Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile Russia

Transcription

1 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008 Russia

2 The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. Prepared by: Alin Chindea Magdalena Majkowska-Tomkin Heikki Mattila Isabel Pastor Edited by: Sheila Siar Publisher: International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons 1211 Geneva 19 Switzerland Tel: Fax: Internet: ISBN ISBN (Migration in the Black Sea Region: Regional Overview, Country Profiles and Policy Recommendations) 2008 International Organization for Migration (IOM) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. 94_08

3 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile October 2008

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5 Contents List of tables and figures... 7 Acronym list... 7 Foreword... 9 Executive Summary: General Assessment of Migration Issues Immigrants Number of immigrants Status of immigrants Main countries of origin of immigrants Emigrants Total number of emigrants Status of emigrants Main countries of destination Remittances Quantitative aspects of remittances Qualitative aspects of remittances Migrant communities/diasporas Description of relationship between diasporas and country of origin Migrant communities/diasporas organizations by country of destination Irregular migration Numbers/estimates of irregular movements Figures and information on return migration flows Figures and information on trafficking Assessment and analysis of migration issues Government institutions responsible for migration policy International legal framework in place relevant to migration Migration policies in place Labour migration issues Policies to address irregular migration Policies to address trafficking in human beings Refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons, and relevant policies in place Other important migration actors in the country Annex: Some Additional Migration Statistics Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

6 list of tables Table 1. Population born outside of the Russian Federation (in thousands; as of 9 October 2002)...18 Table 2. Foreign citizens and stateless persons (as of 9 October 2002)...19 Table 3. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, Table 4. Residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, Table 5. Temporary residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, Table 6. Persons who received the forced resettlement or refugee status, Table 7. Refugees and forced resettlers (persons)...23 Table 8. Forced resettlers (by place of former residence)...24 Table 9. Distribution of foreign workers (by types of economic activity)...25 Table 10. Foreign workers in Russia (by main countries of origin)...26 Table 11. Distribution of foreign workers in Russia (by duration of work period)...27 Table 12. Distribution of foreign workers (by gender)...27 Table 13. Immigration flows to the Russian Federation by country of departure, Table 14. Immigrants in Russia by ethnic origin in Table 15. Distribution of immigrants age 14 and older, by educational status...32 Table 16. Emigration from the Russian Federation in 1997 and by year and country of destination...33 Table 17. Distribution of refugees and asylum seekers from Russia by country of asylum...34 Table 18. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by gender)...35 Table 19. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by educational status)...35 Table 20. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by duration of employment period)...35 Table 21. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in 2006 (by type of economic activity)...36 Table 22. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in , by destination countries...36 Table 23. Occupation of Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad...37 Table 24. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad, by category of occupation...38 Table 25: Selected countries of residence of Russian emigrants...38 Table 26. Russian emigration by countries of destination and by year, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

7 Table 27. Educational status of emigrants 14 years and older, Table 28. Amount of incoming migrant remittances to Russia...41 Table 29. Remittances to and from the Russian Federation, Table 30. Remittances sent via money transfer systems in Table 31. Violations of the Migration Law of the Russian Federation...57 Table 32. IOM assisted voluntary returns to the Russian Federation, Table 33. Differences in GDP and standards of living among the CIS countries...75 Table 34. Economically active population...78 Table 35. Average annual employment by type of economic activities...79 Table 36. Number of unemployed persons in the Russian Federation, 1992, 1995, and Table 37. Unemployment by age and educational attainment in 2006 (as of end of November; percentage of the total)...81 Table 38. Statistics on crimes related to trafficking in people, Table 39. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, LIST OF figures Figure 1. Net migration to Russia, by ethnic group, (in %)...28 Figure 2. Changes in average commission (for transactions from Russia via payment systems)...45 Figure 3. Trafficking routes used in taking people out and into the Russian Federation...63 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

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9 ACRONYM LIST BSEC CBR CIS FMS ILO IOM MIA MTO NGO RCP UN UNDP UNFPA UNHCR UNICEF UNODC USSR WGCC Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Central Bank of Russia Commonwealth of Independent States Federal Migration Service International Labour Organization International Organization for Migration Ministry of Internal Affairs Money transfer operators Non-governmental organization Regional Consultative Process United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations Population Fund United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations Children s Fund United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Working Group on Combating Crime Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

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11 FOREWORD International migration is a prominent feature of globalization and one of the defining issues of this century. Increasingly, migration entails economic, social, demographic, cultural, security and environmental effects on both sending and receiving societies. The task of formulating effective and coherent approaches for the management of international migration poses formidable challenges and frequently has led to regional initiatives such as Regional Consultative Processes (RCPs). 1 These initiatives which address a wide range of migration issues including migration and development, integration of migrants, smuggling of and trafficking in persons, irregular migration and so on often reflect the different migration agendas of governments even though the challenges they face may be similar in nature. Within this context and considering its proactive role in various RCPs, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) in One of the main aims of this agreement is to enhance cooperation in addressing irregular migration and combating trafficking in persons in the Black Sea region, an area that experiences significant migration challenges as a transit, origin, and destination hub for migrants. Consequently, in 2007, IOM launched the Black Sea Consultative Process on Migration Management, a joint project with the BSEC s Working Group on Combating Crime (WGCC) (Particularly its Organized Forms). The project aimed to contribute to effective migration management in the Black Sea region as well as combating irregular migration through strengthened regional cooperation and capacity building of relevant authorities in all twelve member states of the BSEC. 2 Specifically, IOM has drafted national Migration Profiles for those countries where such documents did not exist, and has reviewed and updated existing Profiles. 3 Why country Migration Profiles? A concept and tool promoted by the European Commission, the Profiles are an evidence-based approach to assess the migration situation in a country. IOM has adopted and further developed this 1 Regional Consultative Processes bring together representatives of states, international organizations and, in some cases, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for informal and non-binding dialogue and information exchange on migration-related issues of common interest and concern. 2 Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, the Russian Federation, Serbia, Turkey and Ukraine. 3 Within the framework of the Slovenian presidency of the European Union, IOM prepared Migration Profiles for the Western Balkan Countries including BSEC members Albania, Serbia and Turkey. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

12 concept and has since implemented it in various regions such as the Balkans, Western and Central Africa, and Latin America. The intention is to contribute towards greater coherence of national migration policies and enhanced regional cooperation. This requires appropriate compilation of internationally comparable data among other features such as national coordination and cooperation among involved authorities and pursuit of an active international cooperation at bilateral, regional and global levels. The Profiles, using a common template, allow for comparability despite data limitations 4 and different national contexts. Furthermore, to ensure the legitimacy and recognized value of the Profiles, the BSEC member states and the BSEC WGCC provided substantial feedback on the Profiles. Drafted in IOM s office in Budapest and coordinated with IOM s Research Unit at IOM Headquarters in Geneva and the respective IOM office in each of the BSEC countries to ensure high-quality the Profiles also offer a set of policy recommendations for effective migration management in the region. These were thoroughly discussed during an expert meeting of the BSEC s WGCC in Istanbul on 10 September Subsequently, the recommendations were approved by the BSEC s Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs that convened in Tirana on 23 October This set of Profiles is the result of intensive cooperation between many individuals within IOM and among IOM and other stakeholders. The input of the following people is highly appreciated: Christine Aghazarm and Verónica Escudero, Research Unit in IOM Geneva, as authors of the regional overview and for their extensive review of all the Profiles, Frank Laczko, head of the Research and Publications in IOM Geneva, for his supervision throughout the project, IOM staff in IOM offices in all the BSEC countries, and the dedicated finance and administrative colleagues in IOM Budapest. Special thanks to IOM s 1035 Facility who funded this project. Moreover, particular gratitude is warmly given to the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Organization as the associate organization in this project, especially the Permanent International Secretariat who kindly arranged the meetings related to the implementation of the project. Not least, IOM gratefully acknowledges the support of the BSEC Member States in the production of the Profiles, above all for their input to their specific country profile and the endorsement of the regional migration policy recommendations. Argentina Szabados, Regional Representative Alin Chindea, Project Coordinator International Organization for Migration Mission with Regional Functions for Central and South-Eastern Europe 4 For a discussion on the quality and limitations migration data, see the regional overview. 10 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

13 Population (July 2007) Total Area Russia Basic facts 141,377,752 (estimate) 16,995,800 sq. km GDP per Capita PPP USD 12,200 Human Development Index (HDI) Rank 67 of 177 Net Migration Rate 0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population Sources: CIA World Factbook; United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

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15 Executive Summary: General Assessment of Migration Issues From the beginning of the 20 th century until the disintegration of the Soviet Union, migration flows concerning Russia took place mainly within the borders of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Exceptions to this were during the two World Wars and the civil war ( ), which accompanied movements of refugees and displaced persons, repatriations, and mass deportations. After the end of the Soviet Union, the first half of the 1990s was characterized by the so-called forced migration or forced resettlement towards the Russian Federation, basically from countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Baltic States, the sharp reduction of emigration streams to these states, and the booming emigration to far abroad or outside of the former Soviet Union. This far-abroad emigration was mostly ethnic in character: Germans, Jews and Greeks, and Russians living in the large cities were mostly the ones to leave. There were many scientists and representatives of art among emigrants in that period. 1 However, during the second half of the 1990s, there was a reduction in the streams of refugees and forced immigrants from the countries of the former Soviet Union. Immigration lost its forced nature, and more and more migrants started to move into Russia for social and economic reasons. The diversity of emigration (by countries, by regions of origin in Russia, and by ethnic composition) decreased as well. In the 2000s, the main factors influencing migration in Russia have been its more favorable economic development compared to most of the other CIS countries and the growing problems of demographic development in Russia. Nowadays, Russia is facing similar migration challenges to most other European countries. These challenges include: how best to use immigration (today and in the future) to compensate for the declining population, labour force shortages, and emigration of working age citizens; how to fight against irregular forms of migration and trafficking in human beings; and how to overcome antiimmigrant sentiment, xenophobia, and ethnic conflict, problems closely linked with migratory movements. 1 Vladimir, Mukomel and Nikita Mkrtchyan (2008) Expert memorandum drafted for this Country Profile; Commissioned by IOM Office in Moscow; January Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

16 The vast territory of the country, its numerous administrative sub-regions, and ethnically diverse population also create special problems, such as keeping sparsely populated areas inhabited. The long land borders of nearly 20,000 km pose special challenges for controlling migration flows. Also, the common past of the CIS as former Soviet Republics, where the Russian language is generally spoken and a visa-free regime prevails, gives a special characteristic to the nature of migration to and from Russia. Ivakhniouk (2006) 2 lists the following features that characterize much of the migration system in the CIS area: historical ties geographical proximity, transparent borders (visa-free movements) common transport infrastructure psychological easiness to move (language, former common territory) demographic complementarity mutual interest towards common labour market large-scale irregular migration regional cooperation aimed at coordinated migration management. Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, about 25 million ethnic Russians found themselves living in the other CIS countries and in the three Baltic Republics. 3 Meanwhile, between 1989 and 2002, Russia received 10.9 million migrants from the former Soviet Republics (the current CIS and the Baltic States). 4 A large part of these Russians had to move under some degree of pressure, with many of them even fleeing conflicts including those in South Ossetia, Abkhasia, and Tajikistan. In Russia, they were therefore called refugees or forced migrants (also forced resettlers ). During the same period, 4.1 million persons moved in the opposite direction, 5 that is, from Russia to the newly independent former Soviet Republics. Thus, Russia s net immigration figure with the Former Soviet Union (FSU) Re- 2 Ivakhnyuk, Irina (2006) Migration in the CIS Region: Common Problems and Mutual Benefits, An expert paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Development, United Nations Population Division, June 2006, Turin, Italy. 3 Tishkov, Valery, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) Migration in the Countries of the Former Soviet Union, A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 14 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

17 publics in the same period was 6.8 million. These people resettled in numerous communities all around the Russian Federation, and their resettlement was for many years the main priority of the Russian migration authorities, most notably the Federal Migration Service (FMS) created in June According to Tishkov et al. (2005), since mid-1990s, such forced migration in the CIS region has gradually decreased, while at the same time economically motivated migration has grown. Ivakhniouk (2006) confirms 7 that during the last 15 years, the nature of migration flows in the CIS region shifted from primarily forced migrations to voluntary economic migrations. The strongly varying economic, social and political development in the CIS countries has generated large, mostly economic migration flows primarily towards Russia (see more on this in Section 6.4 on labour migration). The increased mobility of various ethnic groups of the Central Asian countries of the CIS, and their employment in the Russian Federation, has led to an expansion of migrant ethnic communities and intensive formation of new diasporas resulting in growing ethnic confrontations of a socio-cultural variety. Partly linked to the recent large labour migration, Russia and the whole CIS region have become transit and residence areas for large numbers of irregular migrants, thus new and more effective methods are being sought to deal with the situation. The need for active migration policy has been acknowledged at the highest level. For instance, the then Russian President, Vladimir Putin, announced in March 2005 the need for adjusting Russia s migration policy as a result of the rapid decline in the country s population. 8 The President was quoted as saying that the state s migration policy needs to be adjusted and be closely linked to important tasks of socio-economic development, with the main task at present to create additional conditions for attracting skilled labour. The President also stated that those migrants falling into the shadow economy largely have done so due to the cumbersome procedures in place for obtaining legal employment in Russia. In recent years, Russian authorities have launched numerous proactive migration policy initiatives, in their attempts to increase the recruitment of highly skilled professionals from abroad, as well as to encourage Russian expatriates 6 Voronina (2006). 7 Ivakhnyuk, Irina (2006) Migration in the CIS Region: Common Problems and Mutual Benefits, An expert paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Development, United Nations Population Division, June 2006, Turin, Italy. 8 Interfax New Report, 17 March Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

