1.1. What is psychology? Learning outcomes

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1 1.1 What is psychology? Learning outcomes Define psychology Describe psychology as a scientific discipline Outline how psychological knowledge is generated Explain what is understood by a theoretical explanation and an empirical investigation Describe the levels of analysis Explain what is understood by critical thinking and giving examples Have you ever wondered why there are so many books and magazines on the market that deal with human behaviour? It seems that people have an enormous appetite for psychological information they buy an increasing number of self-help books and subscribe to psychological magazines. Browse Amazon.com for selfhelp books and you will find titles like Why Does He Do That? Inside the minds of angry and controlling men, and Who s Pulling Your Strings? How to break the cycle of manipulation and regain control over your life. Some people prefer to go to psychics to get advice or seek information about the future. Others believe that they can find answers to big questions in astrology. In some cultures, you consult the elderly about important issues in your life. What do these people have in common with psychology students? They all want to understand why people behave the way they do. We humans share the belief that if we can discover the causes of behaviour, we will be able to explain them, and maybe also to control them. Psychics can predict the future or can they? People use psychology every day when they explain human actions in terms of beliefs, motives, love or childhood experiences. Around the world, humans explain other people s actions by attributing to them beliefs, motives, and plans which they infer from what they observe other people doing. This is termed folk psychology or common-sense psychology, and it works well for us in our daily interactions with other people. Folk psychology is not the same as scientific psychology, even though the explanations sometimes seem to fit with scientific findings. People even use terms and ideas from psychologists, without knowing where they come from for example, when they talk of repressing bad memories or say that somebody has a big ego. As a student of psychology, you now have the chance to get to know more about the fascinating human animal. Be aware, however, that psychology is complex and not always easy. There are no definite answers to explaining human behaviour, and there are no easy solutions, as suggested in much of the popular psychological literature. In the study of psychology, in addition to learning about _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 7 12/2/09 13:48:04

2 research that explains behaviour, you will also develop useful critical thinking skills, so that in the future you will not be fooled by false claims and poorly conducted research. Definition of psychology There is no single definition of psychology that is universally acknowledged. A common definition is: Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour and how these are affected by internal processes and the environment. The definition does not give a clear picture of what psychology is, however, and over the years psychologists have often disagreed about what should be studied in psychology and how it should be studied. The first important part of the definition is the word scientific. This means systematic and controlled study of human behaviour, with the hope of establishing cause-and-effect relationships or describing behaviour. The terms mental processes and behaviour are the second significant aspect of the definition. Mental processes are covert behaviours for example, attention, memory, emotion, and attitudes. Other behaviours are overt: they can be observed directly or measured with instruments. These include behaviours such as aggression, helping, and even sleeping. The final component of the definition recognizes that behaviour is influenced by two sets of factors: internal processes like hormones or genes and the environment. For a century it was argued that it was one or the other nature or nurture that determined behaviour; today s approach acknowledges the contribution of both. Pop psych and psychobabble Pop psych, or popular psychology, is a term used for a wide range of popularized psychological theories and concepts that may or may not have a basis in psychology. Some serious psychologists write books that are intended for a wider public and these are considered to be valid, but pop psych books are often oversimplified accounts of psychological issues based on anecdotal evidence and popular beliefs. They are often full of what Rosen (1977) called psychobabble that is, buzzwords taken from psychological terminology but used out of context. The difference between scientific psychology and pop psychology is primarily that the former is based on documented research evidence and the latter is mostly based on unsupported claims, beliefs, and popular opinion, as in the case of astrology. Research in psychology 8 In 1987, the Australian researcher Geoffrey Dean conducted a study on astrology in order to test whether astrologers would be able to say something valid about people s personalities compared to the results of authorized psychological tests. He took 60 people who had high scores on introversion in a personality test (Eysenck Personality Inventory) and 60 people who had scored high on extraversion in the same test. He then gave astrologers the birth charts of the 120 participants and asked them to identify extroverts from introverts. The average success rate was only 50.2 per cent. Nanninga (1996/97) conducted another scientific study to test the predictive value of astrology. He invited _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 8 12/2/09 13:48:04

