8. First the Sugar, Then the Eggs Or the Other Way Round? Mixing Methods in International Business Research

Transcription

1 8. First the Sugar, Then the Eggs Or the Other Way Round? Mixing Methods in International Business Research Leila Hurmerinta-Peltomäki and Niina Nummela INTRODUCTION Methodology is always a controversial topic among researchers, and in particular the idea that various methods might be combined has provoked a rather lively debate. Those with a background in qualitative methods have been the prime initiators of the discussion, which is not completely neutral, however, because the roles of qualitative and quantitative methods seem quite fixed (see Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). It is commonly assumed that if methods are mixed, the main one is quantitative and the qualitative results are supplementary and somehow subordinate. Given this underlying assumption, it is not surprising that the qualitative part of the study is sometimes not reported at all, as it is considered mainly a source of preunderstanding (for example, Birkinshaw, Chapter 28 this volume). Nevertheless, a growing number of studies in the field of international business confirm that there are alternative ways of using mixed methods. The aim of this chapter is to familiarise the reader with methodological pluralism and its philosophical background. Alternative ways of mixing qualitative and quantitative methods are also introduced, and some examples are given. The examples all comprise case study research, which is the dominant qualitative method in international business research (Andersen and Skaates, Chapter 23 this volume). The chapter ends with a discussion about and conclusions on the potential of mixed methods in international business research. The title of this chapter compares the researcher to the baker because, in our opinion, the choice to mix methods could apply to both. Certain traditional, unwritten and almost compulsory norms exist in the culinary field 162

2 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 163 and in academic research. However, an increasing number of actors in both are seeking variation and argue that deviation from strict rules and novel, even bold experiments would open up interesting new arenas. BACKGROUND FOR MIXED METHODS TO MIX OR NOT TO MIX? The methodological background of international business (IB) research lies in other sciences, particularly in the social sciences. Researchers in these fields have been actively discussing the use of mixed methodology, and diverse schools of thought have emerged. Opinions vary considerably, the opposite ends of the continuum being the purists and the pragmatists (Creswell 1994; Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). A similar type of division exists in the culinary arts between distinguished and experienced bakers who stick to the well-known recipes and newcomers who rebel against contemporary traditions and norms. The distinguishing characteristics of these schools are both philosophical and methodological (Patton 1990). According to the strictest purists, methodological decisions are not made in isolation, but are always related to the researcher s assumptions of the phenomenon itself (ontology), the basis of the knowledge (epistemology), and the relationship between human beings and their environment (compare Burrell and Morgan 1979). Thus, a researcher with a positivist/objective approach emphasises the methods and values of research in the natural sciences and is bound to adopt quantitative methods. On the other hand, a researcher with a constructivist/subjectivist orientation attempts to get as close as possible to the phenomenon in question in order to acquire a more hermeneutic understanding (for more on hermeneutic research design, see, for example, Gummesson 1991). This, in turn, requires the use of qualitative methods (for example, Burrell and Morgan 1979; Lee 1989). Consequently, purists also argue that compatibility between quantitative and qualitative methods is impossible because of the underlying different paradigms (Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). A few scientists have made even higher demands, arguing that methods must be consistent with the epistemological presumptions of the researcher, the theory and the research problem (Arbnor and Bjerke 1997; Brannen 1992). However, some of them do admit that the philosophical assumptions of the researcher seldom determine the choice of method, and acknowledge that this is usually affected by several practical limitations (Brannen 1992). This concession brings us closer to the other end of the continuum, the pragmatists. Pragmatists argue that researchers should use both paradigms effectively in order to increase their understanding of the phenomenon in question