18 to return and to diminish irregular migration, through facilitation of immigration procedures and imposition of sanctions to employers hiring undocumented labour, improved migration databases and new passports with electronic and biometric features, and increased cooperation among CIS countries in migration issues. New migration legislation has also been in force since January Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

19 1. Immigrants 1.1. Number of immigrants Stock... 12,080,000 (2006) 9 As percentage of total population...8.4% (2006 ) 10 Gender ratio % female (2005) 11 The United Nations Population Division (UNPD) ranks Russia second to the United States in the list of countries with the largest numbers of immigrants: United States 38.9 million immigrants Russian Federation 12.1 million Germany 10.1 million Ukraine 6.8 million Many of the foreign-born residing in the current Russian Federation were born in other states of the former USSR (Table 1). Therefore, for a large share of the foreign-born in Russia, the figure reflects the changed geopolitical status of their country of birth, rather than international migration to Russia. The total number of citizens from other states and of stateless persons is much lower (Table 2). 9 United Nations Secretariat, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (October 2006) International Migration. The number of international migrants generally represents the number of persons born in a country other than that in which they live. 10 Ibid. 11 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2005) Migration and Remittances Factbook. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

20 Table 1. Population born outside of the Russian Federation (in thousands; as of 9 October 2002) 12 Country No. Azerbaijan 846 Armenia 481 Byelorussia 936 Georgia 629 Kazakhstan 2,585 Kirghizia 464 Latvia 103 Lithuania 86 Moldova 278 Tadzhikistan 383 Turkmenia 175 Uzbekistan 918 Ukraine 3,560 Estonia 67 Other countries 466 Total 11,977 Source: The 2002 Census in the Russian Federation as presented by Rosstat in Rosstat of the Russian Federation, Moscow (2005) Results of the 2002 Census in the Russian Federation, Vol. 14, Total Final Figures of the 2002 Census in the Russian Federation. 18 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

21 Table 2. Foreign citizens and stateless persons (as of 9 October 2002) 13 No. (in thousands) As percentage of the Russian population Total no. of foreign citizens 1, Their country of citizenship: Other than CIS Azerbaijan Armenia Byelorussia Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Moldavia Tadzhikistan Turkmenia Uzbekistan Ukraine Stateless people Source: The 2002 Census in the Russian Federation as presented by Rosstat in Status of immigrants Refugees/asylum seekers Situation at the end of 2006: Refugees...1, Asylum seekers (pending cases) Table 3. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, (June) , Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), According to the Law on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian Federation of July 25, 2002, No. 115-FZ, foreign citizens may temporarily 13 Ibid. 14 UNHCR (2007) Statistical Yearbook 2006, Trends in Displacement, Protection and Solutions, Geneva December The first figure refers to Persons recognized as refugees under the 1951 UN Convention/1967 Protocol, the 1969 OAU Convention, in accordance with the UNHCR Statute, persons granted a complementary form of protection and those granted temporary protection. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

22 stay, 15 temporarily reside, and permanently reside in the Russian Federation. The number of temporary residence permissions (for a period of three years) is allocated by quota. 16 Residence permits are issued for a five-year period with possible extension. Prior to the receipt of a residence permit, a foreign citizen is obliged to live in the Russian Federation for at least one year on the basis of a temporary residence permit. Forced migrants may seek, according to the Law of the Russian Federation, temporary refuge, refugee status, or displaced person status. 17 Simplified procedure sfor the acquisition of nationality is in force between the Russian Federation and the Republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. 18 In addition, separate categories of immigrants may also obtain Russian citizenship through a simplified procedure. 19 Permanent residence status The number of people issued residence permits in 2006 totaled 16,699. As of October 2007 this figure was 12, The period of a foreigner s temporary stay in the Russian Federation is defined by the validity period of his/her visa. Temporary stay that does not require a visa but the duration of stay should not be longer than 90 days. 16 Quotas are distributed among subjects (regions) of the Russian Federation. Quotas are not extended to individual categories of foreign citizens. A quota of 140,790 for part-time residence has been approved for the year The status of forced migrants can be given to internal migrants as well as to Russian citizens who are forced to leave the place of their residence outside of Russia. 18 Federal Law of 2 January 2000, No. 18-FL. 19 These include foreign citizens and stateless persons who have at least one parent with Russian Federation citizenship and living in the territory of the Russian Federation; who had the citizenship of the USSR; who had resided or is residing in the former republics of the USSR and did not receive the citizenship of these republics and thus remain stateless persons; who are citizens of the former republics of the USSR; who had received professional or higher education in the educational institutions of the Russian Federation after 1 July 2002; who were born in the territory of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and had citizenship of the former USSR; who are married to the citizen of the Russian Federation for at least three years; and who are not capable of working and have a legally capable son or daughter over the age of 18 who are citizens of the Russian Federation. (The Federal Law on Amendments to the Federal Law on the Citizenship of the Russian Federation, 11 November 2003, No. 151-FL). 20 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

23 Table 4. Residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, Year No , , , (as of October) 12,217 Source: Federal Migration Service. Temporary residence status The number of people issued temporary residence permits in 2006 totaled 150,716. As of October 2007, the figure reached 167,347. Table 5. Temporary residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, Year No , , , (as of October) 167,347 Source: Federal Migration Service. Refugees/asylum seekers Refugees 445 persons (as of November 2007) Applied for refugee status 1,872 persons (January-October 2007) Recognized as refugees 113 (January-October 2007) Applied for temporary asylum 1,042 persons (January-October 2007) Received temporary asylum 359 persons (January-October 2007) Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

24 Table 6. Persons who received the forced resettlement or refugee status, Total of forced migrants , ,244 Refugees Forced re-settlers ,518 85, , ,950 46, , ,672 19, , ,130 5, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,135 Source: Federal Migration Service. 20 FMS press release. Moscow, ; Information and Statistics Collected Book No. 1, the FMS. Moscow, 2002; Population and migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Goskomstat of Russia, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

25 Table 7. Refugees and forced resettlers 1 (persons) Total since the start of registra-tion as of 1 January Resettlers (since 1 July 1992) of which Refugees (since 20 March 1993) Total 271,977 59,196 4,726 4,291 8,914 7, , , Out of them, former permanent residents of Azerbaijan 12, ,486 2, Armenia 1, Belarus Georgia 10,778 4,297 2,537 1, ,302 17, Kazakhstan 88,689 29, ,971 42,971 - Kyrgyzstan 17,769 1, ,879 2,879 - Latvia 5, Lithuania Moldova 2, Russia 3 34,871 9, ,522 8,380 6,876 23,827 23,827 - Tajikistan 26,982 3, ,179 9, Turkmenistan 4, ,133 1,133 - Uzbekistan 59,212 9, ,582 15,575 7 Ukraine 2, Estonia 3, Other territories or those not specified Source: Federal Migration Service, 1 Data from the FMS on the number of citizens of the Russian Federation and foreign citizens given corresponding official status in its territorial bodies. 2 Excluding those taken off the records. 3 Excluding data on forced re-settlers from the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania to the Republic of Ingushetia and on those who applied to the FMS in connection with events in the Chechen Republic in and Including 240 persons who were formerly permanent residents of Afghanistan; Rwanda, 7; Israel, 5; Iraq, 5; Vietnam, 3; Serbia, 3; and one person each from Iran, Pakistan, Uganda, and Ethiopia. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

26 Table 8. Forced resettlers (by place of former residence) Total 956, , , , , , , , ,711 Belarus Kazakhstan 234, , , , , ,423 99,500 66,020 42,971 Moldoa 14,015 10,614 9,458 6,989 5,483 3,950 2,128 1, Russia* 194, , , ,367 82,289 61,382 46,706 36,375 23,827 Kyrgyzstan 63,606 44,433 35,498 23,907 16,197 10,999 6,092 4,265 2,879 Tadzhikistan 126,625 96,056 83,040 59,190 44,342 31,563 17,683 12,158 9,169 Turkmenistan 14,564 14,552 12,709 9,588 6,084 3,332 1,917 1,376 1,133 Uzbekistan 135, , ,606 80,306 64,907 48,319 33,015 22,257 15,575 Azerbaijan 68,383 45,275 36,698 20,740 14,003 9,161 5,025 3,322 2,468 Armenia 4,621 3,283 2,579 1,616 1, Georgia 60,884 41,915 40,507 30,361 27,488 25,199 22,278 18,868 17,202 Latvia 18,680 14,861 11,888 7,679 4,392 2,305 1, Lithuania 2,771 2,279 1,881 1, Estonia 11,636 10,519 9,023 6,320 3,753 1, Other territories or those not specified Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Goskomstat of Russia, * the Chechen Republic, the Republic of Ingushetia, and the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania. 24 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

27 Table 9. Distribution of foreign workers (by types of economic activity) No. % No. % Total 702, ,014, Building 272, , Industry and mining operations 48, , Agriculture, hunting 33, , transport, communication 32, , Trade and services 213, , Other types of economic activity 101, , Source: the Federal Migration Service Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

28 Labour migrants Table 10. Foreign workers in Russia (by main countries of origin) No. % No. % No. % Total 460, , ,014, From CIS countries (total) 221, , , Including: Azerbaijan 9, , , Armenia 17, , , Georgia 3, , , Kyrgyzstan 7, , , Moldavia 22, , , Tadzhikistan 23, , , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan 24, , , Ukraine 108, , , From other countries (total) including: Afghanistan 238, , , , , , Bulgaria 2, , , Bosnia and Herzegovina 1, , , Vietnam 41, , , Germany 1, , , India 2, , , Italy , China 94, , , Korea (PDRK) 14, , , Korea Republic , Latvia 1, , , Lithuania 4, , , Poland 1, , , Serbia and Montenegro 7, , , Great Britain 1, , , United States 1, , , Turkey 48, , , Philippines , Finland 1, , , France 1, , , Source: Federal Migration Service 26 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

29 Table 11. Distribution of foreign workers in Russia (by duration of work period) Up to 3 months 2,260 2, months 34,764 5, months 17,663 14, months 391, ,633 Source: Federal Migration Service Table 12. Distribution of foreign workers (by gender) No. % No. % No. % Male 379, , , Female 81, , , Source: Federal Migration Service 1.3. Main countries of origin of immigrants As indicated earlier, in the early to mid-1990s, the main migration flows to the Russian Federation consisted of ethnic Russians who moved from other former Soviet Republics, often fleeing discrimination or ethnic conflicts, and therefore were known as forced migrants or forced resettlers in the Russian Federation. Since 2000, the top 10 source countries have been Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Moldova World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2008) Migration and Remittances Factbook. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

30 Figure 1. Net migration to Russia, by ethnic group, (in %) 10.00% 1.50% 15.70% 6.00% 66.80% Source: Valery Tishkov, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) Migration in the countries of the former Soviet Union, Global Commission on International Migration, p Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

31 Table 13. Immigration flows to the Russian Federation by country of departure, Arrivals to the 597, , , , , , , ,380 Russian Federation, Total of which from: CIS countries 571, , , , , , , ,657 Azerbaijan 29,878 14,906 5,587 5,635 4,277 2,584 4,600 8,900 Armenia 19,123 15,951 5,814 6,802 5,124 3,057 7,581 12,949 Belarus 17,575 10,274 6,520 6,841 5,309 5,650 6,797 5,619 Georgia 24,517 20,213 9,674 7,128 5,540 4,886 5,497 6,806 Kazakhstan 235, ,903 65,226 55,706 29,552 40,150 51,945 38,606 Kyrgyzstan 13,752 15,536 10,740 13,139 6,948 9,511 15,592 15,669 Moldova 13,750 11,652 7,569 7,562 6,391 4,816 6,569 8,649 Tajikistan 23,053 11,043 6,742 5,967 5,346 3,339 4,717 6,523 Turkmenistan 16,501 6,738 4,402 4,531 6,299 3,734 4,104 4,089 Uzbekistan 39,620 40,810 24,873 24,951 21,457 14,948 30,436 37,126 Ukraine 138,231 74,748 36,503 36,806 23,418 17,699 30,760 32,721 from non-cis countries 25,748 12,556 9,800 9,544 9,483 8,783 8,632 8,723 Australia Afghanistan Bulgaria Germany 2,379 1,753 1,627 1,962 2,692 3,117 3,025 2,900 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

32 Greece Israel 1,626 1,508 1,373 1,670 1,808 1,486 1,004 1,053 Canada China 2,861 1, Cuba Latvia 5,658 1,785 1, Lithuania 1, Poland Syria United States Turkey Finland Sweden Estonia 3, Other countries 4,829 2,710 2,071 1,696 1,194 1,005 1,372 1,432 Sources: Goskomstat (The Central Statistical Office of the Russian Federation) website; Demographic Yearbook of Russia, Moscow, 2006; Population and Migration in the Russian Federation in 2006, Moscow, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

33 A significant part of migrants moving for permanent (primary) residence to Russia are Russians (ethnic Russians from other regions of the Former Soviet Republic who are entitled to Russian citizenship) arriving from other CIS countries or who belong to ethnic minorities of the Russian Federation. The majority of them have Russian citizenship. The following table describes the ethnic origin of those immigrants. Table 14. Immigrants in Russia by ethnic origin in Total 184, , , , ,380 Russians 99,683 66,076 65,831 92,576 82,647 Tatars 7,708 5,782 4,039 6,330 8,171 Other nations and ethnic groups of the Russian Federation 5,567 3,768 3,382 3,763 4,068 Azerbaijanis 2,921 1,884 1,196 2,489 5,345 Armenians 7,491 5,757 3,547 7,157 11,358 Belarusians 2,819 1,833 1,820 2,544 2,028 Georgians 1, ,055 Kazakhs 1,946 1,304 1,452 2,022 1,862 Kirghiz ,332 2,394 Moldovans 1, ,385 2,033 Tadjiks 1,481 1, ,305 2,550 Turkmen Uzbeks 2,020 1,597 1,130 2,069 3,880 Ukrainian 17,699 11,225 8,886 13,623 13,564 Koreans 1,577 1, ,162 2,870 Germans 2,523 1,913 2,342 2,974 2,438 Other nationalities, living mainly outside of the Russian Federation Nationalities have not been specified 4,077 2,986 2,148 3,565 3,546 23,740 20,184 19,767 30,892 36,286 Source: Population and migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Rosstat, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

