14 Social. Psychology. ocial psychology Social Cognition. Links to Learning Objectives. Enduring Issues. Enduring Issues

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1 Links to Learning Objectives CHAPTER 14 Social Psychology ENDURING ISSUES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY SOCIAL COGNITION Forming impressions Attribution to internal or external causes Biases Interpersonal attraction ATTITUDES Components of attitudes Prejudice & discrimination Persuasion Cognitive dissonance SOCIAL INFLUENCE Cultural influences Conformity, compliance, & obedience SOCIAL ACTION Deindividuation Helping behavior Groups & decision making Theories of leadership Cultural & gender differences in leadership Enduring Issues Enduring Issues Person-Situation Nature-Nurture Stability-Change Diversity- Universality Mind-Body To what extent does a particular behavior reflect personal characteristics like attitudes and values, versus situational ones like the behavior of others and social expectations? Person-Situation Nature-Nurture Stability-Change Diversity- Universality Mind-Body To what extent are there differences in social behavior among people in different cultures? The scientific study of the ways in which the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of one individual are influenced by the real, imagined, or inferred behavior or characteristics of others ocial psychology Social Cognition 1

2 Social Cognition Forming Impressions LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of schemata, stereotypes, and the primacy effect in impression formation. Explain how impressions of others can become self-fulfilling prophecies. Attribution Schemata Organized sets of beliefs and expectations based on past experience that is presumed to apply to all members of that category Forming Impressions Interpersonal Attraction Primacy effect Self-fulfilling prophecy When early information about someone weighs more heavily than later information in influencing one s impression of that person When a person s expectation about another elicits behavior from the second person that confirms the expectation Stereotype A set of characteristics presumed to be shared by all members of a social category Attribution Biases LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the way in which distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus affect our judgment about whether a given behavior is due to internal or external causes. Attribution theory: Addresses the question of how people make judgments about the causes of behavior Internal He s such a careless driver. He never watches out for other cars. External He probably got caught in some bad traffic, and then he was late for a meeting. LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is meant by the statement the causal attributions we make are often vulnerable to biases. In your answer, include the actor-observer bias, the fundamental attribution error, and defensive attribution (including the self-serving bias and the just-world hypothesis). Actor-observer bias: Tendency to explain the behavior of others as caused by internal factors and one s own behavior as caused by external forces Fundamental attribution error Defensive attribution: Tendency to attribute our successes to our own efforts or qualities and our failures to external factors Self-serving bias Just-world hypothesis Interpersonal Attraction LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Briefly summarize the five factors that influence attraction and the tendency to like another person. Attitudes INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION 2

3 The Nature of Attitudes LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the three major components of attitudes and the variables that determine whether an attitude will be reflected in behavior. Evaluative Beliefs I think country music is better than any other kind of music. Components of Attitudes Feelings I like country music; it's fun and uplifting. Behavior Tendencies I buy country music CDs every chance I get. Attitudes and Behavior She is such a nice person. Factors influencing the relationship between attitude and behavior: Strength of attitude Relevance of attitude How noticeable a given attitude is in a given situation How easily the attitude comes to mind Self-monitoring Attitude Development How we acquire our attitudes: Early, direct personal experience Imitation Mass media Prejudice and Discrimination LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Distinguish between prejudice, racism, and discrimination. Explain the role of stereotypes and the ultimate attribution error in prejudicial attitudes. Compare and contrast the following potential sources of prejudice: frustration-aggression, authoritarian personality, cognitive misers, and conformity. Describe the three strategies that appear promising as ways to reduce prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice An attitude An unfair, intolerant, or unfavorable view of a group of people Ultimate attribution error Discrimination A behavior Unfair act or acts directed against an entire group of people or individual members of that group Sources of Prejudice Strategies for Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination Frustration-aggression theory Scapegoats Authoritarian personality Rigid conventionality Oversimplification Cognitive misers Conformity In-group bias Racism Innate inferiority Recategorization Controlled processing Improving contact between groups 3

4 Applying Psychology Changing Attitudes LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the three steps in the use of persuasion to change attitudes: attention, comprehension, and acceptance. In your description, include the source (credibility and the sleeper effect), the message itself (one-sided vs. two-sided, fear), the medium of communication, and characteristics of the audience. What are some of the psychological forces at work in ethnic conflict? Propaganda Shared collective memories Personal and social identity Societal beliefs To be persuaded, you must: Pay attention to the message Comprehend it Accept it as convincing Communication Model of Persuasion Four key elements involved in message comprehension and acceptance: The source The message itself The medium of communication Characteristics of the audience Cognitive Dissonance LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is meant by cognitive dissonance and how that can be used to change attitudes. Perceived inconsistency between two cognitions, which creates psychological tension that must be resolved How to resolve: Change one s attitude Increase the number of consonant elements (i.e. thoughts that are consistent with one another) I am a good, loyal friend. I repeated gossip about my friend Chris. Social Influence Social Influence Conformity Compliance Cultural Influences Obedience 4

