Planning with environmental objectives! a guide National Board of Housing, Building and Planning in Sweden Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

Transcription

1 Planning with environmental objectives! a guide National Board of Housing, Building and Planning in Sweden Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

2 Planning with environmental objectives! a guide National Board of Housing, Buildning and Planning in Sweden Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

3 SEARCH WORDS: Case studies Physical planning Sustainable development Indicators Environmental objectives National environmental quality objectives The SAMS project Comprehensive planning BOVERKET AND NATURVÅRDSVERKET 2000 THE BOOK CAN BE ORDERED FROM: Boverket Naturvårdsverket (National Board of Housing, (Swedish Environmental Buildning and Planning) Protection Agency) Publikationsservice Kundtjänst Box 534, SE Karlskrona SE Stockholm Fax Tel publikationsservice@boverket.se Fax kundtjanst@environ.se Boverket Naturvårdsverket ISBN: ISBN: GRAPHIC DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: AB Typoform COVER: Beatrice Lundberg EDITION: 500 ex. PRINT: Lenanders Tryckeri AB, 2000

4 Foreword Sustainable development is a societal objective which an increasing number of people world wide agree that we should strive towards. It is a broad concept incorporating ecological, social and economic aspects. But what do we actually mean - how can we make it tangible and how can we know that we are really heading in the right direction? This report, which we have entitled Planning with environmental objectives! A guide, has been defined to cover theoretical and practical attempts to make the ecological, environmental aspects of sustainable development in planning more tangible, primarily in the comprehensive planning of municipalities. Planning with environmental objectives! A guide is a final report summarising an idea and method development project run over a three year period by the National Board of Housing; Building and Planning and the Environmental Protection Agency in Sweden along with several municipalities and regional authorities. The project is entitled Environmental objectives and indicators in spatial planning and strategic environmental assessment (SAMS) and was concluded in September SAMS has been co-financed by the EU environmental fund LIFE and Sida (the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency). Case studies have been carried out by the municipalities of Burlöv, Helsingborg, Trollhättan, Stockholm, Borlänge, Falun and Storuman as well as by the Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation in Stockholm with the support of the respective county administrative boards in the counties of Skåne, Västra Götaland, Stockholm, Dalarna and Västerbotten. Within the framework of SAMS, studies have also been conducted in cooperation with the South African municipalities of Port Elizabeth and Kimberley. A guiding principle when working with environmental objectives in comprehensive planning is to strive for close cooperation between environmental experts and planners in the planning process. This interaction has been a fundamental concept in the organisation of the project and in the approach to the work. Environmental experts and planners have worked together in all the sub-studies. Planners and environmental experts have also been represented in the steering group which was formally responsible for the project: including Lisbeth Fall and Jan Gunnarson from The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (NBHBP) and Eva Smith and Marie Larsson from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA). This is also the case for the project management - Katrin Ottosson from the EPA and Ylva Rönning from the NBHBP, were both responsible for leading the project. Karin Slättberg (NBHBP) was project secretary as was, first, Helena von Knorring and, subsequently, Ulrik Westman from the Swedish EPA. Ulf Ranhagen from SWECO/LTU has acted as the senior consultant for the project. The NBHBP s Planning council acted as a reference group. Many, many others have participated in the method development and we would like to express our sincere thanks to them all. A more comprehensive list of all those involved in the project can be found at the end of this report. This report summarises the common efforts of those who participated in SAMS. Ulf Ranhagen is the main author but he presents the collective experience and conclusions from the project. As a complement to Planning with Environmental Objectives! A guide, a report entitled Planning with Environmental Objectives! A catalogue of ideas is also available with concrete examples of how to work with environmental objectives in comprehensive planning with tips about methods and tools that may be of use. The substudies of the project are described in more detail in separate publications. An overview of all the project reports can be found at the end of this report. Karlskrona and Stockholm September 2000 National Board of Housing, Building and Planning in Sweden The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 3