34 Table 15. Distribution of immigrants age 14 and older, by educational status Educational Status Total 158, , , , ,687 Higher professional education Including Doctors of Science (PhD specialists) Candidates of Sciences (PhD specialists) Incomplete higher education Secondary vocational education General secondary education Basic secondary education Primary education or no education Educational status not specified 28,561 22,185 20,563 29,357 31, ,254 3,193 3,210 4,973 5,083 47,620 33,250 31,797 48,180 48,554 53,084 37,210 32,713 48,561 50,608 19,283 12,566 12,387 18,689 18,313 5,703 3,479 3,880 5,296 3,958 Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation, Moscow, the Rosstat, , Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

35 2. Emigrants 2.1. Total number of emigrants... 11,480,137 (2005) 22 As percentage of total population...8% (2005) 23 Table 16. Emigration from the Russian Federation in 1997 and by year and Departures from the Russian Federation, Total of which to: country of destination , , , ,685 94,018 79,795 69,798 54,061 CIS countries 146,961 82,312 61,570 52,099 46,081 37,017 36,109 35,262 Azerbaijan 4,302 3,187 2,170 1,704 1,771 1,336 1,274 1,366 Armenia 2,578 1,519 1,362 1,114 1, Belarus 18,928 13,276 11,175 8,829 7,016 5,671 6,034 6,318 Georgia 3,286 1,802 1, Kazakhstan 25,364 17,913 15,186 13,939 14,017 12,504 12,437 11,948 Kyrgyzstan 6,296 1,857 1,333 1, Moldova 5,715 2,237 1,660 1,385 1, Tajikistan 2,474 1, Turkmenistan 1, Uzbekistan 7,370 3,086 1,974 1,400 1, Ukraine 69,116 35,601 24,026 20,585 16,744 13,115 12,640 11,926 to non- CIS countries 86,026 63,408 59,596 54,586 47,937 42,778 33,689 18,799 Australia Afghanistan Bulgaria Germany 48,363 40,443 43,682 42,231 36,928 31,876 21,458 8,229 Greece Israel 12,873 9,407 4,835 2,764 2,048 1,733 1,745 1,408 Canada 1, China 1, World Bank Development Prospects Group (2005) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 23 Ibid. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

36 Cuba Latvia Lithuania 1, Poland Syria United States 9,087 4,793 4,527 3,134 3,199 2,919 4,040 3,109 Turkey Finland 923 1, , Sweden Estonia Other countries Source: Goskomstat website 6,500 3,788 2,657 2,733 2,478 2,806 3,150 3, Status of emigrants Refugees...159,381 (2006) 24 Asylum seekers...20,670 (2006) 25 Table 17. Distribution of refugees and asylum seekers from Russia by country of asylum Country of asylum Refugees Asylum seekers (pending cases) Total 159,381 20,670 United States 86, Germany 25, Austria 8,723 6,977 Poland 6,024 1,814 France 5,945 1,914 Belgium 5, Other countries 21,003 8,049 Sources: UNHCR, UNCHR (2006) Statistical Yearbook Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons. Figures represent end-of-2006 statistics. Data are provisional and subject to change. Status as of 15 June The figure refers to Persons recognized as refugees under the 1951 UN Convention/1967 Protocol, the 1969 OAU Convention, in accordance with the UNHCR Statute, persons granted a complementary form of protection and those granted temporary protection. 25 Ibid. 34 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

37 Labour migrants Suspended licenses - 1, cancelled licenses - 4 (as of January-October 2007) Table 18. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by gender) (as of June) Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 Male 50,722 52,185 30,243 Female 10,204 13,562 8,831 Source: Federal Migration Service Table 19. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by educational status) (as of June ) Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 Higher professional education 20,880 20,901 11,916 Secondary vocational education 23,786 23,381 13,379 General secondary education 15,821 20,857 13,705 No general secondary education Source: Federal Migration Service Table 20. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by duration of employment period) (as of June) Total 65,747 39,074 Up to 6 months 43,834 27,180 6 months - 1 year 14,949 9, years 1, years 1, years and more 3, Source: Federal Migration Service Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

38 Table 21. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in 2006 (by type of Economic activities economic activity) Before leaving Russia Employment Abroad No. % No. % Total 65, , I. Employment by economic activity 46, , Fishing and fish farming 3, , Transport and communications 39, , Of which transport 39, , Education Health care and social services Other utility, social, and personal services 1, , Other economic activities , Other economic activities 1, , II. Unemployed before leaving abroad, except for never been employed before 5, Х Х III. Never been employed before 14, Х Х Source: Federal Migration Service Table 22. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in , by destination countries (as of June) Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 Including: CIS countries, total 478 1, Other countries, total 60,450 64,050 33,454 Antigua and Barbuda 666 1, Bahamas 815 1,877 1,119 Belize 1,629 1, Belgium Germany 3,272 3,419 1,738 Greece 2,884 2,221 1,102 Italy Cambodia 1,731 1, Cyprus 10,492 8,875 4,156 Korea, Republic Liberia 3,955 3,963 1,803 Luxembourg Malta 4,424 4,416 2, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

39 Marshall Islands 897 1, Netherlands 2,428 2,386 1,421 Norway 1,963 2, Panama 1,090 1, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1,854 1, Singapore United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 2,428 1, United States of America 7,409 13,457 8,614 Japan 2,619 1, Other countries 6,408 6,126 3,493 Source: Federal Migration Service Table 23. Occupation of Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad Before departure abroad Abroad (as of June) (as of June) Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 60,926 65,747 39,074 Supervisors 10,711 11,056 6,836 10,890 11,040 6,818 Specialists 16,768 16,999 9,499 17,715 16,898 9,305 Office workers (technical personnel) Workers 24,013 22,897 10,533 32,187 37,334 22,708 Others 9,333 14,299 11,958 Source: Federal Migration Service Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

40 Table 24. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad, by category of occupation (as of June) Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 Including: Those working in foreign-flag vessels 45,283 47,940 25,657 Seasonal workers Students during vacations 8,250 14,214 11,644 Probationers Others 6,750 2,965 1,603 Source: Federal Migration Service 2.3. Main countries of destination According to the Development Prospects Group 26 of the World Bank, the top 10 destination countries of migrants from the Russian Federation are Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Israel, Uzbekistan, United States, Latvia, Germany, Moldova, and Estonia. Table 25: Selected countries of residence of Russian emigrants Country No. Year Source United States 340, US Census 1 Germany 662, Eurostat Ukraine 3,613, UKR Census 2 Latvia 2, Eurostat 1 US Census Bureau (2003) Foreign-Born Population of the United States from the American Community Survey 2003, 2 State Statistics Committee of Ukraine (2001), 26 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2007) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 38 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

41 Table 26. Russian emigration by countries of destination and by year, Countries Total 145, , ,685 94,018 79,795 69,798 54,061 CIS countries 82,312 61,570 52,099 46,081 37,017 36,109 35,262 Azerbaijan 3,187 2,170 1,704 1,771 1,336 1,274 1,366 Armenia 1,519 1,362 1,114 1, Belarus 13,276 11,175 8,829 7,016 5,671 6,034 6,318 Georgia 1,802 1, Kazakhstan 17,913 15,186 13,939 14,017 12,504 12,437 11,948 Kyrgyzstan 1,857 1,333 1, Moldova 2,237 1,660 1,385 1, Tadzhikistan 1, Turkmenistan Uzbekistan 3,086 1,974 1,400 1, Ukraine 35,601 24,026 20,585 16,744 13,115 12,640 11,926 Other countries 63,408 59,596 54,586 47,937 42,778 33,689 18,799 Australia Afghanistan Bulgaria Germany 40,443 43,682 42,231 36,928 31,876 21,458 8,229 Greece Israel 9,407 4,835 2,764 2,048 1,733 1,745 1,408 Canada China Latvia Lithuania Poland United States 4,793 4,527 3,134 3,199 2,919 4,040 3,109 Finland 1, , Sweden Estonia Others 3,973 2,828 2,885 2,632 2,929 3,291 3,240 Sources: Demographic Yearbook of Russia, Moscow, 2006; Population and Migration in the Russian Federation in 2006, Moscow. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

42 Table 27. Educational status of emigrants 14 years and older, Educational Status Total 89,589 79,380 66,759 59,228 46,398 Higher professional education 16,479 14,463 12,675 12,215 10,798 Including doctors of sciences Candidates of sciences Incomplete higher education 2,666 2,633 2,187 1,889 1,611 Secondary vocational education 24,658 22,009 18,624 16,250 12,598 General secondary education 29,569 26,184 21,434 19,085 13,613 Basic secondary education 12,236 10,690 9,046 7,609 5,488 Primary education or no education 3,981 3,401 2,793 2,180 1,495 Educational status not specified 795 Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation, Moscow, the Rosstat, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

43 3. Remittances 3.1. Quantitative aspects of remittances The low proportion of remittances as a percentage of Russian GDP (0.3% in 2006) 27 demonstrates that this phenomenon is currently of minor importance for the Russian economy. 28 However, the continuous growth of remittances in the past five years indicates that it might increase in proportion in the coming decade. This trend can already be observed in the region of the CIS countries. 29 But, as shown in Table 30, the outward remittance flows from Russia to migrants countries of origin has grown much steeper than the inward flows sent by Russians abroad. Table 28. Amount of incoming migrant remittances to Russia 30 Year Remittances (million USD) , , , , (estimate) 4,000 Source: World Bank 27 Ibid. 28 Central Bank of the Russian Federation (2005), Cross Border Remittances, Russian Experience, p. 8, Quillin, Bryce, Carlo Segni, Sophie Sirtaine and Ilias Skamnelos (2007) Remittances in the CIS Countries: A Study of Selected Corridors, Chief Economist s Regional Working Paper Series, Finance and Private Sector Development Department, Vol. 2, No. 2, p World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2007) Migration and Remittances Factbook. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

44 Table 29. Remittances to and from the Russian Federation, Remittances (million USD) Inward remittance flows 1,275 1,403 1,359 1,453 2,668 3,117 3,308 of which , Workers remittances Compensation of employees ,206 1,714 1,647 Migrants transfer Outward remittance flows 1,101 1,823 2,226 3,233 5,188 6,989 11,438 of which ,306 2,672 3,051 4,587 Workers remittances Compensation of employees ,464 2,921 6,038 Migrants transfers ,052 1, Sources: World Bank, Development Prospects Group. Tables 27 and 28 above report the officially recorded remittances. The true size of remittances, including unrecorded flows through formal and informal channels, is believed to be larger. For comparison, Table 29 below shows the amount of remittances as registered by the Central Bank of Russia (CBR). The CBR records the remittances of physical persons as performed by selected (most important) money transfer systems 32 and the Postal Service of Russia. 31 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2007) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 32 Including 16 international payment systems (Western Union, MoneyGram, and others). 42 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

45 Destination country Table 30. Remittances sent via money transfer systems in 2006 Remittances from Russia (million USD) Share (%) Source country Remittances to Russia (million USD) Share (%) Total 6, Total 1, Uzbekistan 1, United States Tadzhikistan Kazakhstan Ukraine Uzbekistan Armenia Ukraine Moldova Germany Kyrgyzstan Italy Georgia United Kingdom China Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Spain Other countries Source: Central Bank of Russia Other countries Data from CBR shows an increase in remittances from Russia in 2006 by 64 per cent in comparison with the outward remittances in 2005, and by 120 per cent from the level in Remittances to Russia grew slower at a rate of 25 per cent from 2005 to 2006 in comparison to 68 per cent in Comparing the figures of the World Bank and the Russian Central Bank on the total amounts of registered remittances into and out of Russia in 2006 (the only year shown in the CBR data), the World Bank totals are much larger, perhaps due to the different methodology used. As to the bilateral data on the total amounts of remittance flows between Russia and individual countries, the CBR figures from 2006 are, however, close to those presented by the World Bank. 33 The bilateral remittance figures of the World Bank are actually estimates calculated by the World Bank and the University of Sussex Development Research Centre, using migrant stocks and incomes both in the countries of destination and origin of the migrants. Thus, according to such calculations published by the Development Prospects Group of the World Bank,34 the most important remittance-sending coun- 33 These data are estimated using assumptions and arguments as explained in Ratha and Shaw (2006), South- South Migration and Remittances, Development Prospects Group, World Bank. prospects/migrationandremittances. 34 Ibid Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