3 astrologers to participate in the Astrotest of the Skepsis Foundation. The astrologers who volunteered to participate received the birth chart (date, time, and place) of seven anonymous test participants, as well as seven questionnaires filled out by the same participants. The astrologers had to match each birth chart with a questionnaire. The test was completed by 44 astrologers, many of whom were very experienced. Before the test results were revealed, the astrologers were asked to estimate how many correct matches they expected, and 36 astrologers did so. Half of these predicted that they had matched all the participants with the correct charts. Only 6 astrologers predicted fewer than four hits. The results did not entirely match the predictions. The most successful astrologer had three correct matches. Half of the astrologers (22) did not achieve a single hit. This was a very low score compared to the expectations. There was no evidence that the most experienced astrologers were any better than the less experienced. The astrologers themselves were surprised by the results, but only 4 concluded that the possibilities of astrology were more limited than they had thought; 7 concluded that astrology only works in actual practice; and 16 still believed that science can prove astrology right. The diversity of psychology Psychology is a multidisciplinary science that includes knowledge from the natural and social sciences for example, biology, sociology, and anthropology. Psychological researchers use a number of data collection methods such as experiments, brain scanning, and interviews to study a wide variety of topics, including group processes, conflict, love, body language, memory, emotions, social development, sex and gender, motivation, sport, stress, and adolescence. There are many advantages in psychology s relationship to other sciences. Most of the time psychologists undertake research within their own field. This means that a social psychologist researches group processes; a neuropsychologist carries out brain scans to try to get a picture of memory in the brain; a cross-cultural psychologist compares gender roles in different cultures; and a cognitive psychologist investigates decision-making processes. Some developmental psychologists are interested in how factors like nutrition and stimulation affect children s health and learning capacity. This knowledge is used to create better conditions for children nationally and internationally, e.g. by international organisations like the UNICEF. But what could happen if knowledge from different fields were used to create entirely new areas of knowledge? The cognitive neuroscientist could combine knowledge from cognitive psychology on decision making with neurological evidence obtained through brain scanning. TOK and ways of knowing 1 Why do you think people go to astrologers? 2 What role could astrologers serve in people s lives? Biology Psychology Anthropology Sociology The multi-disciplinary nature of psychology One of the new areas of cognitive neuroscience is neuroeconomics. This may appear to be an odd coupling, but in fact there are several _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 9 12/2/09 13:48:05

4 institutes of neuroeconomics, including the Center for Neuroeconomic Studies at Duke University and the Center for the Study of Neuroeconomics and Law at George Mason University in the USA. Neuroeconomics combines neuroscience, economics, and psychology to investigate how people make choices in economics. This includes looking at the brain when people evaluate decisions. In one study, researchers hypothesized that they would find activity in the brain s pain centre if people found that price of a product was too high. This is exactly what happened. The question is how this knowledge can be used to provide a deeper understanding of human decision making in economics. This research, and the whole endeavour of neuroeconomics, is an example of the possibilities that exist for the integration of the various branches of science to study human behaviour. Brain scan neuromarketing l l l l l l l l l l Be a thinker 1 Consider two possible advantages of being a multidisciplinary science. 2 List three topics that you think could be investigated using information and understanding from different areas of knowledge, and explain why. 10 Levels of analysis in psychology The IB psychology course takes an integrative approach to studying human behaviour. This means that we will look at psychological issues on three levels of analysis: a biological level, which focuses on physiology and genetics a cognitive level, which focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, perception, and attention a sociocultural level, which focuses on how environment and culture affect behaviour or thinking. The notion that there are various levels of analysis can also be illustrated with the example of gender. Gender can be defined as what society and culture find appropriate for men and women to do. The biological level of analysis explains differences in gender behaviour with genetic make-up (XX and XY chromosomes) and hormones (testosterone and oestrogen). The cognitive level of analysis could explain gender differences with gender schema theory that is, people form mental representations of what it means to be either a boy or a girl, and these representations guide behaviour. The way we perceive a person is very much related to gender. This is called social cognition. At this level, therefore, it could be relevant to study how gender stereotypes may be formed and upheld, and to consider whether it is possible to change stereotypes. At the sociocultural level of analysis, social learning theory explains that people learn gender behaviour by watching how other people of their own sex behave. This level also deals with how culture affects definitions of gender roles and may shape mental representations of gender. The origin of gender is quite complex _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 10 12/2/09 13:48:06

