Protecting soils and income in Scotland

Transcription

1 Protecting soils and income in Scotland

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3 Introducing the Farm Soils Plan Attention is increasing across all sectors on the need to preserve soil quality and maintain soil sustainability. The Farm Soils Plan is aimed at farmers, crofters and contractors across Scotland. It could help you to protect soils, meet environmental standards and benefit the farm business. The Farm Soils Plan provides basic guidance and reminders on: Recognising poor soil conditions Maintaining soil structure and rooting potential Reducing soil erosion and protecting water quality Targeted nutrient application Protecting your soils and the Single Farm Payment. Section 5 contains a guide to help you establish whether you are complying with the soil related aspects of Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition (GAEC). Farmers should refer to the Cross Compliance section of the Single Farm Payment Explanatory tes (see Section 7 for details) for information on meeting all GAEC requirements. The Scottish Executive Code of Good Practice for the Prevention of Environmental Pollution From Agricultural Activity (PEPFAA Code) contains information on soil protection and ways to reduce the risk of diffuse pollution arising from agricultural activities. Guidance to reduce diffuse pollution risk from livestock operations is contained in The 4 Point Plan. These documents are available free from your local SEERAD office. Diffuse pollution and soils Diffuse pollution from agricultural practices has been recognised as a priority for action. It can be characterised by the gradual and often unnoticed contamination of soil, air and water from a range of pollutants e.g. soil particles, pesticides, nutrients, and faecal bacteria. Contaminants could have originated from a large number of small sources and could be transported through run-off and leaching. Individually, they have a limited impact but collectively can lead to increased pollution risk. As it can occur over large areas, and affect all surface waters, the control of diffuse pollution requires a catchment level approach. Finding out more The measures contained in this publication are for guidance only; you may need to seek advice from your agricultural or conservation consultant regarding specific measures or other practical actions to manage soil and improve water quality. Section 7 gives contact details of a range of organisations, other publications and website addresses that you may find useful.

4 Know your soils 1 Agricultural soils are a blend of sand, silt, clay, organic matter, water and air, coupled with a wide range of living organisms. On a global scale, soils are influential in a range of ecological functions from water cycling to carbon storage. Protecting soil quality through early recognition of poor soil conditions, remedial treatments and improved management is important. Soil erosion, reduction in organic matter, over-compaction through increased trafficking, overstocking and poaching by livestock can all pose a significant threat to long term soil quality, crop and livestock yields and the wider environment. This section will highlight the importance of soil organisms, differences between soil texture and structure, outline some common soil problems and suggest ways to improve soil quality. Life in the soil Estimates suggest that one gram of healthy soil can contain in the region of one billion organisms including 5 million bacterial cells, 10,000 protozoa, 200m of fungal hyphae and around 100 nematodes. Along with earthworms and arthropods (e.g. Reducing disease risks. mites, springtails Some interactions between soil and microbes can and beetles) these help to suppress pathogenic activity within the organisms play an soil. Soil microbes can protect against disease in other ways such as out-competing pathogens important role in and immune response triggers. maintaining soil health. The range of microbes at work in soils can include root nodule forming nitrogen fixers (more active in soils without N applications), through to large fungi which can help to breakdown organic matter or act as feeding tubes for plant roots. Some nematodes and arthropods can help to recycle nutrients, suppress disease and increase microbial decomposition of organic and surface matter. Methods to increase soil microbe numbers include reduced pesticide and chemical applications, conservation tillage and increased organic matter inputs such as livestock manures or composted material. Organic farming systems All farm systems need to build and conserve natural soil fertility, but this is especially important in organic farming systems. Organic standards promote the use of a soil management plan to demonstrate that consideration has been given to soil fertility and protection and enhancement of soil structure over the course of a crop rotation. Organic rotations are developed to balance both nutritional and structural demands on soils, whilst providing an adequate break between crops to avoid specific pests and diseases. Rotations aim to balance cropping with fertility building. Legumes, cover crops and green manures can all help to assist natural fertility building processes within the soil. Composting Composting can reduce the volume of animal manures, reduce weeds and pathogens, increase beneficial soil microbes and increase levels of soil organic matter. Composting relies on fungal and bacterial decomposition of organic matter and heaps must be monitored and turned on a regular basis. Of the more visible soil organisms, arthropods and earthworms help to breakdown and mix organic matter within the topsoil. Arthropods feed on potential crop pests whilst earthworms help to increase aeration and drainage in soils.