3 164 Case Study Research (compare Creswell 1994). For them, the starting point in the method selection is the research problem. In other words, the method either a single one or a combination should be selected based on its theoretical relevance (compare Denzin 1978). Additionally, the selection of mixed methods should be based on the fact that important elements of the research problem would remain unresolved if only one method were used (Bryman 1992). Thus, the aim of mixing methods is to capture a complete, holistic picture of the subject matter, presumably with a view to uncovering something that might have been missed with a simpler research design (Jick 1979). Furthermore, according to the pragmatists, mixing methods encourages the researcher to find innovative solutions. It may, for example, open his or her eyes to alternative, unexpected interpretations of reality. Different perspectives are likely to produce some elements that do not fit a theory, a model or previous understanding, and divergent results promote deeper, more complex and less evident explanations (Jick 1979; Patton 1990). It has also been argued that different methods complement each other and thus increase the validity of the findings (Bryman 1992; Denzin 1978; Eisenhardt 1989; Jick 1979; Lincoln and Guba 1985; Patton 1990). However, the effectiveness depends on how well the weakness of one method is compensated by the strength of another (Creswell 1994; Denzin 1978; Jick 1979). For pragmatists, then, the end justifies the means: that is to say, purity of method is less important than dedication to relevant and useful information (Patton 1990). At the moment, it seems that the number of pragmatists has been growing among social scientists (Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). In the field of international business, the interest of researchers often lies in very complex and multi-faceted phenomena. Therefore, in our opinion, particularly in this field, researchers should take advantage of the possibilities of mixed methods in order to increase their understanding of the subject matter. In other words, the use of innovative recipes and combinations of ingredients would often be more than welcome. TRIANGULATION THE CORE CONCEPT IN MIXING METHODS A dear child has many names, they say. In the social sciences, the combination of diverse methodological approaches has been discussed in various terms, such as multiple methods, mixed methods, multi-method research and methodological mix (Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). What is probably the most common concept, however, is triangulation. The terms triangulation and mixed methods are used synonymously in this chapter, given that mixed methods represent one form of triangulation. Denzin (1978) classified the concept of triangulation into four basic types,

4 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 165 according to the focus: (1) data, (2) investigator, (3) theory and (4) methodological triangulation. He further divides methodological triangulation into within-method and between- or across-method triangulation, the first referring to the use of multiple research strategies within one methodological approach (for example, participant observation and interviews). This study concentrates particularly on across-method triangulation, which refers to the use of two or more methods in a single piece of research (for example, survey and cases). Researchers in the social sciences (for example, Denzin 1978) and organisational research (for example, Jick 1979) often refer to the seminal works of Campbell and Fiske (1959) and Webb et al. (1966) when defining triangulation. A generally accepted definition is the one put forward by Denzin (1978), which states that it refers to the use of multiple methods in the study of the same object (for example, a company). Jick (1979) applied this definition to organisational research, and argues that it means the use of multiple methods in a study, but with a view to examining the same dimension of a research problem, that is, the same subject (for example, internationalisation). Even though Jick s definition resembles Denzin s, there is a clear difference in focus. In our opinion, triangulation in IB research may be applied both in studies in which the subject or object is the same, and in those with different subjects and objects. This issue is discussed in detail later in this chapter. HOW SHOULD WE MIX QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS? Researchers who decide to apply mixed methods in their studies should address a few elementary questions before proceeding to the actual data collection. These relate to the order, role and purpose (Figure ). In terms of our baking metaphor, it is sometimes very important to add the ingredients in the correct order, as this determines the end result. Sometimes it is sensible to use a sequential mode: the different methods follow each other in the research process, and the researcher first collects qualitative, then quantitative data, or vice versa (Hirsjärvi and Hurme 2001; Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). Further, the role of different ingredients in the dough, or in the method, may vary. The study may be a balanced aggregate, in which all methods are equal in importance, or one method may play a bigger role, that is, it has a dominant versus a less dominant method design (compare Creswell 1994). In this situation, the data collected using the dominant method is the main source of information. On the other hand, the researcher may obtain valuable additional information using the less dominant method. For example, he or

5 166 Case Study Research she may decide to conduct a qualitative expert interview early on in order to acquire pre-understanding for a quantitative survey. Both balanced and biased solutions may serve well in a mixed-method study. Order Sequential Parallel Decisions Related to Mixed Methods Role Equal Dominant / Less Dominant Purpose Knowledge Based Topic Related Method Related Figure 8.1 Key decisions in studies using mixed methods Finally, an experienced baker is aware of the effect of each ingredient and thus may be able to modify the original recipe slightly in order to improve the end result. Using mixed methods in research also requires methodological knowledge because all methods usually serve their own purpose. The purposes for using mixed methods can be classified as knowledge based, topic related and method related. Each of these has its roots either in the theory or in the empirical phenomenon under study. When the study focuses on a subject on which considerable theoretical research has been conducted, the purpose is knowledge based and closely related to prior theory, such as hypothesis testing (compare our example 4 below). On the other hand, empirical evidence sometimes exists, but no specific theory about it has yet been developed. In this case, too, the purpose is knowledge based (compare the quantitative part of our example 2). In both of the cases mentioned, the purpose is to build on an existing knowledge base, which has been created by systematic theoretical or empirical research. Topic-related purposes can be identified in situations where some information either theoretical or empirical is available but is insufficient or scattered. While no researcher starts with a tabula rasa, there may be little existing knowledge to draw on. Consequently, topic-related purposes reflect the researcher s need to become acquainted with a phenomenon that is either very new or as yet rather unexplored. The study may apply existing theories to a novel context (for example, innovation theories in internationalisation,