5 Summary 4 A guide summarises the general experiences and principle conclusions resulting from the SAMS project, Environmental objectives and indicators in spatial planning and strategic environmental assessment, based on case studies and thematic studies. The specific and practical experiences gained from the individual circumstances of each municipality is recorded in A catalogue of ideas. Key issues in the project have been to: Integrate environmental issues into comprehensive planning. Formulate the role of comprehensive planning in the work towards sustainable societal development, particularly from an environmental viewpoint. Enhance collaboration in the planning process, partly among the different areas of professional competence within comprehensive planning and environmental protection and partly among experts, decision-makers and the general public. The work shows that this not simply a question of developing a planning methodology alone. It is rather a matter of devising a complete set of tools for dealing with sustainable development issues in comprehensive planning. Each case study has focused on some form of tool or method (such as ecological footprints, future images, strategic environmental assessment, geographical information systems) and can thereby support the thematic and in-depth studies with practical experience. A guide contains four main sections: The introducion provides an account of the most significant conclusions from the project: The national environmental quality objectives provide a point of departure for the formulation of local environmental objectives and indicators. Certain objectives in the intersection zone between environmental objectives, economic objectives and social objectives have been identified. There is considerable potential to develop a dialogue around environmental objectives at an early stage in comprehensive planning, beyond the formal rules of the Swedish Planning and Building Act. Divisions between the different parties involved exist, but integration of the various processes and professional cultures can contribute to overcoming them. The potential for meeting environmental objectives can be utilised in a better way in comprehensive planning, by, for instance, analysing different physical structures. The methods used have the potential to lift comprehensive planning and contribute to the integration of environmental issues. Visions, scenarios and future images are a source of inspiration for comprehensive planning and environmental protection. The methodology for strategic environmental assessment should be distinguished from project-based environmental impact assessment. Geographical information systems provide new scope for integrating environmental objectives into comprehensive planning, but competence and data capture have to be improved. The opportunities and limitations of using indicators in comprehensive planning have been clarified. Environmental objectives and indicators in the planning context meet with international interest. It is stimulating to work with environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning! Part one takes up the role of comprehensive planning in the work towards sustainable societal development. Different physical structures are discussed: Building and transport structures Green structures Water supply Town-country eco-cycle The case studies indicate the potential for creative development of new and informal ways of incorporating a broad spectrum of views, for instance, on environmental issues at an early stage. Different cultures in different parts of the municipal organisation have to be encouraged to interact.

6 Part two reviews the various methods and tools for conducting comprehensive planning with environmental issues at the centre. After an overview of the toolbox presented in more detail in Catalogue of ideas, there is a more in-depth presentation of the basic methods used to make objectives more tangible and to handle information and values in the planning process: Visions, scenarios and future images, backcasting as an alternative to forecasting. Strategic environmental assessment which should be integrated with integrity into comprehensive planning. Geographical information systems as a necessity for handling large amounts of sitedetermined data and providing the opportunity to visualise opinions, proposals and effects. Indicators where the concept of planning indicators and field indicators are linked, respectively, to backcasting and to feedback (follow-up). Important criteria for planning indicators if they are to be effective planning tools are Part three outlines the theoretical planning background to the SAMS project as a combination of ideas from different schools of planning such as, strategic, communicative and generative planning theory. The need for further research and practical development is believed to exist in the following issues: The interaction between national, regional and local environmental objectives. Planning and environmental dialogues and cooperation between different types of groups involved. The role of the physical structure in relation to other instruments. Further development in practical application of existing advances in method, ideas and use of tools. Strategic impact assessments. Indicators in geographical information systems. Indicator systems for comparison between municipalities and regions. The future criterion - should be able to be identified reasonably easily from plan alternatives showing ideas or assumptions about future physical structures. The spatial criterion - should be able to be expressed in spatial terms and related to a future image. Directional criterion - should be able to show the changes involved in a plan alternative in relation to the present and preferably also in a historical perspective. Past, present and future conditions should be expressed using the same measurements. Objective criterion - the properties of the plan such as expressed by the indicator should be related to environmental objectives or other objectives in a credible way 5

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8 Contents Foreword 3 Summary 4 SAMS Planning with environmental objectives 8 Background 11 The results conclusions 11 Part 1 Sustainable development and comprehensive planning 16 Sustainable development and environmental objectives 16 Environmental objectives deeply rooted in the concept of sustainable development 18 Sustainable development and environmental objectives points of departure and results 20 How can comprehensive planning contribute to sustainable development? 29 Environmental objectives and physical structures 29 Building areas and the infrastructure 31 The role of comprehensive planning in achieving environmental objectives 43 Part 2 Methods and tools for comprehensive planning with the environment at the centre 52 The toolbox 52 Visions, scenarios and future images - a source of inspiration 55 SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment, a method for integrating environmental aspects into comprehensive planning at an early stage 60 GIS Geographical Information Systems 67 Indicators a multi-faceted tool but with some pitfalls 72 Part 3 SAMS Background and realisation A development project in the intersection zone between theory and practice 82 Some planning theories 83 Reference framework for development of methods 85 The SAMS project in brief 88 Sub-studies 88 Organisation 89 Financing 92 SAMS Reports 93 7

