Previous NEA Almanacs addressed the

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1 Income and Poverty: A Regional and State Examination of ESP Salaries By Vicki J. Rosser Vicki J. Rosser is a professor and higher education program coordinator in the Department of Educational Psychology and Higher Education, College of Education at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). She is a consulting editor for the Journal of Higher Education and Research in Higher Education, and a member of UNLV s faculty senate executive council. Rosser writes extensively on administrative staff, faculty, and student worklife, climate, morale, satisfaction, and retention. Previous NEA Almanacs addressed the shortfall in education support professional (ESP) income and the relationship between income and poverty on college campuses. Some ESPs in recent years received minimal salary increases, while salaries for many others remained flat. State- or campusimposed furloughs resulted in decreased pay for still others. 1, 2 U.S. median household income was $53,657 in 2014, notes a 2015 U.S. Census Bureau report. There was no significant difference from 2013 earnings at $54,462, the report adds. 3 This is the third consecutive year that the annual change was not statistically significant, following two consecutive years of annual declines in median household income. Further, in 2014, the real median household income was lower than in 2007, the year before the recent recession, and household income peaked in By region, real median household incomes declined in the west by 4.6 percent or $1,412. The northeast (2.4 percent or +$1,412), midwest (-0.1 percent or -$33.00), and south (-2.0 percent or -$3,630) showed nonsignificant changes between 2013 and U.S. median household income levels for each region, the census report adds, are as follows: west ($57,688), northeast ($59,210), midwest ($54,267), and the south ($49,655). 4 In 2014 the official poverty rate was 14.8 percent or 46.7 million people living in poverty, adds the report. The 2014 poverty rate was 2.3 percentage points higher than in 2007, the year before the most recent recession. To calculate poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau uses a set of dollar value thresholds that vary by family size and composition to determine who is in poverty. The report provides the weighted average poverty thresholds in 2014 by size of family: one person, $12,071; two people, $15,379; three people, $18,850; four people, $24,230; five people, $28,695; and six people, $32, This chapter presents ESP salaries by occupational category, institutional type, state, region, and poverty status. In 2012, the U.S.

2 82 THE NEA 2016 ALMANAC OF HIGHER EDUCATION Department of Education re-classified the five ESP categories into 11 occupational categories. 6 These categories include business and financial operations; computer, engineering, and science; community service, legal, arts, and media; librarians, curators, and archivists; teaching and instructional support; healthcare practitioners and technical; service occupations; sales and related; office and administrative support; natural resources, construction, and maintenance; and production, transportation, and material moving. ESP SALARIES BY INSTITUTIONAL TYPE AND OCCUPATION Table 1 presents ESP salaries by institutional type and occupational category. 7 Salaries in the service occupations are lower than pay in any other occupational category: $37,114, $31,861, $37,291, and $34,574 for the two-year, liberal arts, comprehensive, and doctoral institutions, respectively. Office and administrative support ESPs fare only somewhat better: $39,495, $35,956, $38,152, and $39,437. Pay for sales and related positions are slightly higher $42,728, $39,628, $39,655, and $38,421, while average salaries in the natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations are $41,390, $42,212, $43,047, and $47,734. Several occupational categories fall in a middle tier. Average salaries in production, transportation, and material moving are $45,912, $42,083, $45,143, and $43,787. Salaries for librarians, curators, and archivists for the four institutional types are $47,276, $44,964, $45,480, and $52,485, respectively. The average salaries for ESPs in the community service, legal, arts, and media are $50,277, $46,422, $47,290, and $58,229. Healthcare practitioners and technical ESPs earn $50,778, $48,378, $75,549, and $58,008, respectively. Average salaries for ESPs in business and financial operations are $52,714, $51,777, $55,499, and $59,969. Pay for the computer, engineering, and science occupations averages $57,024, $54,924, $58,576, and $62,737, respectively. At two-year colleges, average salaries in teaching and instructional support, the final ESP occupational category, run slightly higher than pay in the other categories: $54,471, $59,011, $81,808, and $75,323. Combining all occupational categories, average salaries range from $37,114 to $57,024 at twoyear colleges the narrowest range $31,861 Table 1. Average Salaries of Non-Instructional Staff (ESPs) by NCES Major Occupational Group and by Institutional Type: ESP Occupation Two-Year Liberal Arts Comprehensive Doctoral Business and Financial Operations $ 52,714 $ 51,777 $ 55,499 $ 59,969 Computer, Engineering, and Science 57,024 54,924 58,576 62,737 Community Service, Legal Arts, and Media 50,277 46,422 47,290 58,229 Librarians, Curators, Archivists 47,276 44,964 45,480 52,485 Teaching and Instructional Support 54,471 59,011 81,808 75,323 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 50,778 48,378 75,549 58,008 Service Occupations 37,114 31,861 37,291 34,574 Sales and Related 42,728 39,628 39,655 38,421 Office and Administrative Support 39,495 35,956 38,152 39,437 Natural Resources, Construction, and Maintenance 41,390 42,212 43,047 47,734 Production, Transportation, and Material Moving 45,912 42,083 45,143 43,787 Source: National Center for Education Statistics, IPEDS Salary Survey,

3 INCOME AND POVERTY: A REGIONAL AND STATE EXAMINATION OF ESP SALARIES 83 to $59,011 at liberal arts colleges; $37,291 to $81,808 at comprehensive colleges the widest range and $34,574 to $75,323 at doctoral universities. ESP SALARIES BY REGION AND OCCUPATION Reporting national data presents challenges, because salaries may vary by state and region, as well as by occupational category. Table 2 reports median salaries of ESPs for 2014 by occupational category, region, and state. Table 3 shows the median salary and the salary ranges for ESPs in 2014, by occupational category and region. Northeast Region Five ESP occupational categories in the northeast region (service occupations; office and administrative support; sales and related positions; natural resources, construction and maintenance; and production, transportation and material moving) report medians below the U.S. median household income of $53,657. Median salaries by occupational category, ranked in ascending order, range from $34,880 in service occupations to $78,655 for teaching and instructional support ESPs. Midwest Region The same five occupational categories in the midwest region are below the median household income. Median salaries by occupational category, ranked in ascending order, range from $32,600 in service occupations to $67,861 for teaching and instructional support ESPs. Median salaries in the midwest were generally lower than the corresponding salaries in the northeast. South Region Only three of the eleven ESP categories show salaries above the U.S. median household income (computer, engineering, and sciences; community service, legal, arts, and media; teaching and instructional support professionals). Median ESP salaries were lowest in the south in nine of the eleven occupational categories. The midwest showed the lowest medians for community service, legal, arts, and media ESPs, and for teaching and instructional support professionals. West Region This region showed only four ESP occupational categories above the U.S. median household income of $53,657 (computer, engineering, and sciences; community service, legal, arts, and media; teaching and instructional support professionals; and healthcare practitioners and technical). The median was highest in the West region in only the computer, engineering, and sciences category. ESP WORKFORCE AND POVERTY STATUS Table 4 reports total ESP numbers for 2014 and the percentage of the ESP workforce living in poverty, by occupational category, region, and state. 8 A family of four earning $24,230 or less annually, according to the U.S. Census, lives in poverty. 9 By this definition, 243,182 or 8.7 percent of the 2,876,687 ESPs in the U.S. workforce live in poverty. Of the 505,476 ESPs in the northeast, 27,517 or 6.11 percent live in poverty. Connecticut has the highest percentage (11.1 percent) of ESPs (4,541) living in poverty. Rhode Island has the smallest ESP workforce (6,926); 340 ESPs, or 5.1 percent live in poverty. Among the 200,038 ESPs in New York the state with the most ESPs in the region 8,936 (4.6 percent) live in poverty. Of the 597,872 ESPs in the midwest, 50,398 or 8.1 percent live in poverty. South Dakota, with the smallest ESP workforce (8,632), has the highest poverty rate in this region (14.1 percent, 1,133 ESPs). Ohio has the most ESPs in the region (94,246); 7.8 percent (6,986) live in poverty. Of the 1,139,019 ESPs working in the south, 105,477 or 8.94 average percent live in poverty. The District of Columbia (D.C.) and the state of Delaware have the smallest ESP workforce