6 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 167 compare the qualitative part of our example 2), or it may be exploratory. A typical example of the latter is an inductive case study, which aims at acquiring pre-understanding. The purpose of triangulation may also be method related. The use of mixed methods may be obligatory for technical reasons, such as when the population of potential study objects is unknown. A quantitative survey may be the only way to identify theoretically interesting cases, as in our example 1. However, in that study as in many others the data collected using the less-dominant method also facilitated and inspired the interpretation of the findings and improved the theoretical discussion. To conclude, regardless of their purpose, all studies using mixed methods aim at a similar end result: to validate the research results, to complement each other, to inspire the research process and/or to facilitate interpretation of the results (compare Hirsjärvi and Hurme 2001). Examples from existing empirical studies are presented in the following sections in order to demonstrate the variety of purposes in mixed methods. MOVING BACK AND FORTH BETWEEN METHODS In this section we briefly introduce to the reader four empirical studies in international business in which mixed methods have been applied. In selecting the examples we deliberately decided to focus on doctoral dissertations (Hurmerinta-Peltomäki 2001; Lindqvist 1991; Nummela 2000; Ridderstråle 1996) because the description of the methods used is often rather short and superficial in other types of publications, mainly due to space limitations. Additionally, the authors own dissertations offered the opportunity to reflect on their personal experiences in the text. The other two dissertations were included in order to illustrate the variety and innovativeness of research design. As stated earlier, most qualitative research in the field of international business has involved case studies, and it seemed natural to restrict our examples to this type of investigation. As the focus of this article is on methods, the emphasis is on methodological solutions, not on empirical results. Example 1: From a Quantitative Pilot Study to In-depth Cases The objective of Nummela s study (2000) was to promote deeper understanding of small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) commitment to export cooperation. The empirical part was a mixture of a quantitative pilot study and a qualitative case study based on two in-depth cases. The pilot study was supplementary, offering a broad overview of SME export cooperation, and particularly creating a pre-understanding of partners

7 168 Case Study Research commitment to it. This pre-understanding helped in selecting meaningful and interesting cases for the qualitative study, as well as in facilitating the interpretation of the results. The dominant data-collection method was the case method. The empirical data for both the pilot study and the cases was collected from Finnish export circles, which are cooperative arrangements organised and governed by a semi-public organisation, FINPRO. The pilot study included all firms that had participated in the export circles during the years , and that met certain criteria, resulting in a total of 326 companies. They were all contacted by telephone and the respondents were asked to participate in a structured telephone interview. The majority agreed, and the response rate was 87 per cent. On the basis of the findings of the pilot study, the firms were divided into three groups according to their level of commitment: high, moderate or low. In line with previous research on inter-firm cooperation, commitment and satisfaction turned out to be key elements of export cooperation, although the association between them is much more complicated. Thus, these two concepts were used as key criteria in the case selection. The data collected in the pilot study were reviewed in the first caseselection phase, and the respondents who had described their export network as excellent or weak were separated from the others in order to find extreme cases of export cooperation. These firms were then analysed in more detail, and were divided into two groups in the second phase: satisfied and not satisfied. The next screening phases focused on firms from export circles with more than one satisfied partner, since this group appeared to offer more fertile research material. Two cases were then selected in the final screening phase. They offered good grounds for comparison, since in the first one the partners were quite unanimous, whereas in the second their satisfaction with the cooperation varied. A closer look at the two export circles and at the partners commitment to export cooperation confirmed the selection. In case A, the level of satisfaction varied, but the level of commitment was relatively similar. On the other hand, all of the partners in case B were quite satisfied, but their commitment varied noticeably. In sum, the selected cases appeared to offer two different but interesting perspectives on commitment to export cooperation. Consequently, representatives of each partner firm in both networks were interviewed. The researcher also had the opportunity to discuss issues related to export cooperation with the personnel of FINPRO, which was responsible for the governance and financial support of export circles. The interview data was complemented with documentary material from the archives of FINPRO and the companies concerned. To conclude, two methods were combined in order to study the same