9 SAMS Planning with environmental objectives The aim of the SAMS project has been to develop methods for integrating environmental objectives into planning with an emphasis on municipal comprehensive planning. The project has illustrated how comprehensive planning can contribute to the achievement of established environmental objectives and the formulation of local targets for sustainable social development from an environmental viewpoint by means of case studies and concrete examples. The fundamental concept of maintaining ongoing cooperation between environmental experts and planners throughout the planning process has shaped the work organisation and approach at central, regional and local levels. 8

10 Case studies in municipalities and regions: SAMS has conducted eight case studies around Sweden. A common feature of all of these is that method development has been linked with planning work in progress. The municipalities involved and the key issues they addressed are as follows: Burlöv: A sound living environment through reduced environmental impact of transport and traffic. Helsingborg: Improved conditions for bicycle-riders and public transport in order to counter the environmental impact of private motoring. Trollhättan: Local adaptation of the national environmental objective A good urban environment. Stockholm: Biological diversity in the National Urban Park. Stockholm: Assessment of environmental impact through more in-depth comprehensive planning. Falun+Borlänge: Environmental objectives adapted to comprehensive planning and indicators for agriculture and forestry. Storuman: Scenarios for sustainable development in a very sparsely populated municipality. The regional planning level was represented by: Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation i Stockholm: Strategic environmental assessment in regional planning. Within the framework of SAMS, studies have also been conducted in cooperation with planners and environmentalists in two South African municipalities, Port Elizabeth and Kimberley. Three themes in SAMS As a complement to the case studies, issues of particular importance have been studies in three thematic studies: Environmental objectives and physical structures This thematic study considers how environmental objectives and indicators can be used in comprehensive planning focussing especially on how different physical structures satisfy the objectives. In connection with this thematic study, two in-depth investigations were carried out. The first considered strategies for regional water supply and the second considered the connection between town and country focussing on environmentally friendly energy supply. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) This thematic study considers the use of environmental objectives and indicators, related to SEA, involved in planning, primarily municipal comprehensive planning and regional physical planning. Geographical information systems (GIS) This thematic study considers how GIS can be used as an analytic tool to improve the presentation and handling of planning-adapted environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning. A more in-depth survey has been conducted within this thematic study into the use of GIS-based maps as a tool for improving the discussions and consultations in comprehensive planning. The results from the SAMS project are given in the summary reports Planning with environmental objectives! A guide and Planning with environmental objectives! A catalogue of ideas as well as in the final report from each case, thematic and in-depth study respectively. In addition, a few more examples of dealing with sustainability issues in municipal comprehensive planning have been analysed in a special substudy and the results from a number of expert s reports have been published. References can be found on the final pages of A guide. 9

11 Main aims and incentives of the SAMS project The aim of the project has been to develop methods to integrate environmental issues into planning - particularly in municipal comprehensive planning. The aim is also to clearly identify the ways in which comprehensive planning can be an important instrument in the work to achieve environmental objectives and for strengthening the dialogue between the different parties involved in planning. We hope that the methods and instruments developed and tested will be able to function as aids in the comprehensive planning work of the municipalities. There are at least three important incentives for working with the issue of environmental objectives and indicators for comprehensive planning in practical planning work as well as in research and development (R&D): 1. Firstly, there is expertise, often substantial and comprehensive, within the various environmental sectors. However, this expertise is not easily accessible as a basis for comprehensive planning. Expertise and experience are often based on individual aspects and are formulated in dissimilar, specialised ways to distinguish different environmental factors. Interesting results from basic research does not reach the practical planners Figure 1. It is difficult to see the wood for the trees. This is also the case when expert knowledge is to be used as the basis for planning. Photo: P O Eriksson, Naturfotograferna. 10