4 84 THE NEA 2016 ALMANAC OF HIGHER EDUCATION Table 2. Average Salaries of Non-Instructional Staff (ESPs) by NCES Major Occupational Group, and by Region and State, 2014 Computer, Community Librarians, Teaching Healthcare Office Business Engineering, Service, Curators, and Practitioners Sales and Resources, Product, and and Legal Arts, and Instructional and Service and Admin. Construct., Transport., State Financial Science and Media Archivists Support Technical Occupations Related Support Maintenance Moving Northeast Region CT $ 67,394 $ 74,885 $ 75,363 $ 63,367 $ 83,511 $ 73,985 $ 48,251 $ 45,175 $ 53,700 $ 60,696 $ 56,254 MA 66,500 71,501 65,161 61,613 83,858 65,497 43,019 49,733 48,498 49,492 60,372 ME 53,938 52,280 47,214 45,608 71,711 48,106 29,302 32,290 33,763 37,534 38,840 NH 52,767 64,424 54,646 50,933 54,916 51,909 33,810 63,992 38,303 41,353 42,057 NJ 72,167 69,941 64,302 63,091 81,709 69,625 27,756 32,163 49,395 47,779 57,534 NY 65,707 67,054 60,468 58,193 78,655 60,435 38,607 43,703 43,128 53,240 51,674 PA 57,307 63,638 54,555 47,983 85,190 48,360 34,932 47,853 37,235 43,323 48,094 RI 58,168 62,204 57,397 56,027 49,529 50,984 34,880 29,183 39,127 42,928 49,076 VT 60,873 57,357 61,120 47,599 77,756 61,120 31,346 34,356 37,763 36,313 42,755 Median 60,873 64,424 60,468 56,027 78,655 60,435 34,880 43,703 39,127 43,323 49,076 Midwest Region IA 54,880 60,222 53,310 50,856 63,215 58,400 34,332 35,761 39,181 47,615 49,064 IL 58,950 62,707 54,964 53,025 67,180 66,024 39,664 43,445 37,257 61,842 61,626 IN 57,261 56,586 54,991 50,381 69,912 54,061 32,041 36,731 33,103 38,824 44,098 KS 46,030 52,499 41,684 45,198 68,709 49,157 28,987 37,899 35,529 38,162 34,844 MI 57,376 62,514 56,563 50,899 61,258 57,975 37,763 36,671 39,940 49,377 55,867 MN 61,829 61,082 52,159 52,866 65,017 50,706 37,051 58,708 40,792 42,660 58,156 MO 50,914 50,979 46,100 42,783 68,541 54,006 29,287 35,389 32,846 40,385 40,437 ND 50,047 57,420 48,245 32,032 76,009 57,154 29,566 35,129 35,340 42,829 39,517 NE 49,776 50,274 50,445 42,390 69,024 48,650 28,446 37,306 35,018 38,314 41,481 OH 51,840 57,710 52,074 45,471 68,830 52,023 33,158 38,902 37,553 40,541 41,835 SD 41,175 48,204 43,369 38,001 60,029 44,900 26,381 30,204 31,512 33,855 33,648 WI 57,627 59,615 52,654 49,508 62,761 55,903 33,482 44,291 39,086 42,286 53,949 Median 53,360 57,565 52,117 47,490 67,861 54,034 32,600 37,019 36,393 41,414 42,967

5 INCOME AND POVERTY: A REGIONAL AND STATE EXAMINATION OF ESP SALARIES 85 Table 2. Average Salaries of Non-Instructional Staff (ESPs) by NCES Major Occupational Group, and by Region and State, 2014 (continued) Computer, Community Librarians, Teaching Healthcare Office Business Engineering, Service, Curators, and Practitioners Sales and Resources, Product, and and Legal Arts, and Instructional and Service and Admin. Construct., Transport., State Financial Science and Media Archivists Support Technical Occupations Related Support Maintenance Moving South Region AL $ 52,959 $ 57,738 $ 52,833 $ 44,464 $ 60,421 $ 46,938 $ 30,205 $ 34,900 $ 34,327 $ 37,034 $ 42,456 AR 43,718 44,785 51,201 44,935 76,084 57,344 23,844 28,516 28,566 29,058 31,543 DC 74,415 75,359 63,381 64,076 69,570 51,287 40,506 45,031 44,827 43,222 49,693 DE 52,128 60,314 57,864 48,325 46,605 69,463 35,331 38,592 37,188 44,737 53,487 FL 49,421 54,287 48,337 44,461 72,041 50,651 29,302 38,137 36,080 36,698 37,073 GA 50,248 61,384 51,401 44,325 66,625 49,654 27,669 32,221 34,093 36,868 38,146 KY 48,475 50,989 53,265 40,827 71,917 46,937 26,221 25,003 33,065 31,256 35,813 LA 46,950 49,513 53,841 43,570 72,207 46,269 27,590 43,042 34,455 31,714 37,267 MD 60,507 67,679 60,266 59,441 83,351 60,974 36,236 37,483 39,412 40,931 43,462 MS 50,551 50,144 52,727 44,121 76,389 49,365 25,573 33,691 30,683 33,874 33,367 NC 59,583 60,170 55,639 50,213 72,618 