8 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 169 object, companies that had participated in FINPRO export circles. The order was sequential and the role of the qualitative approach was dominant, as the face-to-face interviews with the key informants in both case networks clearly dominated the acquisition of information. However, each method had a slightly different purpose. The qualitative method embraced the research problem as a whole, that is, it had a topic-related purpose, whereas the quantitative part, in particular, facilitated the case selection: thus it had a method-related purpose. Example 2: From a Survey-tested Hypothesis to In-depth Cases The objective of Hurmerinta-Peltomäki s study (2001) was to investigate the export adoption lag 2 in the internationalisation process of industrial small businesses by emphasising the time-related approach. Accordingly, the subobjectives were to identify, describe and understand the existence and appearance of the shortened export adoption lag, and to describe and understand the influence of the individual s and/or the organisational past (as antecedents of a shortened adoption lag) on the export adoption process. The study was longitudinal and it was divided into two phases, a quantitative phase (mail survey and telephone interviews) combined with a qualitative case study of six SMEs (two rounds of interviews, the second four years after the first). Each stage was intended to provide knowledge and give a reason for further research. Pre-understanding, that is, insight into the problem area, was acquired by familiarisation with the theory and with previous studies on the subject. As a result, the first research question was refined as follows: how should the phenomenon of a shortened export adoption lag be understood in industrial small business internationalisation? At this phase, the focus was on the export adoption construct. The empirical part of the study started with testing the hypothesis: The export adoption lag has been shortened among small and medium-sized industrial firms in south-western Finland. The basic data for the study was collected through a mail survey in 1989 and it was based on the responses of 556 firms. The response rate exceeded 21 per cent. The study rested on two variables the year of establishment and the year of export start both of which had to be provided by the respondents. Excluding the incomplete questionnaires, the final number was 133. The findings of the survey indicated that the hypothesis was supported, that is, at the organisational level the export adoption lag was shortened. However, the majority of studies on the export adoption lag had been confined to the organisational level. This may have led to rather superficial analysis, because in a small firm the individual, that is, the owner manager, has a decisive role. Deeper analysis of the phenomenon of the shortened export adoption lag was required, particularly from an individual

9 170 Case Study Research perspective, and therefore more inductive research was called for. This was achieved through case interviews (first round) on the assumption that the true length and content of the export adoption lag in a small firm may be different than was revealed in the findings of the survey. A round of telephone interviews preceded the first round of interviews in the case companies. This was an important part of the research process because it facilitated the completion of unanswered questions in the survey, the updating of the company data and, most importantly, the selection of the cases. A total of six cases were selected based on theoretical usability and availability. The first round of interviews gave a deeper insight into the time of export adoption. They showed how important it was to look at the individual or organisational past rather than only the present. They also increased understanding of the original hypothesis, and raised some further questions about the influence of the individual and/or organisational histories on the internationalisation process. As a result, the second research question was thus refined as: What is the influence of the individual and/or organisational past on a firm s export adoption process?. Another round of interviews was subsequently conducted four years later in the same case firms, focusing on the export adoption lag on both the organisational and individual levels. This time, the emphasis was on the internationalisation process. This second round of interviews strengthened the observations made after the first round. The case analysis also indicated that the nature of the experience of the owner manager dictates how quickly and how far along the export adoption process the firm is able to go. Thus, triangulation was ensured in this study by using a combination of research methods. The initial findings, and also the methods, inspired the process. The contributions of the sources of information and methods to each objective were partly overlapping. The order of applying the different methods could be described as sequential. The research process was not originally planned in several stages, but the need to expand it arose during the process. Thus, in terms of role, the quantitative part gave way to the qualitative part. In other words, the objectives for each stage were finalised only at the end of the study. The purpose of the mail survey (quantitative part 1) was knowledge based, that is, to test the hypothesis and to verify the basis for further studies, while that of the telephone calls after the survey (quantitative part 2) was to validate the results from the survey and to find cases for the qualitative study, thus it was method related. As the qualitative part aimed at understanding export adoption lag at the individual level a phenomenon yet unexplored its purpose was topic related. The first round of interviews helped in the interpretation of the results of the survey, thereby clarifying the theoretical