12 because the results are not formulated in an appropriate way. For these reasons, it is necessary to translate the environmental objectives into a language which renders the objectives manageable and usable in comprehensive planning. One tool tested was various types of indicators which are usable in comprehensive planning. 2. Secondly, there is no sound, practical methodology for integrating environmental issues into strategic comprehensive planning. The legislated requirements for assessing environmental impact in advance have applied primarily to individual projects both in Sweden and abroad. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) at project level involves the segmentation of the whole, in other words the collective cumulative affect cannot be analysed (B Sadler & R Verheem 1996 and Asplund & Rydevik 1996). We are now progressing from a development of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) project towards analysis of environmental impact at levels where more strategic decisions can be taken, known as SEA - Strategic Environmental Assessment (B Sadler & R Verheem 1996). In order to improve the potential for comprehensive planning to make full use of various environmental objectives, it is important to link the development of indicators to the further development of the SEA concept. 3. Thirdly, it is difficult to handle large amounts of information in comprehensive planning and to visualise the information in easily accessible graphics. Different types of manual methods for establishing analyses of conditions and alternatives continue to dominate. These can be flexible and practical (for example, outline methods for quickly generating several alternatives) but they can easily become very time consuming and lack precision especially if they are also intended to illustrate geographical statistical information. Advanced computer tools such as GIS have become increasingly widely used in order to make comprehensive planning more efficient. GIS is a computer-based tool for collecting, storing, processing, analysing and presenting geographical data from one or more databases. It is a matter of urgency to develop GIS tools to enable environmental issues to be more easily integrated at every stage of the planning process. Background The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency in co-operation with several Swedish municipalities and county administrative boards along with two South African municipalities have run a project aimed at developing methods to better integrate environmental issues in comprehensive planning. This project, Environmental objectives and indicators in spatial planning and strategic environmental assessment (SAMS) was jointly financed by EU s environmental fund, LIFE, and Sida (the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency). The project ran for three years between October 1997 and September The background to the work lies in an earlier government directive involving the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning and the Swedish EPA. The agencies were asked to both develop methods that would contribute to the achievement of national environmental objectives, and to devise indicators for following up these objectives. The groundwork for the initiation of such a methodology was devised (Ranhagen 1997a). It is based on the idea that environmental objectives can be formulated in such a way as to render them manageable in comprehensive planning along with the development of indicators illustrating whether the planning or the actual developments are heading in the right direction in relation to these objectives. The concept was conceptual and had to be tested and developed further in practical planning work. This work is of international interest. Results conclusions The following conclusions have been drawn on the basis of the material collated - in the form of case studies, thematic studies, in-depth studies and experts reports. The national environmental quality objectives provide a point of departure for the formulation of local environmental objectives and indicators. Case and thematic studies and the collation of examples illustrate a rich sample-card of the ways in which environmental objectives can be formulated and treated in comprehensive planning. Even though not all municipalities have based their work specifically on the national objectives, these objectives have still provided guidelines when municipalities have been developing local environmental objectives. 11