5 It is not possible to come up with a single correct answer to the complex issue of why men and women are different and why they have different opportunities around the world. Is it because of biology? Or is it due to the way we come to think about what it means to be a woman or a man? Or is it because of the way culture shapes our way of thinking? Is it possible that it is related to all these things? It could certainly be argued that all of the above factors may be relevant. This is why psychology has to take several levels of analysis into consideration when explaining the complexities of human behaviour. Each level contributes to an overall understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. A brief history of psychology: from philosophy to scientific psychology Psychology started, like many sciences, as part of philosophy, which also gave psychology much of its conceptual framework. The creation of psychology as an independent science took shape in the middle of the 19th century, with its roots in biology and a growing interest in the mind and the underlying processes of the brain. Since ancient Greece, philosophers have discussed the philosophy of the mind. The word psychology was not widely used until the 19th century. It comes from two Greek words psyche (the mind or the soul) and logos (reason). Literally, psychology means reasoning about the soul, and over the centuries philosophers have speculated on the nature of the soul that is, the philosophy of the mind. Philosophers have also asked questions about how human beings come to know the world. This is known as epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (reasoning). In theory of knowledge, this is referred to as ways of knowing. When we ask questions about how human beings know the world, we refer to processes such as sensation, perception, memory, language, and reason. Today, these areas are part of what is called cognitive psychology. Ethics is also an integral part of philosophy and psychology. There have been numerous theoretical debates about human nature for example, are people good or evil by nature? Are people inherently social? What motivates people? Such questions are psychological and can now be investigated scientifically. Today, ethical concerns are fundamental to psychological research and applied psychology. In the mid 19th century, physiologists like Wilhelm Wundt began to study processes like neural transmission, reflexes, and perception. Wundt was particularly interested in the psychology of consciousness the introspective study of the normal adult mind. His definition of psychology as the science of consciousness, however, soon met with criticism. In the USA, it was replaced by the psychology of behaviour. In Europe, Sigmund Freud s psychology of the unconscious had an enormous cultural impact, although the theory was controversial and certainly not accepted by everyone. Profile Wilhelm Wundt In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established an official institute at the University of Leipzig where graduate students could earn PhD degrees in experimental psychology. Wundt is often regarded as the father of modern academic and experimental psychology, but despite his support for experimental methods, he had a clear idea of their limitations. In Wundt s view, many important psychological problems could only be studied with nonexperimental techniques such as introspection _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 11 12/2/09 13:48:06