56,376 30,288 32,568 36,073 34,516 43,147 OK 46,089 47,650 48,529 38,790 61,400 56,261 27,829 29,879 29,969 31,196 35,361 SC 49,121 53,003 48,213 41,196 67,363 49,421 30,726 42,146 35,688 34,436 37,386 TN 51,721 54,874 52,892 45,122 76,935 43,492 26,488 35,874 32,039 33,038 34,453 TX 54,695 58,645 53,213 42,000 84,257 76,453 41,719 40,572 38,335 40,368 42,034 VA 55,168 58,051 45,457 46,990 68,057 54,260 29,338 38,527 36,217 35,748 40,756 WV 46,295 49,916 48,267 42,252 59,658 57,758 25,922 36,668 32,364 35,318 33,346 Median 50,551 54,874 52,833 44,461 71,917 51,287 29,302 36,668 34,455 35,318 37,386 West Region AK 65,161 66,087 55,162 65,732 64,813 72,653 44,644 44,308 48,190 54,974 52,000 AZ 53,319 59,489 54,910 51,193 69,817 58,845 33,880 33,325 40,183 37,349 41,773 CA 68,464 75,005 59,270 55,946 79,207 66,852 43,248 38,464 47,576 54,161 59,713 CO 55,486 65,555 54,870 50,114 68,340 53,692 32,036 40,594 44,506 41,077 48,706 HI 53,722 63,516 58,523 63,710 89,926 67,096 36,807 45,611 38,267 38,434 44,721 ID 47,661 50,330 53,077 41,889 69,830 50,836 27,965 43,188 31,506 33,332 37,849 MT 37,848 44,522 39,621 36,215 66,768 50,100 25,540 26,196 27,830 32,315 39,197 NM 51,344 51,904 49,874 38,619 61,491 53,929 27,756 32,163 33,232 31,750 34,078 NV 64,293 65,264 63,302 56,463 80,908 65,353 37,805 42,481 41,474 50,283 50,231 OR 55,414 59,814 56,275 47,135 67,936 55,972 33,980 35,075 39,117 43,958 48,603 UT 43,415 91,961 34,317 32,266 43,365 43,915 32,266 43,365 34,317 43,915 43,415 WA 46,574 88,778 39,642 34,638 38,388 44,488 34,638 38,388 39,642 44,488 46,575 WY 43, ,397 36,666 31,132 39,836 35,334 31,132 39,836 36,666 35,334 43,086 Median 53,319 65,264 54,870 47,135 67,936 53,929 33,880 39,836 39,117 41,077 44,721 Sources: NCES, IPEDS, Salary Survey, , and Staff Survey, Note: Regions conceptually defined by the U.S. census report (DeNavas-Walt, and Proctor, 2015). Median salaries calculated by author.

6 86 THE NEA 2016 ALMANAC OF HIGHER EDUCATION Table 3. Lowest and Highest Average Salaries of Non-Instructional Staff (ESPs), by NCES Major Occupational Group and by Region ESP Occupation Median Salary Lowest Salary Highest Salary Northeast Region Service Occupations $ 34,880 $ 27,756 $ 48,251 Office and Administrative Support 39,127 33,763 53,700 Natural Resources, Construction, and Maintenance 43,323 36,313 60,696 Sales and Related Positions 43,703 29,183 63,992 Production, Transportation, and Material Moving 49,076 42,057 60,372 Librarians, Curators, and Archivists 56,027 45,608 63,367 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 60,435 48,106 73,985 Community Service, Legal, Arts, and Media 60,468 47,214 75,363 Business and Financial Operations 60,873 52,767 67,394 Computer, Engineering, and Sciences 64,424 52,280 74,885 Teaching and Instructional Support Professionals 78,655 54,916 85,190 Midwest Region Service Occupations 32,600 26,381 39,664 Office and Administrative Support 36,393 31,512 40,792 Sales and Related Positions 37,019 30,204 58,708 Natural Resources, Construction, and Maintenance 41,414 33,855 61,842 Production, Transportation, and Material Moving 42,967 33,648 61,626 Librarians, Curators, and Archivists 47,490 32,032 53,025 Community Service, Legal, Arts, and Media 52,117 41,684 54,991 Business and Financial Operations 53,360 41,175 58,950 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 54,034 44,900 66,024 Computer, Engineering, and Sciences 57,565 48,204 62,707 Teaching and Instructional Support Professionals 67,861 60,029 76,009 South Region Service Occupations 29,302 23,844 41,719 Office and Administrative Support 34,455 28,566 39,412 Natural Resources, Construction, and Maintenance 35,318 29,058 44,737 Sales and Related Positions 36,668 25,003 45,031 Production, Transportation, and Material Moving 37,386 31,543 53,487 Librarians, Curators, and Archivists 44,461 38,790 64,076 Business and Financial Operations 50,551 43,718 74,415 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 51,287 43,492 76,453 Community Service, Legal, Arts, and Media 52,833 45,457 63,381 Computer, Engineering, and Sciences 54,874 44,785 61,384 Teaching and Instructional Support Professionals 71,917 46,605 84,257 West Region Service Occupations 33,880 25,540 44,644 Office and Administrative Support 39,117 27,830 48,190 Sales and Related Positions 39,836 26,196 45,611 Natural Resources, Construction, and Maintenance 41,077 31,750 54,974 Production, Transportation, and Material Moving 44,721 34,078 59,713 Librarians, Curators, and Archivists 47,135 31,132 65,732 Business and Financial Operations 53,319 37,848 68,464 Healthcare Practitioners and Technica 53,929 35,334 72,653 Community Service, Legal, Arts, and Media 54,870 34,317 63,302 Computer, Engineering, and Sciences 65,264 44, ,397 Teaching and Instructional Support Professionals 67,936 38,388 80,908 Sources: NCES, IPEDS, Salary Survey, , and Staff Survey, Note: Regions conceptually defined by the U.S. census report (DeNavas-Walt, and Proctor, 2015).