13 12 Some case studies illustrate how a number of environmental objectives can be used in a broad sense and how indicators can be formulated from them. Other case studies provide examples of how a national environmental objective can act as a basis for further developmental work where objectives and indicators are made more precise. Several environmental issues should be highlighted at regional level in order to be examined comprehensively. This is the case regarding the issues concerning the interaction between town and country. A lack of background material for planning at regional level as well as for ecosystems, the boundaries of which differ from those of the municipalities, also reduces the conditions for positive treatment in comprehensive planning. It has been possible to identify certain objectives relevant to comprehensive planning in the intersection zone between environmental objectives, financial objectives and social objectives. The focus on environmental objectives can inhibit the integration of social and economic objectives. When environmental objectives are integrated with social and economic objectives, the scope for examining conflicts and interaction between these fields is increased. The difficulty in clearly identifying conflicts between objectives often lies in the different objectives being formulated in terms of different frames of reference and with different methods of measurement. The work of the SAMS project has primarily focussed on environmental issues although in the broader case studies, which consider many environmental aspects in general terms, the reasoning has been to establish links to social and economic objectives and aspects. Some relevant objectives in the intersection zone between social, financial and ecological objectives were identifiable in Kungälv, Sala and Vallentuna, all municipalities dealt with in the report Comprehensive planning for sustainable development. Considerable potential for developing dialogues around environmental objectives in the planning exists at an early stage in the comprehensive planning process, beyond the formal rules of the Planning and Building Act. These contribute to the formulation of local objectives and indicators in an interplay between the background planning material, future images and impact assessments. Different forms of round table discussions concerning environmental objectives, future images and environmental impact assessments can provide new impulses in the work to develop comprehensive planning methods and environmental programmes, for example, where politicians, planners, environmentalists and other groups of experts work together. The result of this early dialogue needs to be introduced into the on-going comprehensive planning work of the municipalities. It is difficult, however, to create sufficient continuity in the processes initiated and to involve the public in them. Many people do not have the time to participate on a regular basis in different planning processes. It is important that efforts are invested in making these processes as interesting as possible in order for the public to feel sufficiently engaged to remain involved throughout the entire process. Divisions between the different parties involved do exist but the integration of the various processes and professional cultures can contribute to bridging this divide. Different groups have different languages and frames of reference: in the first instance planners and environmentalists but also representatives of social administrations, theoreticians and field workers, politicians, experts and the general public. The effort to achieve consensus may sometimes mean that a rhetoric is used which actually conceals rather than unites the different approaches. In the SAMS project, planners and environmentalists, along with researchers and field workers have worked together during all phases of the developmental work from a point of departure based on a common frame of reference. This has lead to such differences being overcome so that new applications have evolved. Municipalities with completely different conditions regarding size, situation and resources have had the opportunity to exchange experience and expertise. This has functioned as a stimulating comparison in comprehensive planning with an environmental onus. The potential for satisfying environmental objectives can be better realised in comprehensive planning by analysing different physical structures. The link between physical-spatial structures and environmental objectives is both complex and multifaceted. Empirical surveys from different types of localities illustrate, however, that the density of the built environment is of greatest significance concerning transportation and energy consumption. Simulations of consequences of the future structures indicate that a multi-core structure has environmental advantages in relation to a single-core or a scattered structure at least in large urban areas. In a regional per-

14 spective, decentralised concentration, as it is referred to, provides better conditions for lower energy consumption than patterns where a single large town dominates. There are also studies which indicate that structures where housing, workplaces and service functions are integrated and served by good public communications are favourable from the point of view of energy consumption and a favourable social environment. At the same time, we can conclude that extreme integration can lead to health risks through too much exposure to noise and air pollution. The re-use of land and premises which were previously used for industrial purposes in new functions such as housing, culture and leisure activities, also provide a means of reducing transportation as well as promoting measures for reducing soil contamination. It has become increasingly important in comprehensive planning to decrease the fragmentation of green structures that building on virgin land can imply. The methods used have the potential to boost comprehensive planning and contribute to the integration of environmental issues. There is no single method which is generally applicable in all planning situations. It is rather a case of selecting the tools and methods on the basis of the local comprehensive planning and environmental conditions. There are methods and tools which have been developed on a more theoretical plane and which have therefore never been used before in practical planning. The task and scope of these tools are described in A catalogue of ideas. The application of a cyclical and dynamic method of working involving the interplay between objectives, planning material, future images and impact assessments has proved fruitful. It enables long term, significant environmental issues relevant to planning to be identified at an early stage since future images are already employed in the first round of planning. Visions, scenarios and future images have provided a source of inspiration for comprehensive planning and environmental work. Work to devise visions, scenarios and images has been shown to stimulate and extend local discussions and place them in a long-term time perspective. The two future images Trailblazer and Pathfinder from Sweden in the Year 2021 and Sweden in the year 2009 two proposed visions - can inspired the creation of local visions and future images. By highlighting the different paths for development for the regions and municipalities, significant key issues and environmental issues have been more easily brought into focus. At the same time as it is rather demanding to work with long term scenarios and future images, there is also great pedagogical value in presenting alternative possibilities for future development. SEA - methodology for Strategic Environmental Assessment should be distinguished from projectbased Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). SEA can contribute to identifying strategic choices of direction, conflicts between objectives and allows easier comparison of alternatives on the basis of prioritised environmental objectives and indicators. SEA has proved it can encapsulate environmental impact in a long-term perspective with considerable breadth but with less depth in each issue. The application of this methodology in the case studies has provided more secure foundations as far as choosing an approach for the integration of environmental assessments with integrity into the planning process. The methodology has also contributed to ideas as to how the SEA process should be formed and how the different parties involved should be included in this process. Geographical Information Systems provide new opportunities for integrating environmental objectives into comprehensive planning but competence and data capture have to be improved. GIS has considerable potential for interactive planning. It can provide a more forceful tool in reinforcing comprehensive planning not least in terms of environmental issues. The consequences of various plan alternatives with regard to accessibility, fragmentation, barrier effects and other indicators can be made more apparent in a way which is not possible with manual methods. Complex relationships can be illustrated using pedagogical map illustrations. A large number of indicators can be handled with a relatively small amount of effort and updating can be made more cost effective. At the same time, we can conclude that access to input data (including attribute data) for comprehensive planning and environmental work is often insufficient. Considerable investment, not least financial investment, will be needed to create information structures which can function in the interaction between the planning side and the environmental side. Even pedagogical aspects in the presentation of images, text and speech need to be developed for GIS to be useful in supporting a public dialogue in the planning work. The potential and limitations of the use of indicators in comprehensive planning have been made more apparent. 13

