Strategies for Learning Vocabulary in EFL Contexts

Transcription

1 Strategies for Learning Vocabulary in EFL Contexts Vocabulary widely considered as one of the most essential elements of a language plays a pivotal role in determining whether or not students will be successful in learning a language and communication. The extensive knowledge of vocabulary is seen to be absolutely crucial and highly desirable. It is believed that vocabulary knowledge is vitally important for the four macro skills i.e. listening, reading, speaking and writing. In fact, our lack of vocabulary knowledge is more likely to result in great difficulty in expressing ourselves both in speaking and writing (Lew & Galas, 2008). Because of the significance of vocabulary knowledge in effective, vocabulary learning and instruction are attracting considerable attention from researchers and practitioners, particularly students and teachers. Many research have been carried out in the area of vocabulary learning strategies in order to determine the effective and most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies. Many students may not be aware of those crucial strategies and most teachers tend not to teach their students explicitly how to apply vocabulary learning strategies as effectively as possible. This might be due to the fact that vocabulary learning strategies have been taken for granted by both teachers and students, and not many professional teacher-training courses regarding effective vocabulary learning and teaching strategies have been made possible for Cambodian EFL teachers. Therefore, this essay aims at discussing effective strategies for vocabulary learning from general vocabulary learning, the taxonomy of vocabulary learning, the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies in Asian contexts, difficulties in learning and leaching vocabulary, to strategies to cope with difficulty in learning vocabulary. Hopefully, the fruits of this discussion will identify what the most effective strategies are, how they are used, and what can be drawn for the implications for vocabulary learning and teaching. General Vocabulary Learning Strategies In order to find out effective vocabulary learning strategies, a large amount of research on vocabulary learning strategies has been conducted. Most of the research focus on three important areas: 1) general vocabulary learning strategies; 2) a taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies; and 3) the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies (Lip, 2009; Nation, 2001; Oxford, 1990; Schmitt, 1997). The vocabulary learning strategies generally involve cognitive strategies, 1

2 metacognitive strategies and social strategies. According to Hedge (2000, p36), learners use a range of cognitive strategies in order to learn words such as using keywords, making associations and learning words in group. He defines cognitive as a mental operation concerned with working on new words in order to understand, categorize, and store them in a mental lexicon. Similarly, Schmitt (1997) states that cognitive strategy including written and spoken repetition, word lists and flash cards are common strategies used in many parts of the world. Taking notes in class and keeping vocabulary notebooks are also useful and recommended by many teachers and writers. Metacognitive strategies, according to Schmitt (1997, p. 216), are used by students to control and evaluate their own learning, by having an overview or learning reflection of the learning process in general. Whereas social cognitive strategies involve asking someone, usually teachers and peers, for the synonyms, definitions or example sentences of a particular unfamiliar word (Wasik & Iannone-C., 2012). According to Ghanal (2007, p85), it is crucial to train learners to become independent during the process of L2 vocabulary learning because independent learners are self-directed and capable of taking responsibilities for their own learning and building up their confidence, involvement and proficiency (Oxford, 1990, as cited in Ghanal, 2007). Therefore, it is important that teachers raise students awareness of the importance of vocabulary learning strategies. Similarly, Hismanoglu (2000) states that language learning strategies are very important because they help learners learn the target language effectively. Fedderholdt (1997, as cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) suggests that the language learner capable of using a wide variety of language learning strategies appropriately can improve his language skills in a better way. Moreover, in their article, Hunt and Beglar (2004) point out that teachers emphasize the importance of guessing-from-context skills by drawing students attention to the value of good sentence examples which provide collocational, grammatical, and pragmatic information about words. Similarly, combining contextual and morphemic cues in vocabulary learning and teaching processes is beneficial during incidental vocabulary acquisition (Brusnighan & Folk, 2012, p67-70). Even more, recent research also point out that vocabulary learning strategies, particularly extensive reading and listening, guessing from context, and using dictionary play a major role in developing the learners vocabulary knowledge (Douglass & Nancy, 2014, p14). The Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies 2