7 INCOME AND POVERTY: A REGIONAL AND STATE EXAMINATION OF ESP SALARIES 87 in the region, 3,911 and 7,474, respectively. D.C. and Delaware have 268 and 450 ESPs living in poverty (7.0 percent and 6.1 percent, respectively). Florida has the largest ESP workforce (142,825); 11,690 or 8.3 percent live in poverty. Arkansas has the highest percentage (12 percent) of ESPs (3,819) living in poverty. The west has an ESP workforce of 659,984; 60,696 or 9.85 percent live in poverty (Table 4). Wyoming has the smallest ESP workforce (9,746); 1,237 or 13.4 percent live in poverty. California has the region s largest ESP workforce (315,362); 27,250 or 8.8 percent are living in poverty. The state with the largest proportion of ESPs living in poverty is New Mexico (16.2 percent or 3,952). PRESIDENTIAL COMPENSATION AND ESP POVERTY From 2013 to 2014, ESP salaries by region declined or showed no significant increase. But The median salary for public college presidents rose 7 percent to $428,000 median base pay for the same time. 10, 11 Total presidential compensation base pay and benefits, bonus, deferred compensation paid out, and severance was 50 times the median student tuition. The range: from times tuition at Florida State University to times tuition at the main campus of the University of South Florida. 12 Here are the compensation packages for the presidents of public universities in four states with the highest ESP poverty levels in their region: 13 Connecticut (northeast region): Susan Herbst, University of Connecticut, $575,000 in total compensation or times the median student tuition, served in office since May State ESP salaries rose 2.4 percent. South Dakota (midwest region): James Abbott, University of South Dakota, $354,567, 44.2 times the median tuition, served since July State ESP salaries declined by 0.1 percent. Arkansas (south region): G. David Gearhart, University of Arkansas at Fayettville, $330,150 or times the median tuition, served since July State ESP salaries declined by 2.0 percent. New Mexico (west region): Garrey Carruthers, University of New Mexico, Las Cruces, $385,000 or 61.9 times the median tuition, served since June State ESP salaries declined by 4.6 percent. CONCLUSION Here s what we know: The U.S. median household income is $53,657, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. A family of four earning $24,230 or less annually is deemed as living in poverty (weighted average threshold in 2014). Of the 2,876,687 ESPs in the workforce, 243,182 individuals or 8.7 percent live in poverty across the U.S. Five ESP occupational categories tend to pay less than the U.S. median household income: service occupations; sales and related positions; office and administrative support; natural resources, construction and maintenance; and production, transportation and material moving. The state with the lowest percent of ESPs living in poverty is New Jersey, and the state with highest percent of ESPs living in poverty is New Mexico. Finally, presidential compensation packages continue to rise well above ESP salary increases and poverty levels. Two scholars have proposed a five-tier categorization of chronic poverty: the always poor (below the poverty line in each time period), the usually poor (lower than the poverty line, but not in every time period), the churning poor (around the poverty line; poor in some periods though not in others), the occasionally poor (above the poverty line but experienced at least one time period in poverty), and the never poor (above the poverty line in all time periods). The authors aggregated these five categories into three primary areas, the chronic poor (always, usually), the transient poor (churning, occasionally), and the non-poor (never poor to always wealthy). 14 Here s what we don t know. Into which of the two aggregated categories of poverty the chronic poor or the transient poor fall the many ESPs currently living below the poverty line?