15 Figure 2. Our experience shows that using environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning works well both in Sweden.. Photo: Peter Ahlén resp Kjell-Arne Larsson. 14 There is a degree of uncertainty concerning the usefulness of developing and using measurable quantitative indicators in a planning context. On the other hand, there seems to be considerable agreement that it is valuable to use indicators for environmental follow-up and monitoring. The doubt expressed in the use of indicators as a tool in planning may be due to the fact that comprehensive planning is an activity directed towards creating dialogues in processes where a broad spectrum of issues are discussed in a future perspective which should channel into a political decision. These processes are mainly directed towards qualitative information and it is seldom worthwhile to quantify anything other than a limited initial selection of factors. A checklist of both quantitative and qualitative indicators can be used to provide support in comprehensive planning. Planning indicators are able to: stimulate a dialogue on environmental objectives and physical structures in the comprehensive planning, function as an alarm by signalling environmental problems which may be affected by the comprehensive planning. One example is indicators formulated with the aid of ecological footprints, sharpen the comparison between alternatives with the aid of SEA and, facilitate the follow-up of the impact of environmental objectives in comprehensive planning. Plan indicators used in the wrong way can mean, however, that: real complexity is replaced by deceptive simplification,

16 Figure 3.and in other countries, despite different conditions. Photo: Katrin Ottosson. quantifiable measurements replace more relevant qualitative factors, hasty conclusions are made concerning causes and effects along with consequences, and indicators become norms instead of tools. It is stimulating to work with environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning! By working systematically with environmental objectives and indicators with the help of a broad spectrum of tools, methods and processes, the forms and ways of working with comprehensive planning can be renewed. The case studies show considerable interest and impressive creativity from many different parties involved in developing comprehensive planning and transforming it into a more potent instrument in the work towards sustainable developmen. Environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning provoke international interest. It is relevant to work with environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning in most countries regardless of the planning system employed. Experience from studies in South Africa and discussions at the international seminars held within the framework of SAMS illustrate that the questions posed concerning environmental objectives and indicators in comprehensive planning are able to be developed and this has provoked interest in many countries. It was also observed in the case studies in Kimberley and Port Elizabeth that the working methods can be easily adapted to other planning environments than those in Sweden. In Kimberley above all, the work on environmental objectives and indicators progressed considerably. An attempt was made there to work along the same lines with social and economic objectives. 15

17 Part 1 Sustainable development and comprehensive planning Sustainable development and environmental objectives The concept of sustainable development gained international currency from the Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future. The report defines sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (known as the future principle). The Commission also maintained that the basic needs of the world s poor should be given highest priority and that the level of technology and social organisation impose limitations on the capacity of the environment to satisfy current and coming needs. 16