46 tries or source countries of migrants remittances to Russia in 2005 were Ukraine (USD 1,220 million), Kazakhstan (USD 461 million), Israel (USD 212 million), Belarus (USD 189 million), United States (USD 166 million), Uzbekistan (USD 111 million), and Germany (USD 78 million). Meanwhile, the key countries receiving remittances from Russia in 2005 were Armenia (USD 484 million), Azerbaijan (USD 432 million), Moldova (USD 340 million), Tadzhikistan (USD 268 million), Ukraine (USD 309 million), Belarus (USD 168 million), Georgia (USD 201 million), Kyrgyzstan (USD 138 million), and Kazakhstan (USD 122 million). 35 The World Bank figures do not include remittances from Russia to China and Uzbekistan. Citizens of these two countries occupy the first and third places, respectively, by the number of persons officially engaged in the economy of Russia (see Table 29). In 2006, Uzbekistan was the foremost recipient of remittances from Russia, estimated at more than one billion US dollars, 36 and this is expected to increase further in During the period January-September 2007, the remittances received by private persons in Russia were USD 1,193 billion based on CBR data. Remittances sent by physical persons from Russia amounted to USD 6,317 million (including USD 5,733 million sent to the CIS countries). The main recipient countries were Uzbekistan (USD 1,100 million), Tadzhikistan (USD 1,080 million), Ukraine (USD 925 million), Armenia (USD 629 million), Moldova (USD 536 million), Kyrgyzstan (USD 476 million), and Azerbaijan (USD 445 million). Individual transfers According to CBR data, the average amount of remittance transfers from the CIS countries show a steady increase during the last couple of years. In 2006, the average transfer rose to USD 511 from USD 457 in 2005, and further to USD 531 in the third quarter of The average amount of remittance transfer to Uzbekistan was USD 593; to Tadzhikistan, USD 541; to Ukraine, USD 445; and to Moldova, USD 558. According to experts at the CBR, the reason for the higher average amount of remittance transfer to Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan compared with that in Ukraine is because the transfers to Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan are consolidated transfers, meaning the money resources of several people are given to one authorized representative who transfer the remittances as a single amount Ibid. 36 Mukomel and Mkrtchyan (2008), Ibid Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

47 Several factors have contributed to the recent growth of individual amounts sent from Russia. First, the steady growth of wages in Russia (the average wage increased from 5,500 rubles in 2003 to 14,406 rubles in November 2007) has made larger transfers possible. Second, the strengthening of the ruble-dollar exchange rate (the ruble appreciated by 23% in ) has made the dollar figure larger. Third, it is believed that the increased trust and confidence to the payment systems and the decrease in the amount of transfer commissions have contributed to the growth of the individual transfers. In 2006, the average commission charged to the client by the transfer systems for sending remittances abroad was 3.7 per cent of the transferred amount. Given the average transferred amount of between USD 500 and USD 600, the average commission was about USD 20. As illustrated in Figure 2, the commission has considerably decreased over the last few years. The greatest decrease was from USD 100 to USD 200. On average, the amount of commission decreased by 7 and 13 per cent in 2006, compared to 2005 and 2004, respectively. Figure 2. Changes in average commission (for transactions from Russia via payment systems) 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% Source: named Transboundary operations of natural persons according to RF Central Bank Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

48 3.2. Qualitative aspects of remittances Formal transfers are made through money transfer systems and through the Russian Postal Service. Money transfer operators (MTOs) represent a growing market given the improvements in macroeconomic conditions, the proliferation of advanced technologies, and the liberalization of such markets in the country and in the region. 38 Nevertheless, many transfers occur through other channels, such as financial and credit institutions with links to organized crime organizations, or using the services of Russian nationals in order to escape the widespread phenomenon of migrant workers falling prey to swindlers. 39 As previously mentioned, the amount of remittances being sent to Russia in 2006 was 0.3 per cent of the GDP. 40 In-kind remittances were also sent. These remittances were of greatest importance to vulnerable groups such as pensioners, single persons, and one-parent families, among others. Generally, remittances were important sources of income in the beginning of the 1990s, when the standard of living sharply decreased immediately following the fall of Communism and emigration from Russia was about ten times higher than today. As to the specific use of the received money transfers, no data were found as to their use for investment vis-à-vis consumption. Aside from the transfer payment system (MTOs, Russian Postal Service) and banking system, traditional transfer channels (for example, bringing the money by hand) are used. According to CBR estimates, the share of the money personally brought through the border in 2005 did not exceed 20 per cent of the officially registered transfers. In Russia, remittances that are directed outside the country have received much more public attention than the flows from abroad into Russia. As the remittance flows out of the country have grown much larger than the money known to have been sent to Russia, this has made the mass media, politicians, and officials critical of remittances given the seeming imbalance between the amount received by and sent from Russia. Experts, however, point out that remittances only play a marginal role in weakening the external balance of payments. 38 Quillin, Bryce, Carlo Segni, Sophie Sirtaine and Ilias Skamnelos ( 2007) op. cit., p Tishkov, Valery, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) Migration in the Countries of the Former Soviet Union, op. cit., p World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2006) 46 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

49 4. Migrant communities/diasporas With approximatively million people, the Russian diaspora is one of the largest in the world. The Russian population and other ethnic groups based for the most part in the territory of Russia is believed to reach up to 23 million, 20 million of whom to live in the states of the former USSR 41 and about 3 million in other countries, mostly in the United States and Canada Description of relationship between diasporas and country of origin The relationship between Russian authorities and Russians living abroad has evolved through structures of financial support and social organizations providing support. 43 So far, no elaborate network structures have been created, and the only official links that exist between the diaspora and the country of origin appear to be through the support of veterans, pensioners, and socially vulnerable Russian groups living abroad. Further evidence to the weakness of this official relationship can be found in the increasingly important role played by American and European foundations dealing with the young Russian-speaking elite, 44 as well as by other organizations in the countries of destination that are involved with Russian communities at the economic, cultural and scientific levels. Russia s severe demographic decline 45 has led the authorities to make efforts in attracting Russians of the diaspora to return to their homeland, focusing their attention on the emigrant elite. 46 However, the appeals from compatriots to the diaspora to return have met only limited success. 47 The state policy concerning compatriots abroad goes as a separate item in the federal budget. The expenditure related to implementation of the State pro- 41 According to the census in the CIS countries and Baltic republics, the Russian population is about 18.2 million and about 2.1 million are other ethnic Russians. 42 Kabuzan, V. (1996) Russians of the World, Russian Baltic Information Center BLITZ, St. Petersburg, p.21. According to other estimates, their number may be million people. 43 Yatsenko, Elena (2007) Russia s Diaspora Capital: Key Actors and Conditions for Accumulation, Eurasia Heritage Foundation, 44 Ibid. 45 From 148 million in 1992 to 142 million in See World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2007) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 46 Heleniak, Timothy (2002) Russia Beckons, but Diaspora Wary, Migration Policy Institute, 47 Ibid. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

50 gramme for rendering assistance with regards to willful compatriot migration to the Russian Federation is financed by another item in the budget. Government and other agencies dealing with the Russian diaspora Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation The Ministry promotes development of relations and contacts with compatriots living abroad. It carries out protection of legitimate rights and interests of compatriots living abroad, according to the norms of international law. 32/34, Smolenskaya-Sennaya ploshad Moscow, , Russia Tel.: +7 (495) Correspondence and private issues department (MFA reception desk) Tel.: +7 (495) , fax: +7 (495) Governmental Commissions for Affairs of Compatriots Abroad The Commission is a coordinating body of the Government of the Russian Federation providing coordination support for the activities of federal executive authorities and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The administrative responsibility for the commission lies with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. Interdepartmental Commission for Implementation of the State Programme on Assisting Willful Migration to the Russian Federation of the Compatriots Living Abroad This is a collegial body that controls the State programme on assisting willful migration to the Russian Federation of compatriots living abroad, and also monitors its implementation. The Commission s organizational support is carried out by divisions of the Administration of the President of Russia while system support is provided by the FMS of Russia. 48 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

51 Russian Center of the International Scientific and Cultural Cooperation under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia (Roszarubezhcenter) The Roszarubezhcenter s principal activities are: o providing information support for the external and internal policy of Russia and assisting in the formation of positive perception of the image of modern Russia in the global community o assisting in the development of comprehensive connections of compatriots with the historical motherland and interaction with the Russian-speaking diasporas abroad o strengthening of positions of the Russian language in the world o preserving the high reputation abroad of the national system of higher education o conducting cultural and educational activities abroad and assisting in the development of business and cultural relations of Russia with other countries o assisting in the development of scientific, technical and business cooperation of Russia with foreign countries. 14, Vozdvizhenka Street, Moscow Tel.: +7(495) (for the Roszarubezhcenter s foreign representations and Russian centers of science and culture). Federal Migration Service (FMS) of Russia The FMS participates in the implementation of the state policy of the Russian Federation concerning compatriots abroad. 16, Zhitnaya Street, Moscow, , Russia Tel.: +7(495) Ministry of Regional Development (Minregion) of the Russian Federation The Ministry arranges the implementation of regional programmes for assisting willful migration to the Russian Federation of compatriots living abroad. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

52 10/23, Sadovaya-Samotechnaya Street Bdg 1, Moscow, , Russia Tel.: +7(495) Fax: +7 (495) Ministry of Education and Science (Minobrnauki ) of the Russian Federation 11, Tverskaya Street, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: +7(495) Fax +7(495) Federal Education Agency (Rosobrazovanie) The Agency organizes selection of youth from among the compatriots living abroad for studying in higher and vocational educational institutions in the Russian Federation. It also arranges Russian training in the countries of residence. 51, Lyusinovskaya Street, , Moscow, Russia Telephone: +7(495) Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (Minkultury) of the Russian Federation 7, Kitaygorodskiy proezd, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: +7(495) Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications (Rospechat) 5, Strastnoy Boulevard, , Moscow, Russia Committee for the Affairs of the Community of Independent States of the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation 50 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

53 26, Bolshaya Dmitrovka Street, , Moscow, Russia Tel. : +7(495) ; Fax: +7(495) Committee for the Affairs of the Community of Independent States and Relations with Compatriots of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation 1, Okhotniy Ryad Street, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: +7(495) , , Human Rights Commissioner (Ombudsman) of the Russian Federation 47, Myasnitskaya Street, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: +7(495) факс: +7(495) ; +7(495) (press service); +7(495) (international department) [email protected] Moscow Government 13, Tverskaya Street, , Moscow, Russia 36/9, Noviy Arbat Street, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: + 7 (495) Department of the International Relations Tel. : +7(495) Department of the Relations with the CIS countries and Baltic Republics, the Compatriots Abroad Division Tel.: +7(495) Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

54 St. Petersburg Government The Saint Petersburg Administration, Smolniy, Fax: +7 (812) [email protected] External Relations and Tourism Committee: Relations with national associations of Saint Petersburg and compatriots abroad: Tel.: +7(812) , Fax: +7(812) The Russian World Foundation The Foundation ( was formed according to Decree No. 796 (21 June 2007) of the President of Russia. Its founders on behalf of the Russian Federation are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Education and Science. The Rodina (Motherland) Association ( ru/site/) The Russia and Compatriots Foundation ( Information support and communication The Russian Line Information Agency ( Network Center for the Russians Abroad ( of the Institute for the Russians Abroad Compatriot Information Portal ( of the Institute of the Eurasian Research Development Foundation Compatriot Portal ( 52 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

55 4.2. Migrant communities/diasporas organizations by country of destination (Please note the lists below do not purport to be exhaustive or representative. IOM does not take responsibility for the accuracy of the contact details.) Worldwide USSR Russian Net Community ( American RU ( Diaspora organizations abroad International Council of the Russian Compatriots ( For a list of organizations of the Russian compatriot abroad, 48 see.: o the website of the Moscow House of the Compatriot ( ru/soot/soot_org1.shtml) o the Materik Portal ( Migrant community/diaspora organizations in Russia For a list of migrant organizations, see the website of the Forum of Resettled Organizations ( =1000). Migrant communities, as a rule, are organized according to ethnicity. Many migrants take part in the work of national cultural autonomies (NCA) and national cultural centers. A total of 17 federal NCAs and over 350 regional NCAs have been created according to the Federal Law on the National Cultural Autonomy No. 74-FL of 17 June 1996, and many national cultural centers also function today. For a list of NCAs, see the website of the Center of Interethnic Cooperation ( 48 The compatriots abroad, according to the Russian law, are understood as follows: the citizens of the Russian Federation permanently living abroad; the persons having the citizenship of the USSR and living in the new independent states; natives (emigrants) of Russia and the USSR; and descendants of the persons belonging to the abovementioned groups, except for the descendants of persons of the eponymous ethnic groups of the foreign states (The Federal Law About the State Policy of the Russian Federation Concerning Compatriots Abroad, 24 May 1999, No. 99-FZ, Article 1, Part 2). Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

56

57 5. Irregular migration 5.1. Numbers/estimates of irregular movements Irregular immigration into the Russian Federation Russia is primarily a destination country for irregular migrants; secondly, a transit state for those on their way to Western and Central Europe; and thirdly, a country of exit for Russian citizens who intend to live or work irregularly in other countries. The major route of irregular migrants arriving in Russia is through the southern borders the states of Central Asia and Trans-Caucasus, of which Russia has agreements for crossing t on visa-free terms. The CIS countries are estimated to be the main sources of irregular migration to the Russian Federation. As for other source areas abroad, Southeast Asia is said to be prominent. Along the nearly 20,000 km land border of the Russian Federation, the borders with China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan are said to be among the most preferred sections for illegal crossings into Russia. As transit migrants from the CIS and from elsewhere try to make their way through Russia to Central and Western Europe, the illegal crossings in the Western borders are often much more difficult. This asymmetry of the borders is one of the reasons why many irregular migrants planning to transit through Russia get stuck in the country. 49 In 2007, the number of irregular migrants reportedly decreased due to the new migration law which came into force and the modification of procedures of reception of temporary stays and labour permits. According to the FMS, irregular migrants in 2006 totaled 10 to 15 million, but this was said to have gone down to 5-7 million in However, some experts considered these figures for 2006 and 2007 overestimated. Indeed, World Bank researchers cite estimations that vary between 3 and 3.5 million of irregular migrants currently living in Russia. 51 According to pre- 49 ICMPD (2005) 50 FMS Director K. Romodanovskiy, 18 December Quillin, Bryce, Carlo Segni, Sophie Sirtaine and Ilias Skamnelos (2007) Remittances in the CIS countries: A Study of Selected Corridors, op. cit., p. 7. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