10 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 171 construct of the export adoption lag, as the obvious explanations were not immediately acceptable. The interviews also raised questions for further research. The second round had its own research objective in addition to validating the results of the first interviews. Altogether, the qualitative part of the study furthered the research objectives in that investigation of the same subject and object resulted in a deeper understanding of the phenomenon in question. Example 3: Cases and Survey Intertwined The objective of Ridderstråle s study (1996) was to describe and analyse how multinational companies organise and manage international innovation projects (IIPs). This was divided into two sub-objectives: to describe different modes of organisation and managing international innovation projects and to find patterns in the effects of the various forms, particularly in terms of the critical problems faced by project managers and members. The study combines a qualitative multiple-case study and a quantitative survey. The research process started with a literature review that gave the study a preliminary purpose. The next step was the multiple-case study, the cases being innovation projects at two multinational corporations (MNCs). The selection of cases was based on theoretical sampling. Two MNCs, ABB and Electrolux, were selected in order to compare the key elements in different administrative structures. On the other hand, it was advantageous to have more than one project in a firm in order to be able to identify different types of requirements and approaches to coordination within the same organisation. The innovation projects selected were mid-range, that is, neither slow, incremental innovations nor revolutionary breakthroughs. Potential market novelty was also used as a selection criterion: the researcher searched for heterogeneous cases in this respect. The projects selected were followed in real time, using a longitudinal research approach. The primary case study data were collected through interviews and observation. Given the research problem, it was critical to talk to a variety of people in different positions representing different countries and functions in order to obtain multiple viewpoints. The researcher conducted a considerable number of semi-structured interviews (62 in ABB, 21 in Electrolux) in many countries. The interviewees were selected using the snowball technique. Additionally, secondary data was obtained from documentation and archival records. The empirical data collection in the first case project functioned as a pilot study, and the interview questions were subsequently refined and improved. Next, the researcher decided to supplement the cases with a quantitative survey in order to obtain additional data and further develop the interpretations and ideas in the light of a larger sample. The aims of the

11 172 Case Study Research survey could be summarised as follows: to describe the characteristics of IIPs, to identify the problems perceived to be most important and most difficult to solve, and the perceived advantages and disadvantages, and to assess perceived success. For the quantitative survey, 20 MNCs were contacted and usable responses were received from 11, with data on 32 IIPs in total. The data from the survey were used mainly for descriptive purposes. Mixed methods were not an obvious solution in this study. On the contrary, the researcher initially considered starting with a more quantitative approach. However, because the knowledge of the innovation process was rich but fragmented, the creation of an integrated set of testable and meaningful hypotheses would have been difficult. A combination of methods was used instead, and quantitative data complemented the case-based interpretations. The researcher points out that the use of multiple sources of evidence increased the validity of the study. It is also possible that the use of mixed methods led him to choose a less common reporting structure for his dissertation. Instead of the traditional theoretical start, followed by empirical observations and analysis, the phases of the innovation process were used as the primary structuration principle. In conclusion, the order of qualitative and quantitative methods was parallel. The value of this emerged in the analysis as both quantitative and qualitative data complemented each other. However, the qualitative method had the dominant role, as the case studies were the main source of information. Both methods were used to study the same subject, but within this broad subject matter they had specific, topic-related purposes (see also Birkinshaw, Chapter 28 this volume for a similar type of design). Methodologically, the object of the study was different in the qualitative and quantitative parts, as the case companies ABB and Electrolux were not included in the survey. Example 4: From Case-based Hypotheses to Testing by Survey Lindqvist s (1991) study started with a literature review showing that there had been few studies on the combined effect of a limited firm size and technology intensity on internationalisation behaviour. Thus, the main purpose was twofold: to describe the international behaviour of young technology-based Swedish firms in terms of speed of internationalisation, pattern of market selection and choice of foreign-entry form, and to analyse variations in internationalisation behaviour in an attempt to understand the factors that might explain them. The firms included in the study were selected according to four criteria: size, age, share of R&D and exports, and independence. The study was divided into two empirical phases: qualitative case studies

12 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 173 and a quantitative survey. In order to develop a basic understanding of the process, personal interviews were first conducted with managers of 15 small, technology-based firms. The researcher decided after 15 interviews that further ones would add only a limited amount of information, and therefore the number of cases was not extended. The data collection was based on several different types of data sources, consisting of primary (interviews and written material produced for both internal and external use) and secondary material, although on a very limited scale. By conducting the personal interviews it was possible to explore the relatively complex process of internationalisation and the influence of firm and industry characteristics over time. The first case could be regarded as a pilot study, since a more extended case description was developed after the interviews, which were conducted with representatives of the firm and of some of its foreign distributors. The remaining 14 interviews were carried out in order to develop illustrative mini-cases. They revealed that the process was influenced by a number of factors other than size and technology, such as ownership structure, previous experience and industry structure. In order to further explore the possible effects of industry structure, two of the mini-cases were expanded into industry studies, comprising interviews, in person or by telephone, with competitors and industry experts. Overall, these case studies gave an initial understanding of the process of internationalisation and they were used during the development of the questionnaire. In the second phase, a mail survey was sent to a larger number of small, technology-based firms. A response rate of 66 per cent was achieved and the final sample comprised 144 firms. The purpose of the mail survey was twofold. The first, which was based on previous research and empirical observations from the exploratory phase of the study, was to develop and test a number of hypotheses concerning the possible effects of internal firm characteristics and industry structure on international behaviour. The second aim was to describe the process of internationalisation in a more systematic way, thereby complementing the mini-cases and the industry studies. This increased the generalisability of the results. A number of possible explanations for the rapid speed of internationalisation was identified during the case analysis. Since internationalisation is a longitudinal and iterative process, a cross-sectional survey was perceived to capture only certain aspects of it. To overcome some of the methodological shortcomings of a mail survey, the researcher returned to the case studies, which brought her closer to process-oriented research (compare example 2 earlier). In her view, the case studies facilitated the interpretation of the findings of the mail survey and, by combining the strengths of each method, gave a more complete picture of the