18 ecological economic social physical-spatial aspects Figure 4. Sustainable development is achieved through the interaction of ecological, social and economic aspects within a physical-spatial framework. The overlap between the circles represents objectives incorporating all four dimensions. The achievement of environmental objectives alone, or economic or social objectives in isolation, may mean setting aside other objectives. Examples of this dilemma are presented in the text. These formulations have since been developed and in 1991 the World Conservation Union, The UN Programme for the Environment and the World Wide Fund for Nature launched the following definition: Sustainable development involves improving quality of life at the same time as living within the framework of the surrounding ecosystem s capacity for bearing the load. The definition has gained increasing weight and impact not least after the UN Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio in 1992 when Agenda 21 was launched along with the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul in Since then an ecological, an economic and a social dimension have been developed. This means that the preservation of resources and people s right to participation and influence are closely linked and mutually dependent. A system perspective on sustainable development implies interaction between ecological, social and economic objectives within the framework for the laws of nature. In the SAMS project we have chosen to highlight the physical-spatial dimension as a framework around different activities and operations, see figure 4. Figure 4 actually expresses an ideal situation in which the various objectives can be balanced in relation to each other in, for example, a planning situation. One of the cornerstones of the Brundtland report is also the idea that economic growth can be compatible with the solution of environmental problems (Emmelin 2000). Economic growth is in fact seen as a necessity if longterm resource and environmental problems are to be solved in a manner compatible with global justice. It is a popular claim that the Brundtland report and the concept of durable development have eroded the antagonism between economics and ecology. From this perspective, sustainable development is seen as a unified concept, as are the three sub-concepts. Nevertheless, sustainability is not an unequivocal scientific or absolute concept. It can instead be seen as a balancing of different interests within more or less well defined frameworks. Potential remains for power struggles and negotiation concerning different consid- 17

19 18 erations between ecological, economic and social demands. There are many examples of conflicts and antagonism between the different areas of sustainability, as there are also between the different sub-areas. The gradual development of nature conservation legislation requires, for example, that certain conservation incentives or resource-efficiency may dominate at the expense of the economic and social opportunities of the individual or group. A conflict with antagonistic overtones can be illustrated by reference to the discussion about repealing shoreline protection to increase the competitive force of regions by promoting more tourism for instance, or by creating attractive housing environments for sought-after contractors within the new economy. We could also point out the debate underway in many mountain regions concerning the potential for combining the favourable, in both economic and social terms, development of tourism within the framework of ecological and environmental sustainability. Ecological sustainability is often seen as difficult to combine with social/economic development, at least in the short-term perspective. Due to the environmental objectives receiving so much attention over recent years, the discussion about how these should be balanced with social and economic objectives has been neglected. In order to obtain a holistic perspective, we need to find a common language or frame of reference which could facilitate reasoning around conflicts and synergy effects between the objectives. Perhaps indicators could provide a tool to enable us to bridge the gap between planners, environmentalists, sociologists and economists? It is important to be aware of this problem when focusing more deeply in a project on one single area of sustainability. Even though the SAMS project has been weighted towards the ecology sphere, other areas were considered and connections were made to them. Within the Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation case study in the Stockholm region, attempts were made, for example, to identify both conflicts and synergy effects between ecological, economic and social aspects. Professor Olof Eriksson shows how ecological sustainability can provide the key to both welfare and justice in his book Converting the World. He argues that companies with their capitalistic strategies can make money in a greener way. Consumer demands for environmentally friendly goods have put pressure on companies and the green market is expected to grow. One industry in the process of being ecologised is the car industry. Efforts are being made to produce cars with lower fuel consumption as well as various hybrid cars which combine petrol and electric engines. Perhaps the most remarkable event is the investment in a completely new power source for cars, the fuel cell. This produces electricity from hydrogen gas, for example, in a chemical process where the only residual product is steam. Within comprehensive planning, this type of technical breakthrough must be placed in relation to social, economic, ecological and physical-spatial factors. Environmental objectives deeply rooted in the concept of sustainable development In the Swedish Environmental Code s portal section (MB1:1) it states that the directives in this code aim to promote sustainable development which means that present and coming generations are ensured a healthy and sound environment. Such development is based on the insight that nature has a preservation value and that man s right to modify and exploit nature is associated with a responsibility to manage it well. According to the ideas voiced when drafting the legislation, the environmental objectives should lead the way for what the concept sustainable represents in terms of ecological development. In the Government Bill 1997/98:145, it stipulates for example that The environmental objectives established by Parliament lead the way in the application of the code concerning assessments of what sustainable development implies. Such environmental objectives can refer to environmental quality and can then be seen as rendering the objectives of the environmental code more precise to a certain extent. In April 1999, Parliament passed a decision to establish general objectives for environmental work up to 2020, known as the generation objectives. This means that we should be able to hand over to the next generation a society in which the main environmental problems in Sweden have been solved. In connection with this decision, 15 new environmental quality objectives and a new distribution of responsibility at central and regional levels were adopted on the basis of the Government Bill 1997/98:145. The environmental quality objectives should serve as guiding principles in comprehensive planning and the application of the Environmental Code. They also provide a point of departure for the formation of sector objectives and environmental management systems which evolve within different parts of society.