58 vious estimates of the Russian Ministry of Labour, 52 about 3-5 million irregular labour migrants were residing in the Russian Federation or nearly eight per cent of the Russian working-age population. Additionally, estimates of the Russian Federal Border Service indicate some 1.5 million irregular migrants from Southern and Central Asia, and Africa residing in the Russian territory. 53 Also, based on the figures of the FMS, over 93,000 employers were using the services of irregular foreign workers in 2004, and about 713,000 foreign citizens fall in the category of irregular workers. 54 Ivakhnouk (2006) 55 presents a larger estimate of 5 15 million irregular migrants (in general terms, not only irregular labour migrants) in all the CIS with the most part in the Russian Federation. Ivakhniouk points out that the development of the private sector in Russia in the 1990s and its growing need for labour, as well as the migration flows from CIS countries given their high unemployment rate and lower salaries (such as Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, and Moldova), have propelled irregular migration into Russia spontaneously. Unfortunately, there has been no full documentation of its extent. With insufficient channels for regular labour migration and lack of official migration infrastructure and legislation, a large irregular regional labour market has developed. This situation has also been taken advantage of by international networks of criminal organizations specializing in human trafficking. Human traffickers are said to be benefiting from the gaps in national legislation on migration, the lack of official migration infrastructure, and the highly bureaucratic procedures for getting job permits, amidst the growing demand for migrant labour in Russia. As to the main sources of irregular foreign labour, the Federal Ministry of Labour reports the Caucasus countries, China, Vietnam, and the Central Asian countries Cited in ICMPD (2005): Overview of the Migration Systems in the CIS Countries. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ivakhnyuk, Irina (2006) Migration in the CIS Region: Common Problems and Mutual Benefits, An expert paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Development, United Nations Population Division, June 2006, Turin, Italy. 56 Cited in ICMPD (2005), Ibid. 56 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

59 Table 31. Violations of the Migration Law of the Russian Federation Violations to stay (residence) regulation (as of June) 1,514,759 1,403, ,074 Illegal labour activity 49,938 54,280 3,008 Violations to immigration regulation Source: Information Analysis Center, MIA of Russia. 1, Figures and information on return migration flows Inflows Table 32. IOM assisted voluntary returns to the Russian Federation, Return from: Total Austria Belgium Czech Republic Finland 2 2 Germany Hungary Ireland Italy Lithuania Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Serbia and Montenegro 3 3 Slovakia Spain 5 5 Switzerland United Kingdom Ukraine 1 1 Other Total Source: Provisional statistics from IOM s AVR Service Area, IOM Headquarters, Geneva, January 2008 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

60 Outflows Based on the records of the FMS, the number of foreign citizens deported from Russia (in thousands of persons) is 80.3 for 2005, 55.8 for 2007, and 24.0 for 2007 (January to October) Figures and information on trafficking According to the former Interior Minister of the Russian Federation Anatoly Kulikov, Russia is a provider, transiter, and consumer of human merchandise. For migrants from CIS countries, Russia is a consumer, and for those who are inclined to seeking sexual services abroad, it is a provider. More than 500,000 Russian-speaking women are said to have been trafficked for sexual exploitation. 57 Estimates of the yearly number of trafficked Russian women vary from 35,000 to 57, Numerous reasons have been given to explain the presence of human trafficking in Russia, such as: the practically transparent state borders between Russia and the CIS countries the increase in migration flows outside and inside of Russia the developed internal human trafficking system in Russia as one of the spheres of criminal business activities, including the use of forced labour the globalization of organized crime due the existence of stable channels of deliveries. Similarly, migration reports note that Russia is both a country of origin and of destination for human trafficking. Tishkov et al. (2005) 59 estimate that some 50,000 women from Russia are involved in illegal sex trade in Western countries, and an equal number from China and Southeast Asia is also reportedly involved. Additionally, Ivakhniouk (2006) 60 claims that men, women, and children from The Coordinator of the Inter-Agency Working Group is E. Mizulina, Permanent Representative of the State Duma in the Constitutional Court of Russia. 3. From 2004 the Legislative Committee of the State Duma was renamed into the Committee of civil, criminal, constitutional and procedural legislation. 58 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) (2004) Transport of Women and Children from Russia with the Goal of Sexual Exploitation, Moscow. 59 Tishkov, Valery, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) Migration in the Countries of the Former Soviet Union, A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration. 60 Ivakhnyuk, Irina (2006) Migration in the CIS Region: Common Problems and Mutual Benefits, An expert paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Development, United Nations Population Division, June 2006, Turin, Italy. 58 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

61 poorer CIS countries are trafficked to Russia for labour exploitation. The author adds that hundreds of thousands of Tajik, Kyrgyz, Moldovan, and Uzbek migrants are taken to Russia for seasonal employment in construction and agriculture. Their seasonal earnings provide sustenance to the families they left behind while they endure hardships and sufferings such as the violation of their human rights and exposure to serious health risks. Tishkov et al. confirm that in Central Asia, trafficking also occurs frequently among men, who are sold for slave labour in Russia. The problem of trafficking to Russia of young girls and women, in particular those from Moldova and Ukraine, is also said to have increased. Since 1999, IOM has been collecting statistical information on victims of trafficking that the organization has assisted in its return and rehabilitation programmes. Although not all IOM-assisted victims have been entered into IOM s database, figures at the end of 2007 point to nearly 12,800 victims assisted. As the information is collected only from victims who have benefited from IOM s programmes, the sample can be regarded as incomplete and not representative of the total number of trafficking victims. Still, the IOM data can give relevant information particularly on the profile of the potential victims to be targeted in prevention activities. The data can likewise reveal information that can support law enforcement officials in apprehending and prosecuting criminal organizations. At the end of 2007, the IOM database contained information on 233 victims of Russian origin. A total of 222 were female and only 11 were male. These Russian victims had ended up in 23 different countries of destination, which were in the regions IOM has a good coverage of counter-trafficking programmes and where the data on the victims were gathered. These regions and destination countries include the Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Kosovo, FYRoM, and Albania), East and South Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Moldova), the Middle East (Turkey, United Arab Emirates), and the Caucasus and Central Asia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazahstan, and Kyrgyzstan). In Western Europe, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland figured among the destination countries. The victims who ended up in the Balkans had arrived through many different routes, with Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Croatia, Bulgaria, and even Sweden and Argentina being used as transit countries. For the 233 Russian victims in the database, Turkey was by far the most important country of destination, with almost half of the victims (111 persons) having ended up there. The other destination countries had much lower figures, with Belarus (22), the Russian Federation (19 victims of internal trafficking), and Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

62 the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (18 Russian victims) following after Turkey. Recruitment In the sample (233 Russian victims), 62 per cent were recruited through personal contact, nine per cent through newspaper advertisement, one per cent (two victims) through internet advertisement, and four per cent through other methods. For the remaining 25 per cent, the recruitment method was not included in the information and therefore was unknown. In 18 per cent of the 233 cases, the sex of the recruiter was not registered, but in 51 per cent of the 191 known cases, the recruiter was female, and in 45 per cent, male, while both men and women did the recruitment in four per cent of the cases (eight victims). Giving the applicants false promises of an overseas job was the predominant method used by recruiters. In 66 per cent of the sample for whom there was information of the promised jobs, the jobs mentioned included waitressing, dancing, selling, child care, agricultural work, and begging. Prostitution was signified to 23 victims (10%) and sweatshop labour to 7 victims. However, as many as 205 or 88 per cent of the sample ended in sexual exploitation, 18 (nearly 8%) in forced labour, while 3 victims faced both types of exploitation. Another 7 victims suffered yet other types of exploitation. Profile of victims of trafficking For the profile of the 233 Russian victims, the database revealed that 17 (7.3%) were minors, 134 (58%) fell in the age bracket 18-24, 51 (22%) in the age bracket 25-30, and only 31 (13%) were over 30 years. In 189 victims (81%), the educational level was known. Twelve (5%) had finished only primary or elementary school, 76 (33%) reached middle school, 57 (24.5%) had a high school diploma, 176 (93%) had finished technical training, and 26 (11%) had university studies. The marital status was known in 204 cases and unknown for the remaining 29. A total of 143 victims (61%) indicated that they were single, 36 were divorced, 4 were separated, and 5 were widows. Only 14 were married and 2 were living in common law relationships. No less that 74 or almost 32 per cent of the 233 victims had indicated that they had children, and 12 of them had more than one child. 60 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

63 Out of 233, 133 said that they worked in Russia at the time of the recruitment while 13 did not. For 87, there was no information given. For the 133 who worked, 77 were office employees (either in private or public sector), 9 worked in the industrial sector, and the rest in agriculture, domestic work, and sex industry. A total of 179 answered to the question of the economic situation of their families. Only one of them characterized it as well-off while 44 (25%) described it as standard, 106 (59%) as poor, and 28 (16%) as very poor. Trafficking routes Experts identified several basic routes used by transporters in taking people out of the Russian Federation: The Baltic route through Lithuania, as well as the Central European route through Warsaw and Prague are regarded as the easiest methods to transport illegal migrants to Germany, Scandinavia and other European countries, and the United States. Recently, these countries have substantially tightened their crossborder travel rules. Nonetheless, European countries and the United States remain main destination countries for human trafficking out of Russia. The Caucasus (or Georgian) transit route is made easier by the weak borders with Turkey. Experts note that the majority of irregular migrants, including women and children, have beentransported via Georgia into Turkey, Greece, and the Mediterranean countries for sexual and labour exploitation. Large resorts in Europe and Asia and armed conflict zones or regions where military and peacekeeping forces are stationed (in this case primarily those in the Balkans) are regarded as notable trafficking hubs for sexual exploitation of women. Routes through Egypt and into Israel as well as other Middle Eastern countries are also common. In particular, many women and children are taken from the southern regions of Russia to the United Arab Emirates for sexual exploitation. Evidence of trafficking for labour exploitation has been found in countries with large Russian diasporas such as in Germany, Turkey, Portugal, and other southern European countries to which labourers are primarily transported for the harvest of citrus fruit and other agricultural work. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

64 China-bound human trafficking is divided into the China-Siberia and the China-Primorsky Region routes. Russia s policies in the early 1990s, to attract greater Chinese tourists and to harbour good neighbouring country relations, resulted in a large influx of Chinese citizens settling in Russia s far-east region. Chinese criminal groups have become a large problem for the law enforcement authorities of the Primorsky and Khabarovsk Regions and neighboring areas. The Chinese trafficking business has enormous potential. It is extremely stable, is geared to long-term activity, and is organized more like a business activity than a traditional criminal group activity. In contrast, the Russian human trafficking business is not marked by stability and is oriented more towards immediate profit, with its working slogan often being grab a buck and lay low. For this reason, Russian organized criminal gangs engaged in human trafficking adopt particularly harsh manners and methods of control. Russia is also a destination country for human trafficking routes from CIS countries and poor Asian regions. Almost all CIS states are involved in the trafficking of people into Russia as origin countries. The most vulnerable populations are those from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Armenia, Moldova, and Ukraine. For all these countries, Russia is one of the main destination countries for human trafficking for the purpose of labour and sexual exploitation E.V. Tiurukanova and the Institute for Urban Economics (2006) Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation, Inventory and Analysis of the Current Situation and Responses. Report conducted for the UN/IOM Working Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow, pp Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

65 Figure 3. Trafficking routes used in taking people out and into the Russian Federation Source: < U&lid=1&cmd=publications1&id=54> Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation. Inventory and Analysis of the Current Situation and Responses/Report conducted by E.V. Turukanova and the Institute for Urban Economics for UN/IOM Working Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow p. 25 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

66

67 6. Assessment and analysis of migration issues 6.1. Government institutions responsible for migration policy Agencies responsible for migration policy and contacts with expatriate community The Federal Migration Service (FMS) is the key agency responsible for the migration policy in the Russian Federation. It functions under the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA). The jurisdiction of the FMS covers the following: general strategy of the state migration policy registration of citizens of the Russian Federation in their place of stay and residence within the border of the country and control of citizens and officials compliance with the rules of registration registration and issuance to foreign citizens and stateless persons of entry and residence documents control of compliance by foreign citizens and stateless persons with the residence and temporary stay regulations of the Russian Federation prevention of illegal migration execution of the law of the Russian Federation with regard to refugees and forced immigrants, and granting of political asylum to foreign citizens and stateless persons control and supervision of external labour migration, engagement of foreign workers in the Russian Federation, and employment of citizens of the Russian Federation abroad. The FMS is located in Moscow. Each of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation has a territorial branch of the Service. 16, Zhitnay Street, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: +7(495) Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

68 The Ministry of Health and Social Development develops state policy in the field of labour migration and prepares reports on the practicability of engagement and use of foreign labour. 3, Rakhmanosvkiy pereulok, GSP-4, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: (495) The Federal Labor and Employment Service (Rostrud) has control and supervision functions in the field of labour, employment, and alternative civil service, rendering of state services in the field of assistance of employment of the population and protection against unemployment, and labour migration and settlement of collective labour disputes. Its work is coordinated by the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation. 1/2, Birzhevaya ploshad, , Moscow, Russia Tel.: +7(495) Other key offices involved in migration policy Office of the President of Russian Federation , Moscow, Ilinka Str, 23 State Duma of Russian Federation , Moscow, Mokhovaya, 7 Tel.: +7(495) Fax:+7(495) [email protected] Ministry of Foreign Affairs Moscow, Smolenskaya-Sennaya, 32/34 Tel.: +7 (495) Fax: +7 (495) [email protected] Federal Security Service , Moscow, Kuznetskiy most,22 Tel.: +7 (495) [email protected] 66 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