5 Soil texture and soil structure Soil texture is defined by the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles bound together by organic matter. Soil organic matter - or humus - is a vital component of soil, influencing fertility, soil structure, workability and water holding capacity, as well as storing carbon. Soil texture is very variable and can indicate a range of soil properties, for example: Loamy sands and soils with a high content of fine sand and silt are susceptible to soil problems watch out for surface capping, compaction and erosion damage unless high organic matter levels are maintained. Sandy loams and sandy silt loams (soils with <18% clay) most suitable soils for all enterprises in wetter areas and suitable for more intensive cropping. Hand texturing soils will indicate soil texture class. Clay soils and sandy clay loams (containing >18% clay particles) tend to be imperfectly or poorly drained. Even when the drainage system is working well, the range of moisture contents when clay soils are suitable for cultivation is small. These soils are prone to drainage related problems and poaching, compaction and smearing. Smearing is the localised spreading and smoothing of soil by applied pressure, often by slipping tractor wheels. Smeared soil will present a barrier to the movement of water and roots. 20 Clay Sandy Clay Sandy Clay Loam Clay Clay Loam Silty Clay 70 Silty Clay Loam 80 Sandy Sandy Silt Silt Loam Loam Loam Loamy Sand Sand Sand Silt The field notes with this pack show you how to assess soil texture and structure The soil textural triangle is a common method used to determine soil textural class if you already know the percentage of clay, sand and silt in a soil sample. If these factors are known, you can follow the three lines coming from the percentage numbers until they all intersect at a point, indicating your soil texture type. Alternatively, when percentages are not known soil texture can be estimated by laboratory analysis or hand texturing (see Section 6). Soil structure is the arrangement of particles in blocks or aggregates within the soil. Structure is strongly influenced by tillage, cropping, texture, organic matter, compaction and biological activities and can be affected by drainage status and weathering. Maintaining a good, stable soil structure can Increase water holding capacity Promote root growth Maintain aeration and drainage Make cultivation easier Reduce erosion risk. Common problems seen on Scottish soils A wide range of soil problems can go unseen. After examining soils you can consider actions needed to rectify any problems. It may be necessary to seek specialist advice, as general recommendations may not be appropriate to all soil types and conditions. Surface capping Problem Heavy rainfall on bare soils can break down soil surface structure leading PROBLEM to the formation of a surface crust or cap (1 to 10 mm thick). This makes it harder for seedlings to emerge from the soil, reduces water infiltrating through the soil surface and increases run-off risk. Fine sandy and silty soils are particularly at risk from capping. The formation of erosion rills and gullies can result in soil deposition at sides of fields, on roads or in watercourses and ditches. Grassland productivity can be decreased by soil compaction, surface smearing and wheeling damage to the sward.

6 Suggested actions Avoid producing too fine a seedbed ACTION during cultivation and where possible, retain residues of the previous crop at the surface as a protective layer. The incorporation of organic matter (e.g. composted material, straw or dung) can greatly improve soil structure and reduce capping risk. When capped soil dries, break the cap with a light harrow or Cambridge roller. Compaction Problem Compaction compresses the soil and restricts drainage, aeration and rooting depth. Over PROBLEM -cultivation (the production of an excessively deep and/or fine structured seedbed) and heavy trafficking, such as multiple passes of machinery on wet soils, will increase the risk of soil over-compaction, plough or wheeling pans. Such pans can extend into the subsoil, particularly if vehicles are heavy and sink during wet conditions. Poaching and shallow pan formation from livestock is a common problem on grassland soils. Suggested actions Identify depth of compaction (see Section 6). If the plough pan restricts water ACTION movement or root growth then consider altering cultivation or ploughing depth to get below this layer and break up the compacted soil. Ideally, loosen such layers before the winter and mix in crop residues so that weathering and biological activity can loosen and split the clods produced by tillage. Subsoiling, moling or grassland aerators (e.g. spiked or knife rollers) may help to remediate soil compaction. These operations should be carried out in dry conditions at working depth to avoid further soil damage. Avoid over trafficking and restrict access when soil is saturated. The upper layer of soil shows a pan formed by livestock. A wheel pan is also visible at the base of the topsoil. The term wet soils usually refers to soil which is at or wetter than field capacity (the moisture content of a soil after excess water has drained away about 1-2 days after heavy rainfall). Soils stay wet after heavy rainfall if they are in a low lying area or because of compact layers in the topsoil or upper subsoil preventing drainage. Compact sandy loam soil before (left) and after breaking into coarse clods. te how few roots are visible. Heavy trafficking can damage soils.

7 Anaerobic layers Problem Anaerobic layers are wet, (permanently or over long periods, especially in winter) are often blue-grey in colour and can give a PROBLEM foul, sulphurous (rotten eggs) smell. Roots cannot grow in anaerobic conditions and nitrogen can be lost as a gas from anaerobic soils. In some instances, incorporating crop residues to anaerobic soils can increase the problem, as valuable oxygen is used up during the decomposition process. Suggested actions ACTION Improve drainage of the soil within and below the anaerobic layer. Planting a vigorously growing crop (e.g. a grass ley) can help to deplete moisture and promote soil structural development. An anaerobic layer of blue-grey soil can be seen below the tilled layer at the knife blade. These conditions were attributed to severe compaction and rut formation as the profile face was located near to a field entrance. Poor drainage Problem Poor drainage is common in many soils and can be aggravated by an ineffective or blocked drainage system or compacted soil layers PROBLEM preventing drainage. Indicators of poor drainage include: anaerobic soils wet areas impeding machinery operations and stock turnout patchy yellowing of crops excessive growth of weeds. This compacted loam topsoil is showing signs of localised waterlogging illustrated by the grey soil area. Suggested actions Assess drainage by digging soil inspection points. If the soil is dry ACTION deeper in the profile, then localised waterlogging could be present. You may need to consider whether to repair or renew the drainage system. Alternatively, persistent areas of poor drainage could be used to create a wetland. Funding to support wetland creation may be available through agri-environment schemes. Recommended measures Maintain field drainage systems (unless there are good reasons not to). Where possible, avoid working or grazing wet land as this may lead to smearing, and/or compaction. Consider using smaller or lighter vehicles, low ground pressure tyres, dual wheels or tracked vehicles to minimise soil damage. Keep trafficking to already established tramlines where possible. Reduce the frequency of traffic over the field. Soil damage and Poor drainage can be highlighted by yellowing of crops. reductions in yield quantity and quality may be apparent. Consider how poor soil conditions could be rectified as part of the next cultivation. Consider a more varied rotation to exploit the different soil management and root growth habits of different crops in generating and preserving soil structure. Put wet fields under low intensity grass or allow them to form wetlands. Agri-environment funding may be available for this. What to do next Using the field notes in Section 6, assess your soils and consider what action can be taken to maintain and enhance soil quality across the farm. See Section 7 for a list of further information sources.