8 88 THE NEA 2016 ALMANAC OF HIGHER EDUCATION Table 4. Total ESP Workforce and Number and Percentage of ESPs Below the Poverty Level, by Region and State, 2014 Number ESPs Percent ESPs State Total ESP Workforce Below Poverty Below Poverty Northeast Region CT 42,594 4, % MA 55,647 3, ME 11, NH 12, NJ 82,132 2, NY 200,038 8, PA 86,280 6, RI 6, VT 7, Totals 505,476 27, (Percent Average) Midwest Region IA 32,674 3, IL 114,949 10, IN 56,453 4, KS 38,544 3, MI 76,127 7, MN 51,037 3, MO 49,145 3, ND 9, NE 19,000 1, OH 94,246 6, SD 8,632 1, WI 47,848 3, Totals 597,872 50, (Percent Average)

9 INCOME AND POVERTY: A REGIONAL AND STATE EXAMINATION OF ESP SALARIES 89 Table 4. Total ESP Workforce and Number and Percentage of ESPs Below the Poverty Level, by Region and State, 2014 (continued) Number ESPs Percent ESPs State Total ESP Workforce Below Poverty Below Poverty South Region AL 42,594 4, % AR 32,377 3, DC 3, DE 7, FL 142,825 11, GA 95,462 9, KY 52,029 4, LA 44,347 4, MD 55,429 2, MS 55,647 3, NC 94,601 8, OK 43,659 5, SC 43,284 4, TN 53,875 5, TX 266,457 28, VA 84,184 6, WV 20,864 1, Totals 1,139, , (Percent Average) West Region AK 10, AZ 58,055 5, CA 315,362 27, CO 46,351 4, HI 14,377 1, ID 15,990 1, MT 10, NM 25,111 3, NV 19,269 1, OR 36,338 4, UT 31,102 2, WA 67,465 5, WY 9,746 1, Totals 659,984 60, (Percent Average) Source: NEA ESP Data Book, 2014, chapter 8, tables 13-8a and 13-8b, Note: Regions conceptually defined by the U.S. census report (DeNavas-Walt, and Proctor, 2015). Median salaries calculated by author.

10 90 THE NEA 2016 ALMANAC OF HIGHER EDUCATION NOTES 1 Rosser, Rosser, DeNavas-Walt and Proctor, Ibid. 5 Ibid, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, Ibid. 8 National Education Association, DeNavas-Walt and Proctor, McKenna, Kambhampati, 2015a. 12 Kambhampati, 2015b. 13 Ibid. 14 Hulme and Shepherd, REFERENCES DeNavas-Walt, C., and B.D. Proctor. Income and Poverty in the United States: Report P Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, September, 2015, 1-2, 6, 8, 43. Hulme, D. and A. Shepherd. Conceptualizing Chronic Poverty. World Development 31 (3) (2003), Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System Human Resources (HR) Occupational Categories Compared with IPEDS HR Primary Function/Occupational Activity Categories. ed.gov/ipeds/resource/download/ipeds_hr_ _compared_to_ipeds_hr_ pdf. Kambhampati, S. Rising Pay for Presidents Draws Public Scrutiny. Chronicle of Higher Education (June 7, 2015a). Presidents/230703?cid=megamenu., Executive Compensation at Public and Private Colleges. Chronicle of Higher Education (June 8, 2015b). public_2014. McKenna, L. The College President-to-Adjunct Pay Ratio. The Atlantic (September 24, 2015). income-inequality-in-higher-education-the-collegepresident-to-adjunct-pay-ratio/407029/. National Education Association. ESP Data Book: A Workforce and Membership Profile of Education Support Professionals. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 2014, Rosser, V.J. Promotions: Offsetting ESP Income Shortfalls. NEA 2014 Almanac of Higher Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 2014, , A Living Wage for Educational Support Professionals. NEA 2015 Almanac of Higher Education. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 2015,