69 Ministry of Interior , Moscow, Zhitnaya St., 16 Tel: + 7 (495) Office of Prosecutor General , ГСП-3, Moscow Bolshaya Dmitrovka, 15а Tel.: +7 (495) International legal framework in place relevant to migration According to Voronina(2006), 62 as of 2006, there were more that 10 federal acts, over 100 presidential decrees, parliamentary resolutions, and ministerial acts, and dozens of international and intergovernmental agreements that together form the migration legislation of the Russian Federation. The main laws regulating international migration into the territory of the Russian Federation include the Scheme of Exit from the Russian Federation and Entry into the Russian Federation (dated 15 August 1996, No. 114-FL, with amendments effective 18 July 1998, No. 110-FL), the Law on the Legal Status of Foreigners in the Russian Federation (dated 25 July 2002, No. 115-FL, with amendments effective 18 July 2006, No. 110-FL), the Law on Russian Federation Citizenship (with amendments effective 11 November 2003, No. 151-FL), and the Law on Migration Registration of Foreigners and Stateless Persons in the Russian Federation (dated 18 July 2006, No. 109-FL). The migration policy of Russia is also reflected in decrees of the President such as: On Involvement and Application of Foreigners Labor Force in the Russian Federation (dated 16 December 1993, No. 2146) and On Measures for Assistance in Voluntary Resettlement to the Russian Federation of Compatriots Residing Abroad (dated 22 June 2006, No. 637). Most issues of the migration policy are also addressed in regulative acts of the Russian Federation government. Russia ratified the UN Convention on the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol in It is also a party to a number of international treaties and agreements in the sphere of migration management. 62 Voronina, Natalia (2006) Outlook on Migration Policy Reform in Russia: Contemporary Challenges and Political Paradoxes, in Roger Rodriguez Rios (ed.) Migration Perspectives Eastern Europe and Central Asia, IOM Technical Cooperation Centre for Europe and Central Asia, Vienna. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

70 International agreements on resistance to illegal migration Agreement on cooperation of members of CIS in the struggle against migration (Moscow, 6 March 1998) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on cooperation in the struggle against illegal migration (Tashkent, 4 July 2007) Protocol between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Latvia on establishment of a working group on issues of illegal migration (Moscow, 28 June 2006). International readmission agreements Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on admission and return of persons residing illegally in the territory of the Russian Federation and in the territory of the Republic of Lithuania ((Vilnius, 12 May 2003). Agreement between the Russian Federation and the European Association on readmission (Sochi, 25 May 2006) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on readmission (Moscow, 8 June 2007) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on readmission (Tashkent, 4 July 2007) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine on readmission (Kiev, 22 December 2006) International agreements on citizenship problems: Agreement among the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and the Russian Federation on simplified procedure of obtaining citizenship, effective 26 February Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

71 Agreement between the Republic of Kazakhstan on simplified procedure of obtaining citizenship by citizens of the Russian Federation arriving in the Republic of Kazakhstan for permanent residency and by citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan arriving for permanent residency in the Russian Federation, effective 20 January 1995 Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Kyrgyzstan Republic on simplified procedure of obtaining citizenship by the citizens of the Russian Federation arriving in the Kyrgyzstan Republic for permanent residency, and by the citizens of the Kyrgyzstan Republic arriving in the Russian Federation for permanent residency, and on abatement of previous citizenships, effective 28 March 1996 Agreement between the Russian Federation and Turkmenistan on adjustment of dual citizenship, effective 23 December 1993 International agreements on international citizens reciproсal travels Agreement among the Government of the Russian Federation, Government of the Republic of Belarus, Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, and Government of the Republic of Tajikistan on citizens reciprocal free-of-visa- travel, effective 30 November 2000 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Azerbaijan Republic on citizens reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 3 July 1997 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Armenia on citizens reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 25 September 2000 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of China on citizens reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 29 February 2000 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Moldova on citizens reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 30 November 2000 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

72 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Ukraine on citizens reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 16 January 1997 International agreements on labour force migration Agreement on cooperation in labour force migration and social maintenance of migrant workers, effective 15 April 1994 (signed under CIS), ratified on 24 April 1995, No. 47-FL. The Protocol on insertion of amendments and additions to the Agreement was signed on 25 November 2005 and came into force on 15 December 2006 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Armenia on labour activity and social maintenance of the Russian Federation citizens working in the territory of the Republic of Armenia, and of citizens of the Republic of Armenia working in the territory of the Russian Federation, effective 19 July 1994 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Belarus on labour activity and social maintenance of citizens of the Russian Federation working in the territory of the Republic of Belarus, and of citizens of the Republic of Belarus working in the territory of the Russian Federation, effective 24 September 1993 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany on employment of persons working for hire, targeted at improvement of their professional and language knowledge (The Agreement on Employment of Guest Workers of 17 May 1992) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Kyrgyztan on labour activity and social protection of working migrants, dated 28 March 1996 (came into effect on 15 January 1998, ratified on 14 November 1997, No. 139-FL, with amendments, Protocol of 22 September 2003, ratified on 3 January 2006, No. 3-FL) Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the People s Republic of China on temporary labour activity of citizens of the Russian Federation in China and the citizens of the People s Republic of China in the Russian Federation, dated 3 November Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

73 Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the People s Republic of China on cooperation in mutual development of forest resources, dated 3 November Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on temporary labour activity of citizens, dated 29 June 1999 Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Moldova on labour activity and social maintenance of citizens of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Moldova, working outside the boundaries of their states, dated 27 May 1993 (with amendments, Protocol No. 105, dated 12 February 1994) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Poland on principles of labour activity of the Russian citizens in the territory of Poland and Polish citizens in the territory of the Russian Federation, dated 15 March 1994 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Slovak Republic on organization of citizens employment under contractual agreements and on employment assistance to citizens, dated 13 February 1995 (came into effect on 27 March 1995) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Ukraine on labour activity and social maintenance of the citizens of Russia and Ukraine working outside the borders of their countries, dated 14 January 1993 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of Switzerland Confederation on exchange of probationers, dated 2 September 1993 Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan on labour activity of citizens of the Russian Federation in the Republic of Tajikistan and citizens of Tajikistan in the Russian Federation, dated 16 October 2004 (ratified on 3 January 2006, No. 2-FL) Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan on labour activity and protection of Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

74 rights of labour migrants who are citizens of the Russian Federation in the Republic of Uzbekistan and the rights of labour migrants who are citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the Russian Federation, signed on 3 July Migration policies in place Voronina (2006) 63 divides the post-soviet period of the Russian migration policy into the following stages: Formation Expanding spheres under regulation and development of migration legislation Period considered by many as negative progress (the FMS was dissolved) Focus on combating irregular migration and restrictive policies Reform of migration policy In the early years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the first priority of the Russian migration authorities was to address the consequences of the large return migration of Russians from the former Soviet Republics. In May 1992, the Council of Ministries of the Russian Federation approved the first National Long-Term Migration Programme. The main goal of the Programme was to provide assistance to refugees and involuntary migrants (Russians who came from the former Soviet Republics). The main components of the Programme included support for resettlement, housing, employment, and health care. The Programme was approved and its implementation started before the Russian Federation created its own migration legislation. 64 Over the first half of the 1990s, various components of migration legislation were created, including presidential decrees in , namely, On Recruitment and Employment of Foreign Labour Force in the Russian Federation and its complementary decree in The first Federal Migration Programme, created likewise by a presidential decree in August 1994, was the first attempt to comprehensively address the whole variety of migration issues. 63 Voronina, Natalia (2006) Outlook on Migration Policy Reform in Russia: Contemporary Challenges and Political Paradoxes, in Roger Rodriguez Rios (ed.) Migration Perspectives Eastern Europe and Central Asia, IOM Technical Cooperation Centre for Europe and Central Asia, Vienna. 64 Voronina, Natalia (2006), Ibid. 72 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

75 The Federal Migration Service, first created in 1992, was in existence until its dissolution in 2000, to be restored again in 2002 under the MIA. According to Voronina (2006), this new administrative affiliation demonstrated the focus towards combating irregular migration. In recent years, Russia s migration policy has increasingly addressed the need for labour immigration to Russia, such as by searching for measures that would ease the geographical constraints and the skills shortages (see Section 6.4) and mismatch in the labour markets, facilitating the legalization of undocumented workers through smooth and non-bureaucratic procedures, attracting economic migrants, facilitating permanent immigration and resettlement, and assisting in the integration of immigrants. The Action Plan for the Implementation of the Programme on Socio-economic Development of the Russian Federation for included the development of a Concept for National Migration Policy, which was enacted by the State Duma in 2006 and has been implemented since This coincided with the entry into force of the new migration legislation in 15 January. This new migration policy concerns three categories of migrants: temporary labour migrants from the CIS countries, for whom access to labour markets and registration of their residence has been made easier; immigrants, for whom the procedures for obtaining permits for residence have been liberalized; and compatriots, for whom benefits are being provided while repatriating. Taking into account public opinion on the negative attitude towards migrants, and especially demographic and labour market concerns, one key priority is the promotion of the return of compatriots. In 2007, the 12 pilot regions under the Federal Programme on rendering assistance to voluntary return to the Russian Federation of compatriots living abroad started to take part in the programme. The regions of Eastern Russia that are suffering from labour force deficit are considered to be the regions of first priority. As of 1 December 2007, 4,800 Russians abroad (altogether 12,000 persons when family members included) were accepted to participate in the Federal Programme, however only about 400 persons did actually return. The Russian authorities expect these figures to rise. 65 Lately, the improvement of migration policy is being realized in Russia, which is aimed at enhancing the responsibility of employers in resisting the irregular employment of foreign workers, who, along with measures for simplifying 65 Initially, the plan was to resettle up to 50,000 people (Mukomel and Mkrtchyan 2008). Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

76 procedures of obtaining work permits and registration for working migrants, are urged to help reduce the quantities of irregular migration in the Russian Federation. Measures are being simultaneously taken for improving practical methods of setting quotas for the intake of labourers in the industrial sector. In 2007, the Government of the Russian Federation approved a quota of 6,000 persons in the issuance of invitations to foreign citizens for entry into the Russian Federation for the purpose of labour activity from states with which Russia has established a visa-free regime. With other states that do not fall under Russia s visa-free regime, the quota is set at 308,800 persons. The approved quotas are distributed among subjects of the Russian Federation. 66 According to the law, Russian citizens should be given priority for local employment while a cap on the permitted share of employment exists for foreign citizens to work in certain fields. In 2006, the Government put limitations to a foreigners access to certain established trade fields. 67 The Concept of Migration Processes Regulation in the Russian Federation 68 has set the following goals: provision of steady development of national economy and demographic policy national security in the Russian Federation meeting the demands of the Russian economy in human resources rational distribution of population over the territory of the country use of intellectual and labour potential of migrants for prosperity of the Russian Federation. Meanwhile, the principle directions of activity for migration processes regulation as outlined in the Concept are: maintaining control over immigration processes in the Russian Federation building up the conditions for integration of forced migrants in the Russian Federation recruitment of immigrants to work in the Russian Federation to provide the national economy with labour resources entering of the Russian Federation into the international labour market and the process of regulation of economic migration 66 Mukomel and Mkrtchyan (2008). 67 Resolution of the Russian Federation Government No. 683 dated 15 November Approved by the Russian Federation Government Decree No. 256-r dated 1 March Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

77 building up of conditions for voluntary return to their former residential places of Russian nationals, who left their places of permanent residence in the Russian Federation by force and are now living in other territories of the country keeping and developing relationships with compatriots abroad optimization of internal migratory processes and promotion of effective usage of labour resources creation of conditions for the maintenance and further formation of populations in the northern, eastern, and cross-border regions of the Russian Federation rendering of assistance for the voluntary migration of compatriots from the CIS member countries and the Baltic countries Labour migration issues Russia s economic development has in recent years outperformed the other CIS countries (see Table 32) and increasingly made Russia a destination of intra- CIS labour migration flows. Table 33. Differences in GDP and standards of living among the CIS countries CIS country GDP per capita (USD) Percetage of population living on less than USD 2 per day Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Moldova Russian Federation Tajikistan Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan Sources: IMF. World Economic Outlook Database, April 2006; UN Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet, 2005, presented by Ivankniouk (2006)69 69 Ivakhnyuk, Irina (2006) Migration in the CIS Region: Common Problems and Mutual Benefits, An expert paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Developmen, United Nations Population Division, June 2006, Turin, Italy. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

78 Thanks to the generally favourable economic development in Russia, the employment situation has steadily improved in the last years, as the succeeding tables on the economically active population and on unemployment show. The size of the economically active population has steadily risen as well as the demand for immigrant labour due to the declining population. Registered unemployment has clearly dropped in the last years by 29 per cent, from over seven million in 2000 to less than five million in 2006 (see Table 36). Although the tables below do not reflect any dramatic changes in the division of the labour force between the different sectors of economic activity, Russia seems to face the lack of professionals needed in the modern services-oriented economy. With its growing dependence on an immigrant labour force, Russia is facing the same situation as many other European countries: there is a generous supply of an unskilled undocumented immigrant labour force, most of which is quite ill-matched to the labour force demands. The domestic labour force also cannot satisfy the current needs for professionals of modern business, production, and related business and personnel administration, marketing and information technology (IT). In Russia, the situation is typical as in many countries: there is a shortage of engineers, IT specialists, industrial, technical and managerial staff, commercial and marketing professionals, and related administrative support staff: This is illustrated in a list published by a Russian labour market news website ( that presents Russia s most in-demand professionals at the beginning of 2007: 1. Human resources manager 2. Marketing manager 3. Director of production 4. Personnel director 5. Manager of production 6. Internet project manager 7. Client relations manager 8. Senior secretary 9. Bookkeeper 10. Programmer Since January 2007, the new legislation regulating access of foreign citizens to the Russian labour markets has become effective. The procedure for the issuance of labour permits to foreign citizens arriving in the Russian Federation has been considerably simplified. The notice procedure covers employers as well, 76 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