5 Cultural Influences LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is meant by the statement that culture is a major form of social influence. In your explanation, include cultural truisms and norms. Culture dictates: How you dress What you eat Your personal space preferences Cultural truisms: Beliefs or values that most members of a society accept as self-evident Norms: Shared ideas or expectations of how to behave Conformity LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast conformity, compliance, and obedience. Describe the factors that influence conforming behavior. Distinguish between the foot-in-the-door technique, lowball procedure, and the door-in-the-face effect as ways to get compliance. Describe the factors that influence obedience. Two sets of factors influence the likelihood that a person will conform: Characteristics of the situation, including: Size of the group Degree of unanimity The nature of the task Characteristics of the person, including: Attraction to the group Expected future interaction with its members Having low status Desiring greater acceptance Asch s Study Social Influence Across Cultures In collectivist cultures, community and harmony are very important. Thus, you might suspect that members of collectivist cultures would conform more frequently to the will of a group than would members of noncollectivist cultures. In fact, psychologists have found that levels of conformity in collectivist cultures are frequently higher than those found by Asch Page 474 (Ciccarelli & White) Compliance Obedience Foot-in-the-door Lowball Door-in-the-face Change of behavior in response to a command from another person, typically an authority figure 5

6 Deindividuation LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain how deindividuation and the snowball effect can contribute to mob behavior. Social Action Deindividuation: A loss of personal sense of responsibility in a group Snowball effect: When one dominant and persuasive person can convince other people to behave in a certain way, and those other people then, in turn, convince others to behave in a certain way Helping Behavior LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the role of the following factors in influencing helping behavior: altruism, the bystander effect, the ambiguity of the situation, and the personal characteristics of bystanders. Helping behavior is influenced by two sets of factors: Those in the situation: Presence of other people (see next slide) Ambiguity Those in the individual: Personal characteristics of bystanders (i.e. empathy, mood) The Bystander Effect A person is less likely to offer assistance when other potential helpers are present. Groups and Decision Making LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the process of polarization in group discussion. Identify the factors that affect whether a group is likely to be more or less effective than individuals acting alone. Polarization: Shift in attitudes by members of a group toward more extreme positions than the ones held before group discussion Risky shift: Greater willingness of a group than an individual to take substantial risks The Effectiveness of Groups Factors that influence the effectiveness of groups: Whether the requirements of the task match the skills of the group members The ways in which group members interact Group size The cohesiveness of the group 6

7 Groupthink Leadership LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the following theories of leadership: the great-person theory, the right-place-at-the-right-time theory, and contingency theory. A process that occurs when the members of a group: Like one another Have similar goals Are isolated, leading them to ignore alternatives and not criticize group consensus Great-person theory Result of personal qualities and traits that qualify one to lead others Right-place-at-the-right-time theory Emerges when the right person is in the right place at the right time Fielder s contingency theory Transactional view Task-oriented or relationship-oriented leader Nature of task, relationship of leader with group, leader s power Sternberg s systems approach to leadership Effective leadership = the synthesis of wisdom, intelligence, and creativity Culture and Gender Differences in Leadership LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Briefly summarize cultural and gender differences in leadership. Collectivist cultures Less clearly defined roles of leadership than in U.S. All members see themselves as working together to accomplish the group s goals Female leaders Have effectively combined task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership styles Are often more effective because they are more democratic, collaborative, and interpersonally-oriented Lecture Activities Get into small, all-female or all-male groups. Create a list of factors that are most important in your initial and long-term attraction to others. Counting Dots Number your paper from one to five. You will be presented with 5 slides, each of which comprises a configuration of dots. You will attempt to guess the number of dots on each slide. The number of dots will be different on each slide. Each slide will be shown for 3 seconds, following which you will have 3 seconds to write your guess. Good luck! Activity begins on next slide 7

8 <<Get ready>> Write your guess now. Write your guess now. 8

9 Write your guess now. Write your guess now. 1. Determine whether you are an under-estimator or an over-estimator by adding up all of your guesses to determine whether you are under or over 210. End of Test << Finish activity on next slide >> 2. If you are an over-estimator, list three personality traits of an under-estimator. If you are an underestimator, list two personality traits of an overestimator. 3. Consider the following questions: What kinds of traits did you list for those in the other group? Did you list any negative traits for those in the other group? What does this activity suggest about implicit personality theories and the formation of stereotypes? 9