13 174 Case Study Research internationalisation process. In sum, the order of methods in this study was sequential: first the qualitative pilot study and the in-depth case studies and then the quantitative survey. The sequence was clear, and the role of the approaches could be described as equal. The qualitative part of this study had versatile topicrelated purposes. First, it had an important role in the hypothesis formulation; it explored the research field and the cases assisted in the creation of the questionnaire. On the other hand, the interpretation of the survey results emerged from the mini-cases. The research project could be described as a cycle in which the explanation and further understanding of the survey results followed from the case studies (compare example 2). The hypotheses were tested with the quantitative survey, thus this method mainly served a knowledge-based purpose. To conclude, the four examples illustrate diverse alternatives in the use of mixed methods in IB research. The main decisions concerning the use of mixed methods order, role and purpose are summarised in Table 8.1. As the table indicates, all the examples were studies in which the role of the qualitative method was either dominant over or equal to that of the quantitative method. This is slightly contradictory to the majority of studies using mixed methods, in which the quantitative part is often dominant. However, as our aim was to illustrate the potential of mixed methods from the viewpoint of qualitative research, it seemed appropriate to use examples with a qualitative emphasis. Table 8.1 Order, role and purpose of methods in the examples Example Order of data collection Role of methods 1 Sequential Qualitative dominant 2 Sequential Qualitative dominant 3 Parallel Qualitative dominant Main purpose of each method QUANT: QUAL: QUANT 1: QUANT 2: QUAL: QUAL: QUANT: 4 Sequential Equal QUAL: QUANT: Method related Topic related Knowledge based Method related Topic related Topic related Topic related Topic related Knowledge based Table 8.1 also points out the linkage between the order, role and purpose of methods and the research question. From the perspective of the researcher, the use of mixed methods may be an interesting alternative but also

14 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 175 sometimes a must. Without triangulation, the research problem could not have been solved, or at least the information acquired would probably have been biased, insufficient or even misleading. The level of understanding we finally reach is affected by the method that we choose to use. The use of method is influenced by method-specific characteristics as well as the purpose (knowledge based, topic related or method related). The purpose has its roots in the research question and the level of understanding, and none of these three key constructs may be treated separately from the others. The choice of type of triangulation also depends on what kind of understanding is aimed at. First, if the objective is to arrive at a preunderstanding, we could study the same subject matter in different empirical objects. In this case, the qualitative part would typically come first. A case in point is example 4 above. Second, if the researcher is aiming at a deep understanding of the phenomenon, he/she probably studies the same subject and object by combining various methods. Example 2 illustrates this well, and also shows that quantitative data may be collected first. Third, if the aim is to give a broad, holistic picture, we could focus on one study object but analyse it from diverse perspectives. For example, if we would like to study the growth of a geographically dispersed multinational company from a longterm perspective, we should consider diverse viewpoints and use various methods. A similar approach might be applicable in analyses of cross-cultural phenomena, which often offer rich material from several theoretical perspectives, and multiple methods. Because of time constraints, this would perhaps require the parallel use of different methods. THE CHALLENGES OF MIXING METHODS Our examples pointed out the strengths and potential advantages of mixed methods, but also demonstrated some of the critical challenges. Mixing methods is by no means easy. First, triangulation should only be used if it helps in solving the research problem. This requires the researcher to have sufficient conceptual and theoretical knowledge of the phenomenon under scrutiny (Jick 1979). Second, several researchers have pointed out that intertwining findings from multiple methods is a complicated process (for example, Bryman 1992; Creswell 1994; Jick 1979). One of the problems is that the results do not necessarily converge. What should the researcher do, then? No general guidelines exist on how different types of data should be weighted, for example. This in the end becomes a matter for the researcher s own judgement, although any evaluation should not be subjective, but rather based on the researcher s first-hand knowledge of the field. We agree with the quite common argument that quantitative and