79 wherein they are given the right to hire foreigners even without a foreign labour engagement permit. In 2007, the number of foreign citizens who are legally carrying out labour activity in the territory of the Russian Federation rose from 1,014,000 in 2006 to 2,150,000 as of January-September The number of foreign citizens registered by migration 70 authorities has been much higher over six million people as of January-September This may be explained by the fact that even if a significant part of foreign citizens arrive in Russia primarily not for labour activity, many of them most probably end up being engaged in irregular labour activity. 71 Together with measures for the liberalization of engagement and application of foreign labour, efforts aimed at strengthening the administrative responsibility for combating irregular engagement and use of foreign labour and working without a labour permit were executed. The administrative penalties for violation of regulations of stay and residence of foreign citizens and stateless persons, and for regulation of engagement and use of foreign labour in the territory of the Russian Federation were significantly increased to up to 800,000 rubles or about 22,000 euros per worker. This resulted in a significant decrease in offences in the irregular engagement of foreign workers and hiring them without labour permits, 72 from 67,108 in 2005 and 68,703 in 2006 to 9,632 in the first half of Mukomel, Vladimir and Nikita Mkrtchyan (2008): Expert memorandum drafted for this Country Profile, Moscow, January Ibid. 72 Articles and (before 2007, Parts 1 and 2 of Article 18.10) of the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offences. 73 Source: Information Analysis Center of the MIA of Russia. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

80 Economically active population, total of which: Table 34. Economically active population* ** Thousand persons 75,060 70,740 72,332 71,411 72,421 72,835 72,909 73,811 74,187 employed 71,171 64,055 65,273 65,124 66,266 67,152 67,134 68,603 69,189 unemployed 3,889 6,684 7,059 6,288 6,155 5,683 5,775 5,208 4,999 Men 39,197 37,338 37,499 36,905 36,997 37,206 37,079 37,511 37,643 of which: employed 37,161 33,726 33,754 33,527 33,709 34,199 34,177 34,710 35,012 unemployed 2,036 3,613 3,745 3,378 3,288 3,007 2,902 2,801 2,631 Women 35,863 33,401 34,833 34,506 35,423 35,629 35,831 36,300 36,544 of which: employed 34,010 30,330 31,519 31,596 32,557 32,953 32,958 33,893 34,176 unemployed 1,853 3,072 3,314 2,910 2,866 2,676 2,873 2,407 2,368 Economically active population, total of which: As percentage of the total of economically active population employed unemployed Men of which: employed unemployed Women of which: employed unemployed Source: Goscomstat * Data for 1992 and 1995 are as of the end of October; for 2000 to 2006, as of the end of November. **Data since 2006 include the Chechen Republic. 78 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

81 Table 35. Average annual employment by type of economic activities In thousand persons As percentage to the total Total employment 66,407 66,792 67, by type of economic activities: Agriculture, hunting and forestry 7,430 7, Fishing, fish farms Mining and quarrying 1,088 1, Manufacturing 11,787 11,506 11, Electricity, gas and water supply 1,900 1,912 1, Construction 4,743 4,916 5, Wholesale trade and commission trade; repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles; personal and household goods 10,843 11,088 11, Hotels and restaurants 1,152 1,163 1, Transport and communication 5,293 5,369 5, of which communication Financial intermediation Real estate, renting and business activities Public administration and defence; compulsory social security 4,825 4,879 4, ,447 3,458 3, Education 6,125 6,039 6, Health and social work 4,488 4,548 4, Other community, social and personal service activities Source: Goskomstat 2,330 2,460 2, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

82 Table 36. Number of unemployed persons in the Russian Federation, 1992, 1995, and Total number of unemployed, in thousand Persons Out of them: Students, pensioners According to the results of the Sample survey on employment* 3, , , , , , , , ,998.7 In thousand persons In per cent Women In thousand Persons 1, , , , , , , , ,367.8 In per cent Rural residents In thousand Persons , , , , , , , ,097.5 In per cent Number of unemployed registered by government employment offices, ** in thousand Persons Out of them: Women In accordance with the data of the Federal Labour and Employment Service (end of year) , , , , , , , ,742.0 In thousand Persons , , , , , ,132.5 In per cent Rural residents In thousand Persons In per cent Ratio of number of unemployed registered by government employment offices to total number of unemployed, in per cent Source: Goskomstat * Data for 1992 and 1995 are given as of the end of October; for 2000 to 2006, as of the end of November. **Data since 2006 include the Chechen Republic. 80 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

83 Table 37. Unemployment by age and educational attainment in 2006* (as of end of November; percentage of the total) Total Men Women Unemployed total By age, in years: Under Mean age of unemployed, in years Unemployed total including those with education: higher professional incomplete higher professional secondary professional primary professional secondary (complete) general basic general primary general, without primary general Source : Goskomstat, see * Data according to returns of the sample survey on employment, including data on Chechen Republic Policies to address irregular migration The combat irregular migration through international cooperation is considered to be one of the priority areas of the MIA. During the last years, some policy documents on intergovernmental cooperation for combating irregular migration were elaborated. Such documents Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

84 include the Concept of Cooperation between the CIS member countries against illegal migration approved by the Resolution of the Council of Heads of CIS member countries on 16 September 2004 in the city of Astana, and the Programme of Cooperation for between CIS member countries against illegal migration approved by the Council of Heads of CIS member countries on 26 August 2005 at the city of Kazan. Close cooperation between foreign partners in the fight against irregular migration is as before being practiced by the internal security services of the Russian Federation in the framework of the Agreement on Cooperation between the CIS member countries against illegal migration signed on 6 March 1998, and of succeeding documents adopted as the Agreement s continuation. Recent measures to facilitate the issuance of work permits especially for citizens of other CIS states, and the simplification of procedures to obtain foreign workers, have contributed to the strong increase of legally employed foreigners, while the estimated numbers of undocumented foreign workers have decreased. These measures to simplify the bureaucracy have been linked with tougher employer sanctions. In 2007, more than 166,000 employers were found violating regulations in hiring foreign citizens and were sanctioned by fines or even by temporary suspension of their business up to 90 days. 74 Cooperation with the other CIS states has been intensified. In January 2008, the Council of Heads of Migration Services of the CIS Member States was created. The Council has an ambitious agenda to promote more favourable attitudes on migration in CIS countries by promoting and facilitating legal migration and cooperation against irregular migration. The director of the Russian FMS is the first Chairman of the Council. 75 Furthermore, the Russian authorities have launched a new database in December 2007 to improve migration information, and are continuing the development of the Government Information System on Migration Records. 76 New passports have been developed with electronic components that allow better management and control of migration flows. Further development work is underway to include biometric data into travel documents. The Russian Federation has signed or ratified a number of international instruments related to irregular migration. As previously mentioned, in March 74 From FMS, reported in Mukomel and Mkrtchyan (2008). 75 Idem. 76 IOM Moscow and FMS of the Russian Federation. 82 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

85 1998, the Agreement on cooperation between the CIS member-countries in their struggle against illegal migration (Federal Law of 12 July 2000, No. 97-FL) was ratified. Also, on 12 December 2000, the Russian Federation signed the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted on 15 November 2000, and the complementary Protocol against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea and air. In Article 6 of this Protocol to the Convention, each member state shall take legal and other measures against three specified variants of smuggling or related facilitation of illegal entry or stay. At present, only one offence is mentioned in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation as corpus delicti in the Organization of Illegal Migration (Article 322.2) Policies to address trafficking in human beings In 2000, Russia signed the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its supplementing Protocol on Trafficking in Persons, which was ratified in March During this period, Russia also legally defined trafficking in human beings within its criminal code and has initiated steps toward responding to trafficking issues. Fora such as government interagency meetings and anti-trafficking conferences like the All-Russian Assemblies of Anti-Trafficking NGOs have fostered dialogue among decision makers and practitioners in the establishment of strategies to better combat trafficking in human beings. In order to create a special legal basis for the prevention of human trafficking in the Russian Federation, an Inter-Agency Working Group (WG) was established under the auspices of the Legislative Committee of the State Duma in Members of Working Group (the State Duma deputies, representatives of various ministries and departments, and non-government organizations) initiated and developed the draft Federal Law on Prevention of Human Trafficking, which determines the legal and organizational regulations for the prevention of human trafficking in the Russian Federation and the means of coordination of activities of executive federal agencies, public institutions, and unions. The draft Law also determines the legal status and state guarantees for the victims of human trafficking. The provisions of the draft Law were discussed during the parliamentary hearings in February 2003 and March At present. the Working Group is 77 Mukomel, Vladimir and Nikita Mkrtchyan (2008): Expert memorandum drafted for this Country Profile, Moscow, January Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

86 carrying out the revision and upgrading of the existing draft Law based on the comments and amendments proposed by participating ministries, state departments, and political parties. In 2003, Federal Law No. 162-ФЗ on Introducing Changes and Additions to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation was adopted in Russia. With the adoption of this Law, Russian law enforcement authorities received a legal basis for the criminalization and prosecution of trafficking-related offences. The Law envisages criminal liability for trafficking in persons (Article 127-1), use of slave labour (Article 127-2), involvement of minors in prostitution (Article 240, part 3), the organization of prostitution (Article 241), and the manufacture and distribution of materials or objects with pornographic depictions of minors (Article 242-1). The Law defines trafficking in persons as the buying and selling of a person or other actions committed for the purpose of his exploitation in the form of recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt. The Law differentiates against the criminal liability for trafficking in persons. Depending on the gravity of the crime (committed with regard to two or more persons, with the use or threat of force, etc.), the punishment might be up to 15 years of imprisonment. The Law defines slave labour as the use of person s labour with regard to whom power characterized by the right of ownership is exercised, in the event when a person, for reasons beyond his control, cannot refuse doing the work (providing services). The maximum punishment of imprisonment is up to 15 years. The criminal liability for involvement of minors in prostitution was increased to up to eight years of imprisonment, and the criminal liability of organization in the engagement of other persons in prostitution was broadened. Aggravating circumstances includes the use or threat of force, the use of authority of an official position, and the deliberate use of minors for engaging in prostitution, among others. The Federal Law of 20 August 2004 No. 119-ФЗ on State Protection of Victims, Witnesses and Other Parties to Criminal Proceedings which entered into force on 1 January 2005 plays an important role in combating the criminal business of human trafficking. It enacts a set of state-guaranteed security measures for the protected persons. In accordance to the Law, claimants, witnesses, and victims shall be eligible for government protection. 84 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

87 The Law creates normative and legal bases for the protection of victims of human trafficking and members of their families through relocation to a different permanent place of residence, issuance of new documents, change of appearance, personal protection and protection of home and property, provision of special individual protection, communication and security alarm devices, protection of confidential information on the protected person, transfer to a new job or educational institution, and temporary relocation to a secured shelter (Article 6, Chapter 2). To enhance the coordination of anti-trafficking activities, a programme of cooperation of CIS member states in combating trafficking in persons for was adopted on 28 November 2006 in Minsk in which specialized units have been created within the Ministry of Interior 79 and regional departments with the purpose of preventing, detecting, and investigating criminal cases in the sphere of irregular migration, trafficking in persons, and use of slave labour. The methods used in the investigation of trafficking-related crimes were worked out. The methods contain criminal qualification of trafficking in humans, investigation procedures of trafficking-related cases, ways of cooperation, tactical characteristics of some initial investigative actions, and subsequent and final stages of investigation. Russian authorities are increasing their efforts towards strengthening antitrafficking response and improving corresponding legislation. In particular, the State Duma Committee for Civil, Criminal, Arbitral and Remedial Legislation is drafting three alternative bills for enriching the definition of trafficking in human beings. It is also proposed that a new article on Trafficking in Minors be added as well as increasing the length of imprisonment for trafficking in minors. The Committee intends to give the bills their first reading in early Furthermore, the leaders of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Interior Ministry are calling for better international cooperation and exchange of information, experiences and best practices on combating human trafficking, with emphasis on the key role of the UN in the prevention of human trafficking worldwide According to Article 151 (Investigative Jurisdiction) of the Criminal Procedural Code of the Russian Federation in the criminal cases for crimes, envisaged by Articles and 127.2, a preliminary investigation shall be conducted by the investigators of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

88 Table 38. Statistics on crimes related to trafficking in people, (The table below contains data on trafficking violations with reference to relevant laws or articles in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation indicated below as CC RF.) Article CC RF 2004 Number of registered crimes Number of persons called to account , , ,570 1,049 1 Article of the Criminal Code Trafficking of Human Beings 2 Article of the Criminal Code Use of Slave Labour 3 Article 240 of the Criminal Code Attraction to Prostitution 4 Article 241 of the Criminal Code Organization of Prostitution 82 Statistics from the Main Center for Information and Analysis of the Interior Ministry of the Russian Federation. 86 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

89 The law enforcement authorities of the Russian Federation actively cooperate with law enforcement agencies in other countries, with Russian and international NGOs, and with the UN and other international organizations, including the IOM (see main actors in Section 6.9). 83 Examples of counter-trafficking projects Many anti-trafficking projects in the Russian Federation are carried out by local NGOs. However such project-based activities have certain weakness. Typically, the length of such projects is no more than one year. Furthermore, there is little coordination between the different projects, resulting in some overlap of activities as well as existence of serious gaps. Since anti-trafficking activities and support to victims of trafficking of the majority of NGOs are based on international donor support, the lack of stability, continuity, and sustainability will be a main concern until government agencies and public entities start supporting these projects with financial, information, and other types of assistance. At the same time, in order to strengthen understanding, coordination, and collaboration in counter-trafficking, a UN and IOM working group was established in 2004, with UN agency membership including the ILO, UNFPA, UN- ODC, UNDP, UNICEF and the UN Resident Coordinator s Office in the Russian Federation. Thus, to support efforts of both government and non-government structures to combat trafficking in human beings in the Russian Federation as a country of origin, transit, and destination, IOM spearheaded three anti-trafficking projects: 1. Prevention of human trafficking in the Russian Federation (funded by the European Commission and the United States and Swiss governments). The main components of the project are: Policy Advice: improving the legislative framework and the state policies regarding human trafficking, including the national capacity to assess and measure this phenomenon in Russia Prevention: strengthening the capacity of the relevant law enforcement agencies to combat human trafficking; raising awareness among the risk groups, general public and relevant Russian authorities, NGOs and diplomatic missions of foreign states 83 E.V. Tiurukanova and the Institute for Urban Economics (2006) Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation, Inventory and Analysis of the Current Situation and Responses. Report conducted for the UN/IOM Working Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow, ublications1&id=54 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