20 1. Clean air 9. A varied agricultural landscape 2. High-quality groundwater 10. A magnificent mountain landscape 11. A good urban environment 3.Sustainable lakes and watercourses 12. A non-toxic environment 4. Flourishing wetlands 13. A safe radiation environment 5. A balanced marine environment with sustainable coastal areas and archipelagos 14. A protective ozone layer 6. No eutrophication 15. Limited influence on climate 7. Natural acidification only 8. Sustainable forests Figure 5. The 15 national environmental quality objectives should provide a point of departure for regional and local adaptation, appropriate for the comprehensive planning conducted by municipalities. The county administrative boards have overall responsibility for adapting the national environmental objectives to their own regional circumstances. The municipalities have overall responsibility for local adaptation to both national and regional objectives. Certain target areas such as biological diversity and cultural environments often have such a genuine local association that it is difficult to formulate precisely in national objectives. In some cases, it may be easier to stipulate objectives which concern risks, emissions, air quality and noise pollution at national level. It is important to conduct a living and critical debate around both the hazards and potential of too rigorous control of details via objectives and standards. By means of the cooperation within the SAMS project between the Swedish EPA and the NBHBP, a dialogue aimed at a more modulated view has developed regarding how objectives should be formulated and interpreted in concrete planning situations in the different types of municipalities throughout the country. During the first year of the SAMS project, the formally accepted 15 national environmental quality objectives did not exist. Since the work on objectives had started long before the proposal was adopted by Parliament, the SAMS sub-studies had already been based on the national objectives - in interaction with regional and local objectives. 19

21 Sustainable development and environmental objectives in the case studies - points of departure and results The case studies indicate a rich sample-card of the ways in which the 15 national environmental objectives can function as points of departure for a local discussion and formulation of environmental objectives in comprehensive planning with both breadth and depth. A rough attempt to show the weight with which the various objectives have been handled in the different studies is illustrated in Figure 6. The role played by the environmental objectives in the case studies has been commented on below. A more concrete illustration of these Figure 6. Rough overview of the focus placed on the various environmental objectives within the case studies. The figure is based on the national environmental objectives but in local adaptations, these have been developed further and in greater depth. is provided in Part 2 of A catalogue of ideas. Indicators can be seen as a tool, for example, for following up environmental objectives and are dealt with in a separate chapter page 72. In the case study from the Stockholm Region (Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation), the national and regional environmental objectives have been the general background for demarcating the environmental assessment, in other words, selecting strategic issues and indicators on the basis of the region s environmental value and problems. Ten strategic issues are related to four areas regarding the environment in regional planning, see A catalogue of ideas. Within the framework for the SEA work, three priority aspects have been identified relevant to planning at regional level: Preserve and develop the green structure of the region Reduce transportation in the area and increase it s energy-efficiency. Reduce energy consumption and render the energy system environmentally sound. case studies Burlöv national environmental objectives (regional and local) clean air high quality groundwater sustainable lakes and watercourses flourishing wetlands a balanced marine environment with sustainable coastal areas and archipelagos no eutrophication natural acidification only sustainable forests a varied agricultural landscape a magnificent mountain landscape a good urban environment a non-toxic environment a safe radiation environment a protective ozone layer limited influence on climate Falun/Borlänge Helsingborg Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation Stockholm (National Urban Park) Stockholm (SEA) Storuman 20 Trollhättan certain amount of emphasis considerable emphasis

22 The environmental objectives are also an important point of departure for evaluating the environmental effects which may arise through the plan. They have also been valuable in testing environmental policy in reality. The approach to this test is not to take the objectives for granted but to maintain a lively discussion about how relevant, significant and applicable the regional and local objectives are for conditions in the Stockholm region. In the SEA work, other important social and economic aspects as well as goals were highlighted as well as how these can interact or come into conflict with the environmental objectives. In the Stockholm SEA case study, the national environmental objectives have not been used directly as a point of departure. The comprehensive plan is based on a general aim of sustainable development from an economic, social and ecological point of view. The urban planning strategy formulated departs from the principle that Stockholm needs a plan to incorporate growth at the same time as it should preserve and develop the qualities of the city in the form of green structures and characteristic traits. At the local level, there are environmental objectives formulated in the Stockholm environmental programme, Miljö Figure 7. Map of the Stockholm region. Map: Office of Regional Planning and Urban Transportation (RTK).