8 Reducing soil erosion 2 Soil erosion by water and wind can be a big problem for some farms, removing fertile topsoil, clogging drainage systems and polluting watercourses. Poaching from livestock gathering around feeding rings and at access points can increase the risk of soil erosion and contribute to soil loss. Simple changes in practices may help to reduce the occurrence and intensity of erosion events and so give rise to a range of benefits for the farm. Cattle gathering around feeding rings can damage soil structure. Reducing soil erosion- benefits to you and your business For areas that have been identified as at risk of erosion through soil assessment or experience from land management, reducing soil erosion could benefit your business by: Keeping your land in Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition; this will be a requirement for receiving your Single Farm Payment. Reducing loss of valuable topsoil and soil organic matter. Sustaining long term land use and cropping potential. Soils can protect and maintain archaeological sites. These features can be lost or damaged by ploughing, drainage, Reducing watercourse and drainage maintenance. subsoiling or other cultivations. Erosion and degradation of soils over archaeological sites may also breach GAEC Taking a closer look requirements (see GAEC measures 12 and 17). Many practices can increase the risk of soil erosion, especially on land prone to soil loss. Erosion is normally a result of wind and/or water action and can have hidden costs for both the farm and the surrounding environment. Wind erosion Wind can pick up and move smaller soil particles or tiny aggregates at the soil s surface. These smaller particles can be formed as a direct result of cultivations on light, weakly structured land, for example cultivation to produce a finer seedbed. Windblow can result in large quantities of soil being deposited in surrounding fields, roads, watercourses. Wind erosion is common on soils with low structural stability, such as light sandy loams and loamy sands. Soil moved by wind action.

9 Water erosion Water erosion can lead to severe and extended soil loss. The impact of heavy rain breaks down soil aggregates and dislodges small particles which are then susceptible to erosion. Run-off occurs when rainfall exceeds the rate at which the water infiltrates into the soil and water begins to run across the soil surface. The faster and more powerful the water flow, the larger the particles moved and the further the distance these particles can be transported. The action of the flowing water dislodges more particles, increasing the rate of soil loss. Attached to soils are nutrients, pesticides and potentially harmful bacteria, which enter local ditches, burns and rivers, representing a cost to both the farmer and to the environment this includes damage to natural habitats and increased costs of water treatment. Ian Robertson, Linkwood Farms, Elgin, Morayshire. 300 dairy cows plus followers on 800 hectares with 405ha in arable at any one time. We have light, sandy soils here and our main soil issue is erosion through wind blow; some areas on the farm being more prone to soil loss than others. We have moved to a min-till approach to protect soils in some of the fields and we are really starting to see the benefits, especially now that we have a good rotation in place. Even though min-till can sometimes need more in the way of herbicides to control weeds, we are saving on diesel and labour costs when compared to a traditional ploughing system, with the added benefit of protecting our soils. Switching to a min-till system on some of our fields, ploughing-in farm manure to increase organic matter and leaving stubbles on fields after harvest has certainly helped to improve soil condition, drainage and reduced soil loss around the farm. Rainfall and snowmelt can dislodge soil particles and lead to soil loss and polluting runoff. The hidden cost of soil erosion To the farm business: Loss of topsoil and soil organic matter can reduce soil rooting potential. Repeat drilling of seeds and extra applications of fertilisers or herbicides may be required as a result of water or wind erosion. Loss of land due to riverbank erosion. Silt deposition can increase the need for ditch clearing operations and can make sites more prone to flooding. To the surrounding environment: Run-off containing soil can reduce water quality. Fine sediments can clog the river bed, detrimentally affecting fish and other aquatic life. Nutrient enrichment of waters can result in loss of biodiversity and amenity with the potential for algal blooms that can affect wildlife, humans and livestock. Pesticides adsorbed onto soil particles may be transported to water. Sediment can be deposited on public and private roads as well as hardstandings. Flooding risk may increase due to drain blockages or loss of channel depth. Some soil types and cropping patterns can lead to a greater risk of soil erosion, as illustrated in Figure 1. Steepness of slopes can increase the risks of run-off, removing soil particles. Tramlines can increase water flow down slopes. You may need to seriously consider altering cultivation methods and cropping on high-risk sites. Lighter soil textures, for example sandy soils, will be more prone to wind and water erosion depending on management factors, length and steepness of slope and season. Maintaining organic matter, increased topsoil stability, crop cover or shelter from hedges and forestry plantations can all help to reduce erosion risk.