15 176 Case Study Research qualitative approaches produce different types of data, and would like to add that the two often complement each other. Whereas generalisable findings often arise from quantitative research, they still may remain superficial, even deceptive. For instance, in our example 1, the use of multiple methods revealed that the informants interpreted the theoretical constructs used, particularly the key concept of commitment, differently. This created unexpected variation in the quantitative findings, and the qualitative phase was necessary in order to understand the phenomenon and interpret the findings of the quantitative part. In sum, it is quite understandable that studies of mixed methods produce qualitative findings that are often quite significant when the conclusions are drawn. Furthermore, there are no rules determining the end of a research process. If each stage leads to new questions, when should the research stop? As our examples 2 and 3 showed, the researcher does not often intend to use multiple methods, but as the study progresses, it becomes the most sensible option. However, following new leads may end in a lengthy research process, which is not always practicable. Thus, the use of mixed methods is often limited by practical considerations, such as limited resources (both time and money), access to suitable units of observation, and disciplinary and political contexts (Brannen 1992; Denzin 1978; Jick 1979; Patton 1990). For instance, Maria Lindqvist (example 4) considered additional interviews among the firms in the case companies network. She tried this in the pilot study, but it turned out to require too many resources and was therefore excluded from the study. The research process may also be full of surprises; for example, when you start you may not even know all the purposes for which the method will be used. Denzin (1978) wrote about the demand for researcher flexibility and readiness to alter courses of action, change methods, reconceptualise problems and even start over if necessary. Sometimes the research question itself needs to be amended, or in extreme cases abandoned altogether. Researchers must continually evaluate their methods, assess the quality of incoming data and note the relevance of the data to the theory. This refers to the various possibilities of methodological pluralism, and highlights the importance of methodological flexibility. Thus, when mixed methods are used, the research process is closer to the qualitative than to the quantitative. The use of multiple methods involves several critical turning points at which significant methodological decisions are made. The initial research design is usually tentative, and the order, role and purpose of different methods are determined. This is only a plan, however, which often changes along the way. The findings of the pilot study may become more meaningful, and new interpretations may emerge when evaluated in the light of the qualitative information. Jick (1979, p. 609) describes this quite well when he

16 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 177 states that qualitative data and analysis function as the glue that cements the interpretation of multimethod results. CONCLUSIONS WHAT DID WE LEARN ABOUT IT ALL? The aim of this chapter was to demonstrate to the reader the potential of mixed methods in IB research. Various alternatives for combining qualitative and quantitative methods were introduced and described in terms of the key decisions made. Such decisions concerning the order, role and purpose of each method were discussed in the context of four illustrative examples, and were found to be related to the research question, and particularly to the level of understanding the researcher aims at. Additionally, we would like to stress that international business as a research field also has its own specific characteristics, which affect the use of mixed methods. Individual IB researchers often operate internationally. The study objects may be spread worldwide and the phenomenon under scrutiny may cross all kinds of boundaries, particularly geographical ones. In practice, therefore, research in this field is very resource demanding, and the related financial costs are considerable. Finding suitable and rich material also involves risk, which is bound to affect decisions concerning methodological order. In other words, IB researchers frequently use the less risky sequential approach rather than the parallel approach. After all, what if it turns out during the data collection that the research question is irrelevant, or that the key concepts have been misinterpreted by informants because of cultural differences? IB research typically involves cross-country comparison and cooperation with international research teams. This kind of study usually emerges from ideas or research findings in one country or research team, and it spreads among other interested parties. The sequential order in this case is selfevident, as the purpose of the first research team is merely to inspire international research, and the ones who join later concentrate on validating and complementing the results. Sometimes the first findings are applied repeatedly in later studies as well, because of their triggering effect. The use of mixed methods is also supported by the multi-disciplinary nature of the IB research area. As a relatively new field, it typically requires some kind of pre-understanding before a more extensive study is carried out. For example, at the time of the introduction of the global start-up 3 concept by Mamis, in 1989, rapidly internationalising small firms were first perceived as rare exceptions to the rule. Researchers tried to catch this phenomenon by identifying firms fulfilling the same criterion identified by Mamis aiming at a basic understanding of the phenomenon through qualitative case studies. This gradually led to the need for more in-depth understanding. Simultaneously, hypothesis-testing survey studies also gained ground along