6 Modern scientific psychology is to a large extent based on the psychology of adaptation that is, a psychology influenced by the ideas of Darwin on evolution, where the focus is on the biological study of the evolutionary utility of mind and behaviour. Building blocks of scientific psychology: theories and empirical studies When psychologists publish their work, psychologists refer to theories and make reference to empirical studies. These are some of the building blocks of scientific psychology. A theory is an explanation for a psychological phenomenon. It is a statement used to summarize, organize, and explain observations. A theory can also be used to make predictions about observed events. Most theories are built on concepts that is, hypothetical constructs that must be carefully defined so that they can be tested. In order to test a concept, psychologists need to develop tools to measure it. An example of a concept is Bandura s self-efficacy. As a concept, self-efficacy is defined as one s own belief as to whether one will succeed in something, based on previous experiences. Bandura s theory predicts that one s self-efficacy will determine if and how hard one will try to do a certain thing. For example, a researcher might be interested in the role of self-efficacy in predicting if people will engage in regular exercise to improve health. The researcher wants to find out if people who score high on a self-efficacy scale are more likely to engage in health-preserving behaviour than those who score low on the scale. On the basis of the findings, the researcher can either support self-efficacy theory or question its usefulness in people s health behaviours. Theories in psychology are not like laws in the natural sciences. Psychological theories are merely dealing with principles that is, the theoretical explanations are probable rather than certain, and therefore they are always open to some degree of doubt. It is often the case that one theory cannot explain all aspects of a psychological phenomenon. Since this doubt is part of scientific psychology, it is necessary to evaluate theories, examining their strengths and limitations. Psychological theory in practice Do you believe in hard work or talent? Professor Carol Dweck from Stanford University in the USA has formulated a theory of the importance of people s mindset in explaining success. Through systematic research, Dweck discovered that many talented people do not achieve their potential. She concluded that it is not talent or intelligence, as such, which is the key to understanding success. Rather, it is the way people explain things. She found that people tended to look at intelligence or talent as something that is either fixed or changeable. 12 According to Dweck, people with a fixed mindset believe that intelligence is static: because they want to appear smart, they avoid challenges, give up easily, and consider effort to be a waste of time. (If they have to work hard, they are not smart, are they?) They tend _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 12 12/2/09 13:48:06

7 to ignore useful negative feedback and feel threatened by the success of others. The consequence for these people is that often they do not achieve their full potential. In contrast, people with a growth mindset believe that intelligence is not fixed: they think that it can be developed and therefore they do not mind challenges. They persist when they experience setbacks; they consider effort to be part of the process of mastering something; they learn from criticism; and they find inspiration in the success of others. This approach reflects the belief that you can change things if you want to. l l l l l l l l l l Be a thinker Dweck s theory of motivation predicts that people who attribute their failures to lack of ability become discouraged even in areas where they are capable. Those who think they simply have not tried hard enough are encouraged to try harder when they experience setbacks. 1 Does this theory correspond to real life? Try to evaluate the theory using some of your own experiences. 2 To what extent does this theory offer insight into possible differences in terms of what people achieve in education, sport, or the arts? Summing up Dweck described two implicit theories of intelligence. The entity theory of intelligence: intelligence is an innate, unchangeable and internal characteristic. The incremental theory of intelligence: intelligence is malleable and can grow through effort. Usefulness of research in real life When a researcher collects and analyses data in order to investigate a psychological phenomenon, it is called an empirical investigation or study. It is research that can be observed and measured. Researchers in all areas of psychology constantly gather information using different methods, such as experiments, observations, surveys, and interviews. As with theories, it is necessary to evaluate empirical studies. Some researchers want to explore a given topic and perhaps formulate a theory afterwards. Others want to test an existing theory. Some studies just want to describe a certain phenomenon. Many studies result in something useful that can be applied to reallife situations. One of the key goals of psychology is to improve the world we live in. An example of empirical research is Carol Dweck s study of people s motivation to learn. Dweck demonstrated through numerous empirical studies that students who believe that intelligence is fixed are at risk for academic underachievement. She also found evidence that praising students for their intelligence can limit their intellectual growth because it reinforces the idea that intelligence is fixed. Dweck and Blackwell (2007) carried out an experiment with lowachieving students aged years (seventh-graders). All students were given an introduction to the brain and study skills. Half of them also attended a neutral session on memory, while the other half attended a lecture on how intelligence can be developed through exercise just as you can train your physical body. The result was that the students who were trained to adopt a growth mindset about intelligence were much more motivated, and this was _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 13 12/2/09 13:48:06