10 Minimum or conservation tillage Minimum tillage (min-till), using reduced cultivation techniques, can protect soil structure and reduce the costs of cultivation whilst increasing or maintaining yields. A minimum tillage system may involve quicker and fewer passes at a shallower depth, or avoid cultivation by direct drilling. Min-till is suited to well-drained light to medium textured soils, although these systems do require careful control of compaction and weeds. Min-till can save time and money and in some cases could be better for the environment. Minimum tillage can protect and enhance soil structure. Figure 1. Soil erosion risk Crops on vulnerable soils Higher Erosion risk scenarios Maize Potatoes Turnips Winter wheat/barley Winter oil seed rape Spring oil seed rape Spring wheat/barley Grass Erosion risk Lower Fine seedbeds De-stoning practices Bare land after root crop harvesting Livestock feeding, watering, shelter and access points Outdoor pig rearing areas Rough ploughed land Cereal stubble Land with good crop/vegetation cover Recommended measures Time applications of manure to maximise nutrient use and help to increase topsoil stability. Organic inputs such as manure, straw, composted materials and non-agricultural bio-wastes may help to preserve soil organic matter and improve soil stability. Change seedbed cultivation to produce a coarser tilth. Fine seedbeds can increase erosion risk, destabilise soil structure and lead to the surface becoming sealed or capped. Do you need such a fine seedbed? Fine seedbeds have many small sized aggregates making them prone to erosion, capping and slaking following heavy rain. They need to be managed well and covered quickly to reduce erosion risk, especially on lighter soils. Mulches, light rolling and nurse crops (e.g. sowing barley at the same time or slightly before sowing carrots) can all help to reduce erosion risk on vulnerable soils.

11 Consider sowing grass as part of a rotation to improve soil structural stability and make the soil easier to manage, especially on sites at risk from erosion. Cultivate compacted bare land left after potato harvest and field grazed forage crops as soon as possible. Consider using minimum or reduced cultivation (min-till) techniques where suitable. Retain stubbles for as long as possible over the winter period or leave soils roughly ploughed. Where possible, tramlines should run across slopes. Alternatively a buffer area at the bottom of the slope may also help to reduce run-off risk. Retaining stubbles over the winter months will protect the soil surface from erosion. What to do next Consider the recommended measures - these could help you meet some of the requirements under GAEC. Section 5 contains a checklist to help you decide if you are complying with the soil related GAEC measures. Your agricultural consultant should be able to give you further details on the topics mentioned.

12 Targeted nutrient application 3 In the past, Scottish agricultural soils were often low in P (phosphorus) and required regular additions of this nutrient along with K 2 O (potassium or potash) and N (nitrogen). Research has shown that an increasing number of soils have adequate reserves of P while some soils contain an excess of P from years of slurry, manure and fertiliser applications. Lack of soil analysis to inform nutrient management, repeat applications of manure or slurry and adding the same rate of inorganic nutrients on a regular basis can lead to a significant Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ s) To comply with the EC Nitrates Directive, a number of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones have been designated. These are areas where surface freshwaters or groundwaters exceed or are likely to exceed 50mg nitrates per litre. These areas have Action Programme Regulations with which farmers have to comply. waste of nutrients, time and money. Adding more nutrients than is needed by crops or grass will also greatly increase the proportion that is lost from your land and could pollute surrounding watercourses. Excess nitrogen in surface and groundwaters has led to the designation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ s) in some areas. Slurry and manure applications help to maintain soil nutrient status. Targeted organic nutrient application - benefits to you and your business Targeted nutrient application can: Lead to potential cost savings on inorganic fertilisers through more efficient use of slurry and manure. Allow inorganic fertiliser inputs to be adjusted to more accurately meet crop requirements across the farm. Minimise surplus nutrients, saving money and reducing the risk of pollution of watercourses and groundwater around the farm.