3 In addition to the general vocabulary learning strategies mentioned above, the taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies have attracted many researchers attention. One of the most famous taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies is Schmitt s (1997, p18) taxonomy. In this taxonomy, there are two main types of strategies: discovery strategies and consolidation strategies. Discovery strategies include determination strategies and social strategies while consolidation strategies encompass social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies. According to Akbari and Tahririan (2009, p. 39), Schmitt s (1997) taxonomy seems to be the most exhaustive and has the advantage of being organized around an established scheme of language learning strategies. Other well-known taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies are Oxford s (1990) social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies; Gu and Johnson s (1996) metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies; and Nation s (2001) planning, source and processes categories. Gu and Johnson s (1996) metacognitive strategies, according to Ghanal (2007), consist of selective attention and self-initiation strategies while cognitive strategies include guessing strategies, dictionary uses, and note taking strategies. Memory strategies, on the other hand, entail rehearsal and encoding (i.e. association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding) strategies. The last strategies in this taxonomy are activation strategies which, as its name suggests, aims at activating the vocabulary that we have learned by using them in different contexts. A more comprehensive taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, however, is Schmitt s (1997) taxonomy. Schmitt (1997) divides the strategies into two groups: Discovery strategies (strategies for the discovery of a new word s meaning) and Consolidation strategies (strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encounter). The first group consists of determination strategies and social strategies while the second includes social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies. It is also noted that social strategies are found in both categories because they can be used at any stage of vocabulary learning. Another recent taxonomy is that of Nation s (2001). Nation categorized all vocabulary learning strategies into three classes: planning, source and processes. The first category, according to Ghanal (2007), involves making a decision on where, how and how often to focus attention on the vocabulary item. The second category (i.e. source) is to do with getting information about the word in order to know it. The third one includes noticing, retrieving and generating (e.g. creating sentences containing new words) strategies. 3

4 The examination of the taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies plays a crucial role in this present study because it ensures that this study has consulted related literature, particularly the famous taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies as mentioned above. It also builds a conceptual framework from which this study can be developed. The Most Frequently Used Vocabulary Learning Strategies A number of studies have been conducted to investigate the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies. In his study with Chinese EFL postsecondary students in Hong Kong, Lip (2009, p. 77) found that the most frequently used and most useful vocabulary learning strategies are 1) spelling the word in the mind repeatedly; 2) analyzing the word by breaking down the sound segments; and 3) remembering words by doing a project; and 4) asking classmates for the meaning of the word. In another study by Shiwu (2005) with EFL learners in Taiwan, it is found that the most popular strategies used by students from different age groups and levels are using electronic dictionaries, particularly bilingual dictionaries, and guessing the meaning of the words from context. Another study reports that the use of dictionary, simple use of context and repeated pronunciation of the word and its meaning are among the most frequently used strategies of Indonesian postgraduate students in learning new words (Subekti & Lawson, 2007). O Malley and Chamot (1995, p47) describe three main strategies used by second language learners. Those three categories are metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies. They found that selective attention, preparation, self-management, repetition, notetaking, imagery, and translation are among the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies while social/ affective strategies (e.g. cooperation and questioning for clarification) were used infrequently. Vocabulary Learning Strategies in Asian Contexts Research has shown that a number of vocabulary learning strategies are employed by Asian EFL learners. According to Suppasetseree and Saitakham (2008), for example, English and non-english major students in Thailand use a variety of vocabulary learning strategies such as guessing strategies, dictionary strategies, note-taking strategies, memory strategies, encoding, and activation strategies. Moreover, in their study with English and non-english major students at two universities in Thailand, it is found that high achieving students, regardless of their 4

5 majors, most frequently used guessing strategies (i.e. guessing vocabulary meaning from the context), while low achievers preferred to use dictionary strategies for learning English vocabulary. Another study in a similar context by Anugkakul (2011) which aimed at comparing language learning strategies employed by Chinese and Thai students studying at a university in Thailand revealed that Chinese students used language learning strategies more frequently than Thai students. Moreover, it is found that compensation and meta-cognitive strategies were the most frequently used strategies while memory strategies were the least frequently used among the participants (Chinese students). Difficulties in Learning Vocabulary The fact that English has a vast number of words posts a big problem for students and teachers alike. There are many studies focusing on difficulties in learning and teaching English vocabulary. Because of the large vocabulary size, according to Wasik and Iannone-Campbell (2012), learners of English have many problems in trying to learn all the difficult or technical words mainly found in the written text. They also find it hard to use the words in the right context and to get their message across. Moreover, learners also have limited access to the kinds of texts that they can read without any difficulty. The same authors also highlighted the negative impact of vocabulary size on the way English is taught. They mentioned that teachers cannot hold high expectations of their students because of the sheer size of English vocabulary. In regards to time constraint in covering vocabulary teaching in instruction, Nation (2005, p. 47) states that the main problem with vocabulary teaching is that only a few words and a small part of what is required to know a word can be dealt with at any one time. In another study with advanced English learners in China, Nan and Mingfang (2009) found that many learners have problems with word choices. In other words, students have difficulties putting their ideas into words, that is, they cannot find the right English words they need to express their ideas in speaking and writing. The study also indicated that students also have great difficulty with spelling, pronunciation and comprehension of the meaning of the words. Strategies to Cope with Difficulty in Learning Vocabulary To cope with the difficulty in learning vocabulary, many studies have been initiated (e.g., Ghanal, 2007; Lew & Galas, 2008; Nan & Mingfang, 2009; Nation, 2007; Nation & Meara, 5