17 178 Case Study Research the path towards more general, theoretical understanding. Recently the expanding number of these companies has gradually led to an increase in studies aiming at a broader understanding of rapidly internationalising SMEs, and applying mixed methods. To conclude, mixed methods offer IB researchers the possibility to acquire rich empirical data as well as a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study. In spite of these advantages, methodological pluralism is not very common. Why is this? It is obvious that triangulation as a research strategy is not new. It is very probable that in the field of international business, too, this approach is embedded in many doctoral theses, but when the findings are refined for publication as articles, the authors tend to highlight only the quantitative methods they have used (see Birkinshaw, Chapter 28 this volume), possibly because researchers do not value triangulation as a research strategy. Jick (1979) argued in the late 1970s that journals tended to specialise in terms of methodology, thus encouraging purity of method. Birkinshaw repeats this observation; in other words, nothing has changed in a couple of decades. This may be one reason, added to the fact that space limitations in journals often prevent the presentation of mixed methods. Birkinshaw also quite aptly describes the prejudices of reviewers towards qualitative research, and it is very probable that the barriers against accepting boundary-breaking solutions, such as mixed methods, are even higher. In our opinion, this situation is bound to change, particularly in the field of international business. The globalising world and quickening pace of international business operations will create more complex and multidimensional phenomena that deserve the attention of researchers. Traditional research tools offer very little in this context, and more innovative approaches are needed. Mixed methods offer one alternative, and, in principle, baking a cake is not difficult. After all, it is just a question of using old ingredients in new recipes! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the editors of the book for their valuable and constructive comments on earlier versions of this article. They are also grateful to Maria Lindqvist DSc (Econ.) and Jonas Ridderstråle DSc (Econ.) for their cooperation and support in its preparation. NOTES 1. Our diagram was inspired by Creswell s (1994) models of combined designs and the

18 First the Sugar, Then the Eggs 179 classifications of Hirsjärvi and Hurme (2001) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998). 2. The export adoption lag is defined as the delay between the year of a firm s establishment and the year of export adoption, that is, the year of its first export entry. 3. The terms born globals and international new ventures have also been used to describe this phenomenon. REFERENCES Arbnor, I. and B. Bjerke (1997), Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Brannen, J. (1992), Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches: an overview, in J. Brannen (ed.), Mixing Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Research, Aldershot: Avebury, pp Bryman, A. (1992), Quantitative and qualitative research: further reflections on their integration, in J. Brannen (ed.), Mixing Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Research, Aldershot: Avebury, pp Burrell, G. and G. Morgan (1979), Sociological Paradigms and Organizational Analysis: Elements of the Sociology of Corporate Life, Aldershot: Gower. Campbell, D.T. and D.W. Fiske (1959), Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix, Psychological Bulletin, 56, Creswell, J.W. (1994), Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Denzin, N.K. (1978), The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods, New York: McGraw-Hill. Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989), Building theories from case study research, Academy of Management Review, 14 (4), Gummesson, E. (1991), Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hirsjärvi, S. and H. Hurme (2001), Tutkimushaastattelu (Research interview), Helsinki: Yliopistopaino. Hurmerinta-Peltomäki, L. (2001), Time and Internationalisation: The Shortened Adoption Lag in Small Business Internationalisation, Turku: Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, Series A-7. Jick, T.D. (1979), Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: triangulation in action, Administrative Science Quarterly, 24 (4), Lee, A.S. (1989), Case studies as natural experiments, Human Relations, 42 (2), Lincoln, Y.S. and E.G. Guba (1985), Naturalistic Inquiry, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lindqvist, M (1991), Infant Multinationals: The Internationalization of Young, Technology-based Swedish Firms, Stockholm: Stockholm School of Economics, Institute of International Business. Mamis, R.A. (1989), Global start-up, Inc., August, Nummela, N. (2000), SME Commitment to Export Co-operation, Turku: Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, Series A-6. Patton, M.Q. (1990), Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ridderstråle, J. (1996), Global Innovation: Managing International Innovation

19 180 Case Study Research Projects at ABB and Electrolux, Stockholm: Stockholm School of Economics, Institute of International Business. Tashakkori, A. and C. Teddlie (1998), Mixed Methodology: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Webb, E.J., D.T. Campbell, R.D. Schwartz and L. Sechrest (1966), Unobtrusive Measures: Non-Reactive Research in the Social Sciences, Chicago, IL: Rand- McNally.