13 Taking a closer look Knowing current levels and trends of soil ph, nutrient status and the nutrient contribution from slurry and manure applications will allow you to calculate the quantities of inorganic fertilisers and lime needed to meet crop requirements, keep nutrients in balance and optimise crop and/or grass growth. A more targeted application can save money, minimise losses and reduce pollution risk. Soils should be sampled and analysed approximately every five years; appropriate lime applications should achieve the correct balance between nutrients and target ph for crop or grass growth. The cost of soil analysis could be recovered through good organic manure and fertiliser use. Nutrient loss what s the problem? Ammonium and nitrate mixes readily with water and is easily moved off the land through leaching and field run-off. In contrast, phosphorus binds tightly to soil particles, and is more often lost due to erosion. Surplus nutrients above crop requirement are easily lost to the environment and represent an ongoing cost to the business. Nutrient losses to freshwater, especially phosphorus, can soon tip the balance and lead to an increased growth of aquatic algae. Occasionally, freshwater algae can be toxic, affecting both wildlife and livestock using this as a drinking source and significantly reduce amenity value. Losses can also occur via gaseous emissions of nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere, thus contributing to air pollution and climate change on a much larger scale. Nutrient application To minimise environmental pollution risk, both organic and inorganic fertilisers should be kept away from watercourses and hedges. Applying nutrients to these areas is not only a waste, but could lead to pollution or prevent the growth of less nutrient-demanding hedgerow species, reducing biodiversity on the farm. Spreaders should be calibrated on a regular basis to assess rate and spread pattern; you may be applying fertiliser unevenly with some of the crop getting too little and some too much. Using headland deflector plates can help to minimise accidental spreading. Remember the 10m no spread zone bordering watercourses and 50m around wells or boreholes used for dairies or drinking water when spreading slurry and manure. Soil and ph Soil ph is a measure of soil acidity and affects the availability of nutrients to the growing crop. The ph of mineral soils should be maintained at about ph 6.3 for arable crops and ph 5.8 for lowland grassland. Lime applications help to increase soil ph, but over-liming should be avoided as this will reduce the chemical availability and plant uptake of some trace elements. Effect of range of ph on barley growth. Recommended measures Carry out soil analysis for nutrients and ph on a three to five year cycle. Knowing soil nutrient status and ph will help you to accurately target nutrient and lime applications and could cut costs. Calculate N, P & K additions from manure and slurry and take these into consideration with soil test results when planning nutrient applications. Prompt ploughing-in of manure after spreading will minimise the risk of ammonia losses to the environment (however, working on wet soils could lead to soil damage and increase risk of capping and runoff). Time nutrient applications to meet crop requirements and minimise risk of direct losses, e.g. from wind or runoff. Keep fertiliser or manure applications away from hedgerows and watercourses. The use of deflector plates, uncropped field margins or conservation headlands will help to reduce this risk. Make sure machinery is accurately calibrated.

14 Examining nutrient applications could you save money? Balancing nutrient inputs and outputs on your farm could reduce costs with no loss of productivity, benefiting both the business and the surrounding environment. In 2002, the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) commissioned a study looking at agricultural environmental management on six different farm types. One part of this work compared the amount of nutrients in fertilisers, animal feeds and bought-in manure (inputs) with nutrient removed in the form of harvested crops, livestock and manure (offtakes) on different types of working farms. The balances (or excesses) from six different farm types are presented in Figure 2 (adapted from The Impacts of Agricultural Environmental Management: Case Studies from Theory to Practice, SEPA Report, 2002). Figure 2 Nutrient balances from 6 different farm types (SEPA 2002). All farms in the SEPA study demonstrated a significant excess of nutrients when inputs and offtakes were compared, with only one farm close to balancing P requirements. These positive nutrient balances were far greater than needed to maintain productivity when additions of slurry or manure and soil nutrient status were taken into account. Obviously, every farm will be different, but importantly, Figure 2 illustrates that all six farm types were able to make financial savings based on reduced nutrient inputs, with an average saving around 1,500 a year on fertiliser bills through accounting for soil and organic nutrients. Kg/ha Hill Sheep Phosphate Nitrogen Upland Stock Lowland Stock/Arable Dairy General Arable Intensive Arable Farm type How would you compare and how much could you save? A simple programme of soil analysis could highlight if nutrient additions are in line with crop requirements, or if you are applying more than is needed. Your agricultural consultant should be able to draw up a nutrient plan for your farm, illustrating potential savings. Slurry and manure are a valuable source of nutrients. What other farmers have said about nutrient applications We vary rate and ratio of nutrient applications on results from soil analysis. It may initially seem like a hassle to change from compounds to straights, but it s a waste to put on nutrients that your soil and crops just don t need. Our average annual spend on bagged fertiliser was around 20k. We have been able to save around 4k through making better use of slurry. Getting soils analysed and taking account of nutrients in slurry has allowed us to cut costs on P and K application. Our soils were already well up into the moderate status where phosphorus and potash were concerned. w we don t need to add any P and K on grazing fields, perhaps only just a top dressing of 25:5:5. Soil analysis has allowed us to save at least a couple of thousand pounds on bagged fertiliser costs.

15 What to do next Consider how you could improve organic nutrient use and fertiliser management and calculate potential savings it could bring to the business. Methods to calculate the potential value of slurry and manure from housed livestock can be found in The 4 Point Plan, available from your SEERAD office. Help is also available through the EMA (Environmental Management for Agriculture) CDROM to draw up your own nutrient budget. Alternatively, your agricultural consultant can help you draw up a nutrient budget for your farm. Section 7 contains a list of useful publications.

