin bone of the lower leg. These bones are found lateral to the tibiae and stabilize the lower leg. This bone is integral in forming the lateral (outside) border of the ankle joint and articulates with the tibia and the talus. Tarsals: The tarsal bones of the foot are similar to the carpals in the hand; however, they differ significantly because the tarsals create a large portion of the shape of the feet. Tarsals are larger in size than carpals

202 Appendix C: Human Bones cxciv and differ widely from one another in shape. Seven tarsal bones are in each human foot. The tarsals include the talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, and the first, second, and third cuneiforms. Talus: The talus is the second largest of the tarsal bones. The talus possesses a spool-shaped superior, articular surface called the trochlea. This bone articulates with the tibia, fibula, calcaneus, and navicular. Calcaneus: The calcaneus is the largest bone of the foot, and it is commonly referred to as the heel bone. This bone is very short and robust in shape, and possesses both articular facets and roughened areas. It articulates with the talus and the cuboid. Navicular: The navicular bone of the foot possesses a strong concave proximal surface and, as its name implies (i.e. navigation, navy), is boat-shaped. The distal surface is divided by two ridges, where the first, second, and third cuneiform bones articulate. Additionally, this tarsal bone articulates with the talus. Cuboid: As the name implies, this bone is somewhat cuboidal in shape with a large and projecting proximal articular surface. It articulates with the calcaneus, third cuneiform, the fourth and fifth metatarsals, and sometimes with the navicular. First (medial) cuneiform: This bone is the largest of the three cuneiform bones. It possesses a large kidney-shaped facet on its distal end. The first cuneiform articulates with the navicular, the second cuneiform as well as the first and second metatarsals. Second (intermediate) cuneiform: This foot bone is the smallest of the three cuneiforms and possesses a concave articular surface on the proximal portion. It resembles a pie wedge in shape and articulates with the first and third cuneiforms, the navicular, and the second metatarsal. Third (lateral) cuneiform: The third cuneiform is intermediate in size and articulates with the cuboid, navicular, and the second through fourth metatarsals. Metatarsals: The metatarsals compose the plantar (foot sole) portion of the foot. Like their hand counterparts, there are five metatarsals, which are referred to as Metatarsal 1 (MT1) through Metatarsal 5 (MT5). For example, MT1 refers to the big toe, MT2 refers to the second toe, etc.

203 cxcv Appendix C: Human Bones Similar to their hand counterparts, the metatarsals are smaller versions of the long bones because these bones possess a proximal base, a diaphysis, and a distal end. Morphologically, the proximal bases each possess distinct shapes, which aid in their identification. Pedal phalanges: The bones of the toes, similar to the bones of the fingers, are referred to as phalanges. There are a total of 14 phalanges in each foot. They can be typed into three groups: proximal, intermediate, and distal. They share the common basic bone blueprint as the hand phalanges, but pedal phalanges are small and more tubular shaped.

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