90 Reintegration: building the capacity of the national authorities and local NGO networks to protect and reintegrate victims of trafficking. 2. Combating Trafficking in Human Beings in the Russian Federation (funded by Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). The main components of the project are: Provision of equipment to Federal Counter-Trafficking Department/ Unit/Focal-points Counter-trafficking educational programme Networking visits to countries of origin Law Enforcement Conference in Moscow/Saint Petersburg 2008/2009 Youth group capacity building and engagement. 3. Reintegration assistance to victims of trafficking from the Russian Federation (funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation or SDC). The main components of the project are: establishment of a safe house facilitating long-term assistance and support to up to 20 victims of trafficking (women victims of sexual exploitation) launching of a project development contest for NGOs focusing on counter-trafficking services with as many as four NGOs receiving funding for the selected projects creation of a reintegration fund providing assistance to up to 75 former victims of trafficking Refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons, and relevant policies in place Shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation, having joined the UN Convention on Refugees of 1951 and the Protocol of 1967, could not completely fulfill its obligations to the UN Convention due to financial constraints. Refugee status was granted mainly to citizens of CIS and Baltic countries; applicants from foreign countries were granted refugee status only in exceptional cases. Russia adopted the Law on Refugees (of February 1993, No ) and on Asylum Seekers (19 February 1993, No ) In 1995, the new version of the resolution On asylum seekers was adopted (by Federal Law of 20 December 1995, No. 202-FL). Following this, in 1997, the new version of the resolution On refugees (Federal Law of 28 June 1997, No. 95-FL), was adopted, putting the national legislation in better alignment with the UN Refugee Convention. 88 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

91 Since July 1992, more than 1,623,000 people have been granted refugee and asylum seeker status. On 1 January 2001, 445 people were provided with refugee status and 117,711 with asylum seeker status, out of whom 23,827 persons were considered internally displaced persons. 85 The FMS of Russia projects that in , the number of applicants for refugee status and who will obtain this status will increase. This projection goes as well to the number of persons who will be given temporary asylum. Russia has unfulfilled financial obligations to persons who have received the status of asylum seekers. Nevertheless, in 2007, 1,287 families of asylum seekers were provided with housing; in 2006, 306 families received this type of support. For 2008, the federal budget envisages to allocate RUR million (about USD 46 million) for the purchase of housing for asylum seekers. In 2007, the government rendered support to citizens who suffered in the Ossetian-Chechen conflict a total of 655 families and 68,661 persons who were returned to the places of their former residence in the territory of the Chechen Republic. A total of 309 families received reimbursement for the lost of their housing and/or property. Table 39. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, ( June) , Source: UNHCR, Other important migration actors in the country International actors Delegation of the European Commission to the Russian Federation 19017, Moscow Kadashevskaya nab., 14/1 Tel.: (+7 495) Fax (+7 495) [email protected] 85 These figures do not include data on persons forcibly moved to the Ingushetiani Republic from the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, as well as those who applied to the FMS for refugee and asylum seeker status, due to events in the Chechen Republic in and Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

92 International Organization for Migration in Moscow (IOM) 2-ya Zvenigorodskaya St., 12 Moscow, Tel.: (495) ; (495) Fax: (495) International Labour Organization (ILO) Moscow Petrovka 15, apt. 23 Tel.: +7 (495) Fax.: +7 (495) United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Regional Office for Russia and Belarus 28 Ostozhenka, Moscow, Russia, Tel.: +7(495) Fax.: +7(495) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) in the Russian Federation 6 pereulok Obukha Moscow Tel.: (+7 495) Fax: (+7 495) [email protected] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) Moscow 28 Ostozhenka St., Tel.: +7(495) Fax +7(495) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Moscow Ostozhenka St. 28, Tel.: 7(495) Fax: 7(495) [email protected] 90 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

93 St. Petersburg Fontanka St. 21, Tel.: (812) Fax: (812) Vladikavkaz Tel.: (8672) Fax: (8672) Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky Karl Marx Av. 29/1, Room 207 Tel: (41522) Fax: (41522) United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF) 4/17 Pokrovsky Blvd., Building 1, Office 19/ Moscow, Russian Federation Tel.: Fax: [email protected] Collective Security Treaty Organization , Moscow, Varvarka St, 7, Tel.: +7(495) , (495) [email protected] National Actors NGOs working against trafficking in human beings A very large number of NGOs are working in counter-trafficking in the Russian Federation. The following list, compiled by the IOM Office in Moscow, shows some of NGOs that are active in different parts of the Russian Federation Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovskaya oblast Ekaterina Contact person: Ermakova Lyudmila Mikhaylovna Tel.: 8 (343) [email protected], [email protected] Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

94 Astrakhan - Oratorium Contact person: Perepyolkin Eduard Tel.: 8 (906) [email protected] Petrozavodsk, Karelia- Karelskiy Centre for Gender Studies Contact person: Boychenko Larisa Dmitrievna Tel.: 8 (8142) Moscow- Coalition Angel Contact person: Kuzbit Oleg Romanovich Tel.: (495) , [email protected], [email protected] Moscow- Sisters Contact person: Mokhova Mariya Lyvovna Tel.: 7 (095) [email protected]; [email protected] Moscow- Kesher Director: Svetlana Yakimenko Tel.: 8 (095) , 8 (916) [email protected], [email protected], Khabarovsk, Far East Winrock Director: Shchetinina Olga Petrovna Tel.: (4212) , , E- mail: [email protected] Vladivostok, Far East Far Eastern Crisis Centre Director: Bazhenova Svetlana Kupriyanovna Tel.: (4232) , (4232) [email protected] Aksinya Contact person: Irina Mardar Tel.: Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

95 Kazan- Fatima Contact person : Galitskaya Marina Tel.: (843) , (843) [email protected] Novosibirsk- Siberian Women s League Contact person: Head of the Council Yurtayeva Larisa Tel.: (383) [email protected] Chelyabinsk- Women s Commonwealth Contact person: Vasilyeva Larisa Semyonovna Tel.: (3512) [email protected] Irkutsk- Angara Contact person: Uralova Svetlana Valentinovna Tel.: (3952) , , (3952) [email protected] Saratov- Women s Crisis Centre Contact person: Pylayeva Oksana Yuryevn Tel.: (8452) [email protected] Murmansk- Crisis Centre- Priyut Contact person: Shtylyova Lyubov Vasilyevna Tel.: (8152) , [email protected] Nizhniy Novgorod- Russian Children s Fund Contact person: Dernova Nina Ivanovna Tel.: (8312) [email protected] Yaroslavl- Center for Sexual Culture Formation Contact person: Shelkova Valentina Anamovna Tel.: (4852) ; Fax: , Mobile: ; Hotline: (8910) [email protected], [email protected] Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

96 Krasnoyarsk- Verba Contact person : Palchik Natalya Borisovna Tel. : (3912) [email protected] 94 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

97 7. Annex: Some Additional Migration Statistics Annex Table 1. Foreign citizens and stateless persons who obtained temporary asylum and were registered with the Federal Migration Service of Russia, Families Persons Families Persons Families Persons Families Persons Families Persons Total 725 1, , , , ,174 Including near-abroad countries Far-abroad countries , , ,099 Source: Federal Migration Service ( Annex Table 2. Conferment of Russian citizenship, Acquired the Russian citizenship 493, ,255 Including: In a simplified procedure 376, ,004 In a common procedure According to the international treaties 116,376 82,099 Out of those who acquired the citizenship: Adults 316, ,960 Children under 18 96,298 90,145 Students 15,774 11,798 Source: Federal Migration Service. Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

98 Annex Table 3. Principal indicators of temporary labour migration to Russia, Employers with permits to engage foreign labour (January to October) 35,886 45,205 27,830 Foreign labour permits issued, total 44,323 56,379 21,200 Foreign workers employed during the reporting period 702,500 1,014,013 2,024,069 Including from the CIS countries 343, ,722 1,663,404 Foreign labour permits issued to foreign citizens, total 430, ,609 1,871,752 Including from the CIS countries 238, ,398 1,611,805 Organizations licensed to employ the Russian citizens to work abroad as of the end of the reporting period Source: Federal Migration Service, Annex Table 4. Number of engaged foreign labour and average monthly salary in 2006 by regions of the Russian Federation* Subjects of the Russian Federation Number of employed foreign workers Average monthly nominal salary accounted in 2006, roubles. the Russian Federation total 1,014,013 10,727.7 Central Federal District the Belgorod Region 4,284 8,428.1 the Bryansk region 974 6,385.7 the Vladimir region 4,358 7,515.5 the Voronezh Region 3,539 6,666.7 the Ivanovo Region 1,439 6,545.2 the Kaluga Region 4,991 8,483.8 the Kostroma region 1,481 7,492.4 the Kursk region 1,256 7,150.6 the Lipetsk Region 1,833 8,617.1 the Moscow region 85,067 11,752.4 the Orel region 853 6,786.6 the Ryazan Region 5,430 7,763.1 the Smolensk Region 911 7,827.6 the Tambov region 1,188 6,267.5 the Tver region 3,670 8,115.1 the Tula region 4,115 7,723.3 the Yaroslavl region 3,378 9,012.8 City of Moscow 355,384 18, Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

99 North-western Federal District the Republic of Karelia 2,187 10,706.7 the Komi Republic 2,961 14,247.3 the Arkhangelsk Region 2,426 11,901.2 the Vologda Region 4,226 10,777.6 the Kaliningrad Region 8,492 9,373.5 the Murmansk Region 1,453 10,612.1 the Novgorod Region 1,536 14,983.9 the Pskov Region 1,458 8,843.8 St. Petersburg 34,811 6,974 The Leningrad region 12,983 12,978.9 Southern Federal District Republic of Adygeya 190 6,350.7 Republic of Dagestan 1,684 4,884.4 Republic of Ingushetia 103 6,720.2 Kabardino-Balkarian Republic 103 5,862 Republic of Kalmykia 628 5,626.6 Karachai-Circassian Republic 94 6,051.8 Republic of North Ossetia-Alania 630 5,893.8 Chechen Republic 2 8,078 Krasnodar Territory 22,455 8,065.2 Stavropol Territory 3,364 6,844.1 the Astrakhan region 3,943 8,193 the Volgograd region 7,673 7,679.4 the Rostov region 3,642 7,485.3 Privolzhsky Federal District Republic of Bashkortostan 13,475 8,474.8 Republic of Marij El 103 6,526.1 Republic of Mordovia 899 6,362 Republic of Tatarstan 14,784 8,839.1 Udmurtian Republic 2,817 7,881.6 Chuvash Republic 316 6,407.2 the Kirov Region 707 9,584.7 the Nizhni Novgorod Region 11,919 7,187.7 the Orenburg Region 4,693 8,147.9 the Penza Region 1,157 7,752.8 the Perm Region 9,106 6,492.3 the Samara Region 7,883 9,630.5 The Saratov region 951 7,170.8 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

100 The Ulyanovsk region 2,213 6,733.9 Uralian Federal District the Kurgan Region 737 7,267.7 the Sverdlovsk Region 52,845 10,942.5 the Tyumen Region 9,634 2,3854 the Chelyabinsk Region 15,707 26,936.8 the Khanty-Mansijsk Autonomous District the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District Siberian Federal District 29,348 32, ,443 9,364.9 Republic of Altai Republic of Buryatia 3,525 9,333.6 Republic of Tuva 408 8,956.8 Republic of Khakassia 332 9,511.5 Altai Territory 5,861 6,149 Krasnoyarsk Territory 22,805 12,454 the Irkutsk region 12,901 11,069.1 the Kemerovo region 5,027 10,328.4 the Novosibirsk region 12,786 9,120.5 the Omsk region 5,649 8,980.7 the Tomsk region 1,667 11,495.1 the Chita region 20,569 10,039.4 Far East Federal District the Republic of Sakha Yakutia 14,861 16,154.6 The Primorskiy Territory 37,900 10,887.3 Khabarovsk Territory 13,643 12,512.6 the Amur region 18,454 11,069 the Kamchatka Region ,692.4 the Magadan region ,516 the Sakhalin Region 16,816 19,001.7 the Jewish Autonomous Region 6,326 9,829.1 the Chukotka Autonomous District 4,451 25,113.8 Source: Federal Migration Service; Social and Economic Situation in Russia, January 2007, Rosstat, 2007 * Data by autonomous areas, except for the Khanty-Mansi and Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Areas, are included in relevant areas. 98 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

101 Annex Table 5. Immigrants at age 14 and older, by citizenship All migrants 158, , , , ,687 Russian citizens 142,731 94,425 93, , ,212 Foreign citizens 13,225 14,738 9,063 10,303 9,931 Stateless persons 2,549 2,720 2,194 2,645 1,728 Not indicated 2,816 Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Rosstat, Annex Table 6. Remittances from and to Russia sent through money transfer systems Remittances from Russia Including.: non-cis counties and the Postal Service of Russia, , in million dollars (January- September) 1,310 2,070 3,549 6,005 6, CIS countries 3,226 5,382 5,733 Remittances to Russia ,041 1,304 1,193 Including: non-cis counties CIS countries Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile

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