16 Preventing soil loss - 4 protecting water quality Nutrients, pesticides, harmful bacteria and soil particles can be lost as a result of soil erosion. Soils can end up on roads and other fields around the farm and in watercourses leading to lochs or coastal waters. Changes in agricultural practices may be complemented by mitigation measures, some of which could be funded under agri-environment schemes, helping to further protect land and reduce the risk of soil losses to the surrounding environment. Benefits to you and your business Protecting water around the farm through reducing soil losses can: Reduce the risk of penalties under the Single Farm Payment Scheme. Reduce hidden costs from clearing out silt build-up in rivers and streams time and money spent on drainage maintenance. Attract funding from agri-environment schemes or local initiatives. Reduce risk of diffuse pollution. Improve biodiversity, fisheries and wildlife habitats. Taking a closer look Preserving good water quality around the farm is important for both biodiversity and amenity value. Livestock dunging in burns, run-off and eroded soil from tracks, yards and around feeding rings can all represent a significant source of diffuse pollution and soil loss from the farm. Livestock need access to water, but free and unchecked access can damage bankside vegetation and soil structure. Buffer strips, vegetated headlands and wetlands can all help to intercept nutrient and soil losses and provide important breeding and feeding habitats for wildlife whilst protecting water quality around the farm. Excess nutrients in watercourses will increase the occurrence of algal blooms. Flooding and farmland Flooding is something that appears to be happening more frequently. Farmland prone to frequent flooding is less suitable for cultivation or cropping but may play an alternative useful role by retaining flood water. Allowing these wet, unproductive areas of farmland to flood could reduce flooding risk further downstream. It could also provide valuable habitats for wildlife and birds and may act as a filter between your land and the neighbouring watercourse. Funding to utilise these wet areas may be available through agri-environment schemes or local initiatives.

17 Recommended measures Consider the use of buffer strips around watercourses. Financial assistance under agri-environment schemes or local initiatives may be available. Avoid creating ruts and wheelings with farm machinery. Vehicle tracks can act as channels for run-off. If possible, use contour tramlines. Reconsider crop choices for problem areas. Areas at high risk of erosion may need to be kept in grass to stabilise soils. Maintain or replant hedges. Hedges can reduce the impact of wind erosion, provide shelter for crops or livestock and offer habitat for many wildlife species. Buffer strips can protect watercourses from run-off whilst also improving habitat for wildlife. Kenny Cannon, Hillocks of Clunie, Snaigow Estates, Blairgowrie. 250 cattle with followers on over 1,000 ha plus 280 ha cereal. Adding buffer strips along water margins and replanting and fencing off hedges are just two of the measures we are employing here at Hillocks of Clunie to protect surrounding water quality. Buffer strips around watercourses provide a twofold benefit as not only do they remind you to keep a distance when spreading fertilisers and manure, but also increase suitable habitat for game and other birds supplying a source of food, shelter and places to nest. A lot of these measures we managed to put in place ourselves. For others we were able to access funding under a local initiative run by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) and through the Rural Stewardship Scheme (RSS). Keeping arable fields in stubble over the winter rather than ploughing in autumn and carefully choosing sites for temporary field heaps are just two of the other measures we have introduced to help protect water quality within the catchment. Spreading manure and ploughing-in in early spring makes much more sense as it incorporates the nutrients into the soil and boosts soil organic matter. It also helps to reduce the risk of soil loss, especially over the winter months Additional measures for farmers with livestock on their land Where possible, provide drinking troughs and minimise livestock access to watercourses. Make sure feeding rings and trailers are suitably positioned, i.e. well away from watercourses and not on ground sloping towards a watercourse. Select drier fields for winter grazing. Ideally, stock should be removed from land which is becoming heavily poached. Minimise stock movement on farm tracks prone to erosion, or prevent run-off from entering burns and streams. Laying specially constructed cow tracks using bark may result in less soil erosion; tracks have also been demonstrated to reduce the incidence of foot damage to livestock. Consider pollution risk when strip grazing and grazing stock on fodder crops. Temporary fences for strip grazing should run across the slope rather than up and down if possible. What to do next Consider areas that could pose a risk to soil and water quality around the farm. There may already be partnership projects running in your area that could assist with funding or advice for specific measures. Your agricultural consultant should be able to provide details of national or local schemes to consider.

18 Protecting your soils and 5 Single Farm Payment The points in the table below are a guide to the conditions required under the soil aspects of GAEC (soil erosion, soil organic matter and soil structure). If you answer no to any of the questions or are unsure of the answer, you should refer to GAEC guidance for full details as all or part of your Single Farm Payment may be at risk. To comply with GAEC you also need to observe the minimum level of maintenance conditions relating to the protection of habitats and landscape features. The full requirements under GAEC can be found in the Cross Compliance section of the Single Farm Payment Explanatory tes (details in Section 7). Question Tick appropriate box Comment Are fields protected by crop or grass cover or a roughly cultivated surface over the winter months? GAEC measure 1 Crop cover can significantly cut wind and water erosion risk, reducing siltation of drains and nutrient loss to watercourses. Consider other actions that may decrease the risk of soil erosion e.g. avoidance of over-compaction, reducing heavy trafficking or maintenance of hedges and vegetation cover. Finely prepared seedbeds or lack of crop cover could increase the risk of soil erosion. Crop cover, keeping stubbles over the winter months or leaving a roughly cultivated surface (created by the use of discs or tines) can all help to protect the soil surface from erosion, depending on slope and weather conditions. Where suitable, spring cropping or direct drilling or min-till techniques for winter crops are all worth considering to reduce erosion risk. Do you take measures to reduce soil loss as a result of wind erosion from erosion prone sites? GAEC measure 2 Reducing soil loss will benefit your farm and surrounding land and watercourses. Maintaining crop cover, using coarse seedbeds, shelterbelts, nurse crops, mulches or taking a minimum tillage approach could help minimise soil loss from your farm. Do you take capping risk into consideration when planning rotations and break any caps that form? GAEC measure 3 This will help to reduce run-off and protect soil structure Capping can lead to poor seedling emergence and increase run-off risk. Maintaining soil cover, leaving a rough seedbed and reduced cultivation (for example leaving a coarse tilth or avoiding rolling seedbeds) could help to reduce capping risk.