8 demonstrated in their maths grades. Students in the group that did not attend the intelligence lecture showed no improvement, despite all the other interventions. According to Dweck, telling students that intelligence can be developed can have an incredible impact on their motivation to learn. l l l l l l l l l l Be a thinker How can you use research to improve real-life situations? The British Psychological Society s Research Digest contains many brief descriptions of empirical studies in the psychology of education. You can find these studies at Find an empirical study on this site that interests you. Write a brief summary of the study. State what the researcher was looking for, how the research was carried out, and what the findings were. If you were the headmaster or principal of a school, what would research like this mean to you? Would you make any changes to improve the school you work in? Critical thinking When you read an article in a newspaper or a story on an Internet site, you probably decide whether or not to believe it. The same is true when you hear a story or listen to gossip. We are not very conscious of this in our daily lives, even though we often evaluate the source of the information or consider if it sounds plausible. The ability to think critically is important if we are to function effectively in today s globalized world where everything changes so quickly. But we are not born critical thinkers. We need to learn it through practice. Scientists are trained to be skeptical and critical. When they carry out peer review on scientific articles, they need to be able to find out how their colleague arrived at his or her conclusions in order to judge if the interpretation of the results is supported by the data. To be critical does not mean to be negative. It simply means that we apply critical thinking skills. IB students learn these skills in their subjects and in theory of knowledge. What is critical thinking? It can be defined as the ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotions, beliefs, myths, and anecdotes. King and Kitchener (1994) outlined in their book Reflective Judgement some of the important foundations of critical thinking, which have also been adopted in IB psychology _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 14 12/2/09 13:48:06

9 Critical thinker profile Questions assumptions and biases Evaluates available evidence and relates it to a theory or opinion Considers alternative interpretations Avoids emotional reasoning Does not jump to oversimplified conclusions Knows that plausible conclusions are based on evidence Is willing to reassess conclusions if new information appears Is able to tolerate some uncertainty How can you demonstrate critical thinking skills in psychology? In evaluating a theory, you can ask what sort of evidence it is based on; if it is possible to test the theory; if there is evidence to support or contradict it; and if it is useful in explaining things in real life. In evaluating an empirical study, you can ask if it is based on a representative group of people; if it was conducted in a laboratory or a natural setting; if the participants were asked to do things they would do in real life; if it was conducted in an ethical manner; and if the findings are supported or questioned by the findings of other studies. Throughout this book you will be introduced to strategies for evaluating research, and this is useful not only in psychology, but in any evaluation of scientific study. Research in psychology If you saw a commercial promising that by taking a pill you could think clearly, maintain focus, and increase memory, would you buy it? Jorm, Rodgers, and Christensen (2003) found that 2.8 per cent of an Australian sample of 2551 adults, aged years, said that they used medication such as Ginko Biloba to enhance memory, in spite of strong evidence of its ineffectiveness. The people who used it said they took the medication to enhance memory or to prevent memory loss, but in fact none of them showed any objective signs of memory impairment when they started taking the medication. Danielle Turner, from the Department of Psychiatry at Cambridge University, has apparently found a drug that may enhance not only memory, but also concentration. She conducted research with a drug used to prevent people with narcolepsy from falling asleep all the time. She found that the healthy volunteers who received a drug called Modafinil scored higher on computer games designed to test their mental function than those given a placebo (dummy pill). Which one is the memory pill? _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 15 12/2/09 13:48:07

10 l l l l l l l l l l Be a thinker Discuss the findings of these studies. Would you buy a pill promising you a better memory? Give reasons for your answer. We have now looked at psychological theories, concepts, and empirical studies. If you want to develop a better understanding about scientific psychology, you need to understand how psychological knowledge is generated, including the methods psychologists use to collect data. Today, psychology uses a number of different research methods in order to achieve a more complete understanding of human behaviour. Like any science, psychology is constantly evolving in search of the truth that is never really found. Even when many studies generate evidence supporting a specific idea, there will invariably be other studies that challenge the findings. This can be hard to tolerate for a student of psychology especially if you expect to find hard evidence that cannot be contradicted. On the other hand, the fact that evidence is often contested or inconclusive is one of the interesting and challenging things about psychology. Thinking critically is part of the psychology course, and if you can tolerate some degree of uncertainty, you will find that psychology has a lot to offer. TOK and ways of knowing What ways of knowing is scientific psychology based on? How do you know this? What ways of knowing is common-sense psychology based on? How do you know this? _IBCC_PSYCHOL_1.1.indd 16 12/2/09 13:48:07