Head marking and dependent marking
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1 Head marking and dependent marking Armin W. Buch /01/16 1 Relying heavily on material by Manfred Krifka, Gerhard Jäger and David Erschler
2 Types of between Constituents: Government morphological features are only relevant to the dependent construction and not to the head Data from ancient Greek: 1. ana skē:prt-ō: (DAT) upon a staff 2. apo tou hipp-ou (GEN) from a horse 3. en Spart-ē (DAT) in Sparta 4. eis basil-ea (ACC) to the King here, prepositions carry no special morphology obligatory marking on the dependent (here: noun) prepositions govern a particular case
3 Types of between Constituents: Agreement morphological features occur on head and dependent alike Data from Spanish: 1. la elefanta negr-a the black elephant 2. las elefantas negr-as the black elephants 3. el gato negr-o the black cat 4. los gatos negr-os the black cats article and adjective occur in a form that corresponds to the head noun they all agree in number and gender
4 Head vs. dependent marking Consider the following possessive constructions: (1) az ember h az-a the man house-3s the man s house in, English the possessor (i.e. the modifier) is marked dependent marking in Hungarian, the possessee is (i.e. the head noun) is marked head marking syntactic relations are identical: a head noun is modified by a possessor
5 Heads and Dependents possessed noun possessor noun modifying adjective adposition complementing NP predicate arguments & adjuncts auxiliary verb lexical verb main-clause predicate subordinate clause
6 Heads and Dependents possessed noun possessor predicate arguments & adjuncts WALS concentrates on these two
7 Locus The locus of the marking can be on the head on the dependent on neither on both
8 Verbs and their arguments WALS 23 More precisely, this feature is about direct objects It treats overt morphological marking, not about syntax (word order)
9 Head marking
10 Dependent marking
11 Double marking
12 No marking
13 Others A free morpheme marking the object: A clitic attaching to whatever word precedes the object:
14 NPs with a possessor WALS 24 In languages with several constructions, the most general has been chosen
15 Head marking While person and number agreement is common, there are languages without:
16 Dependent marking
17 Double marking Double marking combines the strategies seen before
18 No marking
19 No marking Free morphemes count as no morphological marking Tiwi has a similar construction, alternative to the one above
20 Others In Chamorro, a linking morpheme attaches to the first word This position independent of head/dependent status is witnessed by other head-dependent structures with free order
21 Language classification by locus WALS 25 summarizes 23 and 24 Even within only two features (WALS 23 and 24), half of the languages are inconsistent in their locus of marking The rest show some areal effects (which can explain similarity by mutual influence or genetic relationship) Therefore, locus is not universally uniform
22 Language change Locus parameters seem to be fairly stable over time (Nichols 1992) As a possible example of change, consider German vom, zum, zur, am,... Gradual loss of case in nouns, preserved in articles article merges with preposition head marking still phonologically blocked for most combinations of preposition and article (no an + DET.FEM etc.), but obligatory where possible Colloquial German allows more contractions (mi m, auf n)
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Armin W. Buch 1 2012/11/28 1 Relying heavily on material by Gerhard Jäger and David Erschler Linguistic Properties shared by all languages Trivial: all languages have consonants and vowels More interesting:
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