19 Question Tick appropriate box Comment Do you try to prevent erosion around the banks of watercourses, watering points and feeding areas as a result of heavy grazing, trampling or poaching by livestock? GAEC measure 4 Preventing overgrazing and heavy poaching will protect soil structure. Regularly check fields where stock are grazing for poaching and soil damage. Heavy poaching or overgrazing could indicate over stocking and may lead to SFPS penalties. Avoid siting feeding rings near watercourses and rotate feeding sites to minimise soil damage. On sites of low erosion risk, e.g. improved grassland/ arable a sacrificial feeding area may be easier to manage. Areas of conservation interest should not be used for feeding sites. Are ditch and drainage systems maintained? GAEC measure 5 Do you follow the Muirburn Code? GAEC measure 6 Check ditches, drains and pipe outlets on a regular basis. Blocked ditches and ineffective pipe drains could increase maintenance costs and lead to a greater risk of erosion and flooding (unless blocked for environmental gain, e.g. moorland grips). It may be more cost effective to leave broken field drains and create wetland for environmental gain a conservation or agricultural adviser should be able to advise the best course of action for your situation. Following the Muirburn Code could help to avoid damage to property, wildlife, game and archaeology. The Muirburn Code gives guidance for those carrying out muirburn on their land (see Section 7 for details). Extensive erosion could occur on steep sites through inappropriate burning. When applying inorganic fertilisers, do you budget for nutrients in slurry and manure and match to crop or grass demand? GAEC measure 7 This will make the most of nutrients contained in slurry and manure and reduce the risk of nutrient losses from your farm. Be aware of the amount of valuable nutrients contained in slurry and manure applications and tailor nutrient additions accordingly. The 4 Point Plan will help you to estimate nutrients in slurry and manure from housed livestock.

20 Question Tick appropriate box Comment Do you incorporate livestock manure within 2 weeks after spreading on stubbles? GAEC measure 8 Incorporating manures will increase soil organic matter content. Nutrients in manures left on the soil surface could be lost through runoff. In areas prone to wind erosion, manure incorporation can be delayed. Do you check ground conditions are suitable before carrying out machinery operations? Avoiding cultivation or machinery operations when water is standing on the soil surface or the ground is saturated will protect soil structure. SEERAD define saturation by the appearance of water from the soil when pressure is applied e.g. from a footprint. GAEC measure 9 Heavy vehicle weight is a prime cause of compaction even when spread over wide tyres to reduce ground pressure. Frequent vehicle movements or cultivation of wet or waterlogged soils could lead to erosion, rutting or sub-soil compaction, which may be difficult to eradicate. The use of light vehicles, low tyre inflation pressures, dual wheels or tracked vehicles will minimise impact on soils. How did you do? answers You are fulfilling many of the requirements under the soil component of GAEC. If you answered no to any of the key points, refer to the SEERAD guidance (details in Section 7) and consider any practices you can use to improve soil condition and keep your land in good agricultural and environmental condition. answers Look again at the key points - are there any changes you can make to improve agricultural and environmental conditions on your land? You need to check up on the GAEC requirements as failure to comply with conditions could lead to loss of payments under the SFPS. Consult the SEERAD guidance (see Section 7) or speak to your agricultural consultant.

21 Field tes Assessing your soils 6 Assessing soil textures in mineral soils When you do not know the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles in your soil, you can estimate using the following method. Take about a dessert spoon of freshly dug out soil. If too dry, wet up gradually, kneading between finger and thumb until soil crumbs are broken down. Enough moisture is needed to hold the soil together and to show its maximum stickiness. Follow the paths in the diagram to get to the texture class. Assessment of Soil Texture Start Is the moist soil predominantly rough and gritty? Does the soil stain the fingers? Sand Is it difficult to roll the soil into a ball? Loamy Sand Does soil mould to form an easily deformed ball and feel smooth and silky (butter)? Does soil feel smooth and silty as well as gritty? Sandy Loam Sandy Silt Loam Silt Loam Does soil mould to form a strong ball which smears, but does not take a polish? Clay Loam Also rough and gritty Sandy Clay Loam Also smooth and silky Silty Clay Loam Soil moulds like plasticine, polishes, and feels very sticky when wet Clay Also rough and gritty Sandy Clay Also smooth and buttery Silty Clay Taken from Controlling soil erosion: a field guide for an erosion risk assessment for farmers and consultants. MAFF, PB 4092 Crown Copyright 1999.