10 Attitude Survey For each of the three attitude items below, indicate your response on a scale of 1 to 5 (1=strongly disagree; 5=strongly agree). 1. Poverty in our country is a serious problem. 2. Pollution is one of the biggest issues confronting today s world. 3. Freedom of speech is one of the most important rights that we have as Americans. Attitude Survey (continued) For each of the following questions, indicate your response with Yes or No. 1. Do you personally do anything to lessen poverty in our country (e.g., donate money to a shelter or charitable organization)? 2. Do you personally do anything to lessen pollution (e.g., vote for green political representatives, support recycling in your community, make fewer trips in your car)? 3. Do you personally exercise your freedom of speech (e.g., actively participate in town meetings/protests, vote in every election for which you are eligible, write to your congressional representative)? (Survey continued on next slide) Who are a few non-conformists that have made a positive and lasting difference in the world? Applying Consumer Psychology Get into groups and come up with an original, real-world example for two of the compliance techniques discussed in your text. Slide # Image Description Image Source text template upside down blue sky & grass istockphoto.com/konrad Lew chapter template layered hands istockphoto.com/rené Mansi 3 cool woman istockphoto.com/paco Romero Photography 3 other cool people istockphoto.com/alija 4 Masai istockphoto.com/muendo 4 tai chi woman istockphoto.com/kings Photo 4 mariachi singer istockphoto.com/josé Luis Girarte 4 cowboy istockphoto.com/living Images Acknowledgments 4 hiphop dancer istockphoto.com/santa Maria Design Group 4 Indian woman istockphoto.com/vasko Miokovic Photography 5 sheep on hillside istockphoto.com/jalala 7 woman's head istockphoto.com/nicolas Hansen 9 woman watching istockphoto.com/konstantin Kamenetskiy 9 man watching istockphoto.com/4x6 9 car 1 accident istockphoto.com/flyrfixr 9 car 2 accident istockphoto.com/mgkaya 11 icon: jigsaw puzzle Charlie Levin 13 back of head with headphones istockphoto.com/shanekato 14 waving istockphoto.com/hongqi Zhang 15 father and daughter istockphoto.com/yvonne Chamberlain Photography 15 two girls with mudmasks istockphoto.com/studiovespa 15 guy watching tv istockphoto.com/marcelo Poleze 17 political rally (b/w image) istockphoto.com/shaun Lowe 18 diversity paper cut-outs istockphoto.com/twentyfourworks 19 building hit by rocket istockphoto.com/boris Katsman 19 car bomb istockphoto.com/martin Kucera 10

11 20 "wrong way" sign istockphoto.com/jill Fromer 20 "this way" sign istockphoto.com/sean Locke 22 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from istockphoto.com/andynwt 22 woman's head istockphoto.com/angel Herrero de Frutos 24 man's head istockphoto.com/nicolas Hansen 25 people in jeans eating pizza istockphoto.com/digital planet design 26 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from istockphoto.com/andynwt 27 Japanese fabric pattern istockphoto.com/matty Symons 27 Asch lines Morris/Maisto, 9/e p Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock 28 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp foot in door istockphoto.com/websubstance 37 silhouetted group istockphoto.com/leontura 39 Japanese fabric pattern istockphoto.com/matty Symons 41 topbar: jigsaw pieces animation Charlie Levin 41 topbar: jigsaw bk istockphoto.com/felix Möckel 42 topbar: classic studies books istockphoto.com/justin Allfree 42 topbar: chrome & license plate istockphoto.com/grafissimo 42 topbar:red shiny car background istockphoto.com/jon Helgason 55 topbar: cactus istockphoto.com/lee Daniels 55 topbar: wooden board istockphoto.com/andynwt 57 topbar: cactus istockphoto.com/lee Daniels 57 topbar: wooden board istockphoto.com/andynwt 58 topbar: jigsaw pieces animation Charlie Levin 58 topbar: jigsaw bk istockphoto.com/felix Möckel 29 car dealership sale istockphoto.com/jesus Jauregui 29 contract istockphoto.com/pali Rao 30 police istockphoto.com/imageegami 30 referee istockphoto.com/jeff Skopin 32 one person silhouette Derek Borman 33 natural disaster street istockphoto.com/claudiad 33 Katrina house collapsing istockphoto.com/parkerdeen 33 Katrina brick wall graffiti istockphoto.com/parkerdeen 34 someone needing help istockphoto.com/sharon Dominick Photography 34 background intersection istockphoto.com/stevegeer 34 silhouettes of people watching istockphoto.com/leontura 34 silhouettes of people watching istockphoto.com/leontura 36 workplace istockphoto.com/jacob Wackerhausen 34 silhouettes of people watching istockphoto.com/leontura 11