6 2002; Brusnighan, & Folk, 2012). Folse (2008, p15) suggested in his article that in order to help students succeed in their vocabulary learning, three goals may be required to accomplish: (1) focus on the vocabulary, (2) experience multiple retrievals of vocabulary and (3) develop successful vocabulary learning strategies. He went on to suggest six vocabulary activities for the ESL/EFL classroom such as (1) keeping a running list of words, (2) using vocabulary cards, (3) ranking vocabulary items, (4) vocabulary ladder puzzle, (5) vocabulary sentence auction, and (6) scrambled vocabulary envelopes. In addition, Ghanal (2007) also tried to raise an awareness of the importance of helping students to become independent learners. He suggested that learners are trained to use vocabulary learning strategies effectively. Similarly, Lew and Galas (2008) who conducted a study with Polish primary school children found that a dictionary skills training program is really recommended because it improves students performance substantially and significantly. Furthermore, to ease the problems regarding vocabulary learning, Nan and Mingfang (2009) emphasized the significance of mastering a large number of high frequency words and collocations. They suggested using the Voice of America (VOA) Special English program to increase advanced English learners vocabulary and improve their spoken and written skills. With a similar goal, that is, helping learners cope with difficulty in learning and improving vocabulary, Nation (2007) recommended in his well known article on the Four Strands of a language course that large amounts of comprehensible input through listening and reading is provided to the students. Moreover, students need to be supported and encouraged to produce the language both in spoken and written forms as much as possible. Therefore, it is essential that students are trained to use the learning strategies which may contribute to their language learning, particularly vocabulary learning. Conclusion In conclusion, it is evident that four strategies have been adopted widely for vocabulary learning in EFL contexts, that is, cognitive, meta-cognitive, social and behavioral strategies. These strategies can be applied as of instructional pedagogy in various contexts as well as in the process of Autodidaxy, self-teaching, independent learning and collaborative learning. Today, language learning is seen as a complex multidimensional concept. It is a process of interaction between what is known and what is to be learned; a social process (emphasize the interaction between learners and others); a situated process (learning takes place in a context, not a content vacuum); a meta-cognitive process (Shane et al, 2012). Vocabulary learning is therefore 6

7 inherently relevant to four aspects of learning language in general. However, the area that has not been addressed is the presence of multimedia and hypermedia vocabulary learning strategies, which to a large extend is the exponential growth with technologies and learning. For greater indepth description of the effects of multimedia and hypermedia learning strategies, more research in these areas and the other related such as Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), E- learning, Web-base Learning, Discovery learning, Second-Life, Digital game and Online media will be needed to be addressed in a wide and comprehensive studies, particularly in the EFL contexts. For instructional practice for optimum results, Douglass and Nancy (April 2014) suggests that teachers need to ensure that students are provided time to read widely. In addition, they need to intentionally select words worthy of instruction, model their own word learning strategies, and provide students with opportunities to engage in collaborative conversations in which words are regularly used. Equally essential, the integration of technologies and network collaboration such as online book club and learning spaces could provide tremendous opportunities to enhance students vocabulary repertoire in diverse learning environments. References Akbari, Z. & Tahririan, M.H. (2009). Vocabulary learning strategies in an ESP context: The case of para/medical English in Iran. Asian EFL Journal, 11(1). Brusnighan, S., & Folk, J. (2012). Combining Contextual and Morphemic Cues Is Beneficial During Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition: Semantic Transparency in Novel Compound Word Processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 47(2), Creswell, J. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Douglass, F. & Nancy F. (2014). Content Area Vocabulary Learning. The Reading Teacher, 67(8), DOI: /trtr Folse, K. (2008). Six vocabulary activities for the English language classroom. English Teaching Forum, 1 (3), Ghazal, L. (2007). Learning vocabulary in EFL contexts through vocabulary learning strategies. Novitas-ROYAL, 1(2),

8 Gu, Y., & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language learning, 46(4), Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Hismanoglu, M. (2000). Language learning strategies in foreign language learning and teaching. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(8), 1-6. Hunt, A. & Beglar, D. (2004). Current research and practice in teaching vocabulary. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp ). UK: Cambridge University Press. Lip, P. C. H. (2009). Investigating the most frequently used and most useful vocabulary language learning strategies among Chinese EFL postsecondary students in Hong Kong. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 6(1), Nation, I. S. P. (2003). Learning vocabulary in another language. UK: Cambridge University Press. O Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1995). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies. New York: Newbury House. Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp ). UK: Cambridge University Press. Shane D, and et al. (2012). Using technology to encourage self-directed learning: The collaborative lecture annotation system (CLAS). Ascilite, Retrieved on May 2, 2014, from _-_using_technology.pdf. Shiwu, W. (2005). Use and helpfulness rankings of vocabulary learning strategies employed by EFL learners in Taiwan. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1, Subekti, N. B., & Lawson, M. J. (2007). Vocabulary acquisition strategies of Indonesian postgraduate students through reading. International Education Journal, 8(2), Wasik, B., & Iannone-Campbell, C. (2012). Developing vocabulary through purposeful, strategic conversations. The Reading Teacher, 66(4),