22 Assessing soil structure Assessing topsoil structure can help you identify potential soil problems. It is useful to compare different fields with different soil structures. Consider previous land use in these areas, e.g. are these fields in grass or have they received heavy machinery traffic? If possible, choose several sites around a field to assess soil structure; the best time to look at topsoil is when the soil is moist and during spring or early summer when root development will be most obvious. It will be difficult to assess soil structure if soil is very wet or too dry. You will need to take a spade and a knife plus pen and paper or camera if you want to record your results. Comparison of photographs of soil often reveals information about the soil which was not obvious in the field. A good soil has pores for water and air to enter and medium sized, stable aggregates with crop residues to provide protection from rainfall. Using the spade, dig out a square or spit of topsoil, keeping the spade as vertical as possible in the soil. Alternatively you could dig a hole of around 40cm (16 inches) in depth to reveal the soil profile. Using the following table, examine the soil profile both on the spit of soil and in the hole where it came from. Your findings should allow you to make a basic assessment of soil structure. Take note of How to do it What to look for Soil surface Examine the surface of the soil Resistance to penetration and a visible crust may have developed Compacted zones Root development (this may be less relevant for freshly ploughed sites) Using the knife, move down the soil profile and look for any hard or compacted layers Using knife or fingers gently prise apart the roots from the soils Hard layer present in soil profile te the depth and thickness of any hard or compacted layers Look at root structures. In well-structured soils, roots should be growing without restriction and should be numerous and well branched with plenty of fine root hairs and occupying the whole soil volume Possible structural indications Capping at the soil surface Compaction / poor structure te maximum depth of rooting and depth of any growth restriction Signs of growth restriction may be seen, e.g. roots running sideways, confined to pores or growing between clods (although this may be a feature of a heavy clay soil) Soil could be suffering from compaction

23 Take note of How to do it What to look for Possible structural indications Structure and organisation of particles Gently break large clods and plates by hand Predominantly stable crumb structure made from a mixture of small more rounded and easily broken aggregates Good structure te size and shape of clods and aggregates and how friable they are. Absence of crumbs and presence of large blocky or horizontal plates, often hard to break in clay and loamy soils Poor structure Colour of soil profile and presence of cracks On large clods look for cracks Absence of crumbs. Almost single grain structure seen in sandy soil Poor structure If cracks less than 0.2mm Poor structure Could have impeded drainage and/or compaction problems On whole section look for difference in coloration, e.g mottling, presence of greyishblue or orangy patches or layers and a bad smell (rotten eggs) Gleying is sign of anaerobic conditions and reduced aeration Homogenous brown colour Could indicate impeded drainage and/or compaction Good drainage Worms and other biological activities Presence of worm activities. Channels at depth and casts at surface Good structure Look for fungus mycelium. Indicative of more acidic conditions Possible drainage problems A more detailed soils assessment guide is available from The UK Soil Management Initiative. For details see Section 7. Ground condition assessment using the heel or squelch test. Walking on fields and taking note of how the ground feels underfoot can give a simple indication as to how vulnerable soils could be to damage from traffic or livestock Baked Dry on top Damp and Damp and Squelchy Squelchy Very soft Waterlogged Hard firm soft in patches all over Good Condition Poor Condition From 1-3 the soil is suitable for stocking and trafficking with low risk of damage. From 4-8 the soil is increasingly likely to suffer from compaction and rutting From 6-8 stock or traffic on the land could result in significant soil damage.

24 What to do next Once you have assessed your soils look again at Section 1. There may be some ideas for you to consider to improve soil quality. You may want to discuss your findings and any possible remedial actions with your agricultural adviser.

25 Finding out more 7 Contact details for organisations that could provide further advice or guidance are contained in Table 1.1. Table 1.2 contains a list of publications or further information that you might find useful. Table 1.1 Organisations that could provide further advice Organisation Services/Information Contact details Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG Scotland) Independent accredited agricultural consultants LEAF (Linking Environment And Farming) NFU Scotland SAC (Scottish Agricultural College) Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs Department (SEERAD) Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) Scottish Organic Producers Association (SOPA) Specialist and general advice on agrienvironment and conservation issues. Able to provide nutrient budgeting services and point of contact for Rural Stewardship Scheme. Provide a range of services from soil sampling to RSS applications to drainage plans. UK wide charity helping farmers to improve environment and business performance through network of demonstration farms. Provides political representation for Scottish farmers. Provides consultancy services to the agricultural sector. Subscribers to SAC receive Technical tes covering a range of subjects, e.g. crop fertiliser requirements, minimum tillage. Provides guidance on pollution prevention measures and enforces environmental legislation. Contact local SEPA office for site specific information. Government department responsible for legal and technical matters relating to agriculture and rural development. Administers the Natural Care programme for farmers with sites of special scientific interest (SSSI) or Natura 2000 sites on their land. May have local grant schemes for habitat enhancement or water protection. Organic certification body that promotes the sustainable growth of farming businesses. Algo Business Centre, Glenearn Road, Perth, PH2 0NJ. Telephone See local phone book. LEAF, National Agricultural Centre, Stoneleigh, Warwickshire, CV8 2LZ. Tel , NFU Scotland, Rural Centre - West Mains, Ingliston, Midlothian, EH28 8LT. Telephone: SAC, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG. Tel: Contact local SEPA office. 24 hour Pollution hotline Floodline Contact local SEERAD Office or SEERAD Scottish Executive, Pentland House, 47 Robbs Loan, Edinburgh. EH14 1TY Tel: For advice contact local SNH office. For publications contact Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby, Redgorton, Perth, PH1 3EW. Tel: Scottish Organic Centre 10th Avenue, Royal Highland Centre Ingliston, Edinburgh, EH28 8NF Tel: