ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES AND BEHAVIOR IN CHINA Synopsis and Bibliography

Transcription

1 / ENVIRONMENT Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL AND BEHAVIOR PERSPECTIVES / January IN 2006 CHINA ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES AND BEHAVIOR IN CHINA Synopsis and Bibliography PAUL G. HARRIS is an associate professor of politics and director of the Project on Environmental Change and Foreign Policy at Lingnan University, Hong Kong. His essays on global environmental politics, environmental foreign policy, and international ethics have appeared widely in academic journals. His books include Confronting Environmental Change in East and Southeast Asia; Global Warming and East Asia; International Environmental Cooperation; The Environment, International Relations, and U.S. Foreign Policy; International Equity and Global Environmental Politics; and Climate Change and American Foreign Policy. ABSTRACT: Some of the world s most profound environmental changes are under way in China. Studying the underlying forces of environment-related behaviors at all levels in China is therefore extraordinarily important. This essay helps people outside China increase their understanding of these variables by summarizing findings of Chinese-language surveys conducted in China to measure environmental awareness, attitudes, and behaviors. People in different parts of China have differences in perceptions and behaviors. The article takes a macroscopic snapshot of how the Chinese view their environment as a prelude to analyses of more particularistic perceptions and actions. This snapshot depicts environmental destruction and rampant resource exploitation that is likely to continue for decades to come. However, by understanding this trend it may be possible to find ways of eventually slowing it and thereby mitigating long-term environmental damage. The article includes an annotated bibliography of Chinese-language reports on environmental attitudes and behaviors. Keywords: environment; attitudes; perspectives; behavior; China One would be hard-pressed to find a more explicit and profound example of how human behavior can adversely affect the ecological environment than the ongoing experience of China. A huge population and rapid economic growth have conspired to create an expanding environmental catastrophe ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR, Vol. 38 No. 1, January DOI: / Sage Publications 5

2 6 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 (see Edmonds, 1999). The list of pervasive and widespread environmental problems caused by human behavior in China is depressing even to distant observers, let alone to those who must endure them: choking air pollution, water pollution in the vast majority of rivers, water shortages throughout much of the country, ocean pollution, mountains of solid and toxic waste, acid deposition spoiling land and water, destruction of the remaining scattered habitats, near-total deforestation, rampant overfishing, depletion of agricultural land, and conspicuous consumption of even highly endangered species for food and traditional medicine. The human and economic costs are monumental, with people suffering from pollution-related diseases and frequently joining in mass migrations to the cities because of expired agricultural lands. The cost to the country s economy from environmental degradation, resource scarcities, and air and water pollution has been estimated to be about 12% of the country s gross national product (Economy, 2004). 1 But pollution and environmental degradation are not only harming the Chinese; acid rain falls on China s neighbors, industrial and urban air pollution now spreads across the Pacific to lower air quality and pollute water in North America (University of California, Davis, 2000; Wilkening, Barrie, & Engle, 2000), and China is already the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases causing global warming and resulting climate change, likely overtaking the United States to become the largest emitter within the next two decades. 2 Consequently, those interested in limiting harm to the environment have a great interest in what is happening in China. At the root of many or most of these problems are the behaviors and underlying attitudes of the Chinese people. How they perceive and value the environment will largely determine how they behave in relation to it. This is because although the Chinese government has taken many steps to limit pollution and overuse of resources, the regulatory and legal infrastructure for environmental protection is largely impotent outside a few cities. Studying the underlying forces of environment-related behaviors at all levels in China is extraordinarily important. Bearing this in mind, this short essay endeavors to help people outside China improve their understanding of these variables by providing a synopsis of surveys conducted in China to measure environmental awareness, attitudes, and behaviors. This synopsis is drawn primarily from Chinese-language survey data and reports, much of which is listed in the accompanying bibliography. China is a very large and diverse country. As such, people in different locations have differences in AUTHOR S NOTE: The author gratefully acknowledges helpful comments from anonymous referees, research and translation assistance from Hongyuan Yu and Sarah Ho, and financial support from the Minor Foundation for Major Challenges, Oslo.

3 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 7 perceptions and specific behaviors. However, it is nonetheless useful to take a macroscopic snapshot of how the Chinese view their environment as a prelude to analyses of more particularistic perceptions and behaviors. What comes from such a snapshot is a picture of environmental destruction and rampant resource exploitation that is likely to continue for decades to come. With a good understanding of this trend, however, it may be possible to find ways of at least mitigating long-term environmental damage. ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES AND BEHAVIOR What are the characteristics of Chinese environmental perspectives, values and associated behaviors? The following discussion summarizes (a) how knowledgeable and aware the Chinese people are of environmental issues, (b) the attributes of their awareness (i.e., who thinks what about the environment), (c) the extent to which they believe that environmental changes require urgent attention and how much they value or care about the environment relative to other issues, and, (d) very importantly, their associated behaviors and their willingness to behave in ways that are less harmful to the environment. 3 KNOWLEDGE Knowledge of ecology and environmental issues is usually limited among Chinese people living outside major urban areas and areas with good education (often one and the same). However, knowledge has been increasing and spreading in recent years because of education campaigns and especially because of more coverage of environmental issues in popular media, particularly newspapers, which are the primary source of information on environmental issues. For most Chinese, the environment is primarily about sanitation and health, perhaps extending to air pollution in the surrounding area and pollution of nearby water used by the individuals surveyed. How human behavior affects the environment is poorly understood, and normally there is a complete absence of knowledge about global environmental issues such as stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change. People often do not realize that their own actions are causing environmental harm. The exceptions are, of course, more-educated people. People frequently say that they perceive something to be wrong with the environment and that they want more knowledge about what and why. All indications are that basic environmental knowledge and indeed basic education are prerequisites for fostering atti-

4 8 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 tudes and behaviors in China that are less harmful to the environment (see, for example, Cui, 2002; Hong, 1998; Xi, Fan, & Deng, 1998). ATTITUDES What are the stated or expressed dispositions toward the environment of the Chinese? Different kinds of people have different attitudes toward the environment: rural urban, young old, less educated more educated, poor affluent. More-educated, affluent, and urbanized people have more proenvironmental attitudes. Poor people living in rural villages often are the least inclined toward environmental protection. Environment-related attitudes are directed toward different problems: Domestic issues (i.e., sanitation, drinking water, indoor pollution) are most important to most people, local issues (e.g., water and air pollution) are also important to people affected by them, national issues (e.g., acid rain, desertification, deforestation) are much less important to people even when they are clearly affected by them (such as Beijing residents suffering from now-seasonal sandstorms), with global issues such as ozone depletion and climate change being beyond people s concerns apart from some university students. The vast majority of Chinese are concerned about their domestic home environment and perhaps their neighborhood but not the surrounding area, often even their immediate surroundings. In short, Chinese people say that they care about problems that affect them directly in space and time (see State Environmental Protection Administration, 1999; Zhong guo zui shou guan zhu de hua ti [Issues of the most concern in China], 2004; Tang, 2000; C. R. Zhu & Lu, 2003; Q. Zhu, 2001). VALUES How do the people of China value the environment, in and of itself, relative to other things that they care about? In summary, the Chinese have a very instrumental view of the natural world: It exits for the benefit of people. This mirrors traditional Chinese thought, notably Confucianism, which despite sometimes being invoked as a model for environmentalism is an anthropocentric paradigm. 4 The aesthetic and ethical valuation of the environment and nature are very low among most Chinese; nature is commonly viewed as being alien and worthy of improvement by human manipulation. How is the environment viewed relative to other things? The highest priorities of the Chinese are poverty alleviation, economic development, economic growth, and wealth creation former top-leader Deng Xiaoping s glory of getting rich. When asked whether economic growth should come at the expense of

5 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 9 the environment, the split is about in favor of one over the other. However, a common sentiment is that the environment is important but that economic development should come first. The Chinese see other valuable goals that often come before environmental protection, namely social stability (the government s priority) and reducing official corruption. People state some willingness to decide in favor of the environment, at least attitudinally, and they declare willingness to pay for environmental protection. But the overall sense of environmental responsibility is generally extremely low outside major urban areas and universities. In surveys people often admit that they are not concerned or bothered enough about the environment to accept personal responsibility for preventing harm to it or protecting it. People generally expect others, particularly the government, to take care of environmental protection (see L. Li, Jin, Hao, Nu, & Xing, 2002; People s Daily, 2000; Zhou et al., 2002). BEHAVIOR Given this generally poor understanding of the environment and some stated but not strong willingness to preserve it, how do the Chinese people actually behave? Their environmental behavior is ambivalent, at the very best. Although people often express concern about environmental conditions and even say they are willing to act to protect the environment, this does not often coincide with their behavior, which is normally not favorable to the environment. City dwellers might express concern about the environment, only to litter. Villagers will say they are extremely concerned about protecting nature but admit they will sacrifice it for economic gain. Benefits to oneself are essential for most people s awareness of environmental issues to be translated into action on them. People will generally choose comfort and convenience over environmental protection, especially if they expect to incur some cost associated with proenvironmental behavior (e.g., buying green products). Even more educated and affluent people are not much more willing to act in proenvironmental ways than are less educated people and the poor. Selfishness is the common theme, with the Chinese having a saying along the lines of People will clear the snow from their doorstep but not worry about the snow on their neighbor s roof. Especially in China s urban areas, rampant consumption and conspicuous consumerism are manifest. People are adopting modern Western more accurately American consumer lifestyles as quickly as they can, focusing on getting rich and meeting their individual aspirations. A car culture is growing; in some cities, bikes have been banned on major roads to make way for private automobiles. With these changes have come all of the West s energy and resource use, waste,

6 10 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 and pollution. The bulk of China s people remain very poor to be sure and, as such, cannot live a consumptive lifestyle. But the middle class is growing fast and members of it want to live similar to Americans, thus placing an even greater and growing burden on the environment (see N. N. Li, 2001; Tang, 2000; Wang, 2002). SOME EXPLANATIONS FOR CHINESE PERSPECTIVES AND BEHAVIORS What explains these environmental perspectives? Some people, including some Chinese, like to blame globalization. The argument seems to be that China s opening to the world is to blame, particularly the spread of Western values into China. But this explanation fails to account for the centuries of environmental destruction (see Elvin, 1993). For example, China s widespread deforestation predates even Marco Polo. Some casual observers give traditional Chinese philosophy more of a proenvironmental meaning than it deserves. (Indeed, one could argue that it may be these traditional Chinese philosophies that are partly at the root of the problem. Most of them have been, at their cores, traditional instruments for social and political control by authorities. 5 ) Thus, although globalization and especially China s entry into the global economy have certainly exacerbated Chinese sentiments that are environmentally unaware or adverse and no doubt has assisted them by providing the incentives and means for even more widespread environmental destruction, globalization is not solely, or even chiefly, to blame for most of the environmental destruction in China (see Harris, 2004b). Other, more likely, explanations for the Chinese people s environmental thinking conspire to contribute to the situation that obtains today. One of those explanations is simply lack of knowledge about basic science and particularly ignorance of ecology and environmental problems. Without basic knowledge, people find it very difficult to understand their own relationship with the environment and for them to value it. At the root of this is poor education outside China s urban areas (and even within them among the millions of migrants). This is in large part the consequence of another explanation: a history of deprivation and poverty that stretches back through China s history. People want above all else to avoid deprivation and, once they have avoided that, to follow Deng s invocation, To get rich is glorious. Communist ideology, now discredited (albeit not officially), has been replaced by a widespread obsession with wealth creation and material consumption (Smil, 1996).

7 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 11 Another explanation lies in China s traditional and continuing reliance on top-down governance (Lo & Leung, 2000; Ross, 1999). The mantra regarding environmental problems, like many others, is that it s the government s problem (this view is not as marked as it once was in some urban areas; indeed, a growing sense of personal responsibility, notably in nowdemocratic Taiwan, is in evidence). This is closely associated with what we might label the Chinese pass-the-buck mentality of blame held by the people and the government. People say that powerful interests, such as state-owned enterprises in cahoots with local officials, cause pollution and environmental problems, whereas the government and Chinese officials have often said that many environmental problems are the fault of the world s rich people and countries. (This is often true, to be sure, but hardly a recipe for self-initiated environmental protection.) What is more, the government does not seem to take its own propaganda seriously; people see the failure of local officials to enforce environmental regulations or worse, government corruption contributing to pollution all around them. To these explanations, we can add the lack of enough civil society groups, which even Chinese officials have concluded are important for spurring environmental awareness and a sense of empowerment for environmental protection among citizens and which can act as watchdogs to help publicize transgressions of official and nonofficial polluters (Brettell, 2000). CHANGING BEHAVIOR The findings of environmental surveys summarized above suggest some ways for encouraging proenvironmental attitudes, values, and behavior in China. Many things can be done, notably increased local education efforts, perhaps funded by aid from foreign governments and international agencies. Chinese people obtain their environmental knowledge from schools and the media. By all accounts, popular media are essential tools. Green marketing and making environmental protection fun would be potentially very important especially among urban youth and the new middle class. Other potentially important strategies for shifting perspectives and attitudes toward less environmental harm could be helpful. 6 Among these is what I would call (admittedly rather clumsily) instrumental capitalization. It may be useful to capitalize on people s instrumental that is, selfish view of the environment. People need to be made to realize that their wealth and health depend on environmental vitality. This would require education directed at everyone, particularly the more affluent or the up-and-coming middle classes whose

8 12 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 behaviors have the greatest environmental impact. Basic ecological education for everyone, including for old people (who have lower environmental knowledge and consciousness), is important. (I do not like to say it, but teaching environmental ethics or to invoke ancient Chinese tradition would probably not be very productive.). The focus might best be put on China s elites, namely university students (future leaders) and top leaders. Because the latter are very hard to reach, focusing on university students is likely one of the best tactics. 7 Given the continued existence of authoritarian government in China, this may be the most important near- and medium-term strategy, on top of broad general and ecological education already under way, simply because today s university students will become tomorrow s officials and leaders in government and industry. Another strategy for moving sentiments and behaviors toward environmental preservation would be environmentally sustainable economic development, which is not the same as current conceptions of economic growth, normally at the expense of the environment. The goal is the creation of a postindustrial, postmaterialist society where people want and demand a clean environment and, with a nudge from regulation, act themselves to move toward that end. This will be a long-term goal, of course, much as Chinese leaders have put the country on a path toward economic expansion in an effort to alleviate China s long-standing poverty. Very importantly, China must try to avoid the catch-22 scenario of destroying the environment to save it economic development causing so much harm that future efforts will be beyond the country s capacity to rectify and coming too late to prevent widespread and even global environmental disaster. This will require the use of ecofriendly technology and development of people s capacity to easily act on proenvironmental sentiments. CONCLUSION For those who track environmental attitudes and behaviors in the industrialized world, one thing becomes quite clear from even this synopsis of Chinese perspectives: The Chinese people are not unusual. Much as in most of the developed world, they tend to care about the environment primarily when it affects them directly. Even when they express proenvironmental sentiments, their behavior is more likely to cause greater harm to the environment than they would admit or realize. One can hardly blame the many hundreds of millions of very poor Chinese for thinking and acting this way, not least because they often lack basic environmental knowledge. Bearing in mind the

9 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 13 experience of the developed world, however, we must conclude that short of government regulation, which has proved to be so essential in Europe, North America, and Japan even affluent Chinese people are unlikely to act to protect the environment unless doing so is necessary to protect their own interests or those of their loved ones. This suggests that the environmental values of China s elites will be especially important for the future of its environment as well as the regional and global environments increasingly harmed by modern China. NOTES 1. This compares to environmental damage costing India about US$10 billion per year in 1992, equal to about 4.5% of GDP (with urban pollution costing US$1.3 billion and health costs from water degradation costing US$5.7 billion) (United Nations Environmental Program, 2002). 2. China s per capita emissions of greenhouse gases will remain well below those of the United States, however. See Hatch (2003) and Zhang (2003). 3. For a more detailed explication of these characteristics of environmental perspectives in China, see Harris (2004a). Linking attitudes toward environmental sustainability with behavior is notoriously difficult. See Jones (1996). 4. This anthropocentrism is manifested in seeking satisfaction of the immediate needs of the ruler and the (human) community at the expense of the natural environment. The result is a Chinese tragedy of the commons where placing short-term human interests above the environment leads to both long-term environmental and human suffering. See Harris (2004c). 5. See Elvin (1993) and Anna L. Peterson s argument that the attitudes leading to environmental destruction in China arise not from Western values but from Asian ones (e.g., Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism) (Peterson, 2001). According to Peterson (2001), even Taoism (which many people view as the greatest Eastern source of environmental inspiration) suggests human exceptionality: Like Buddhism, Taoism views humans as the most sentient and complex beings in the universe.... Humans have a distinctive spiritual capacity to enlarge and deepen their care for the universe, but this is neither automatic nor absolute (p. 93). 6. I discuss some of these strategies in greater detail in Harris (2004c). 7. The sociological literature on two-step communication examines the relationship between top national leaders and local, second-tier leaders and their followers (I am grateful to an anonymous reader for pointing this out to me; see, for example, Servaes & Malihoa, 2004). REFERENCES Brettell, A. (2000). Environmental non-government organizations in the People s Republic of China: Innocents in a co-opted environmental movement? Journal of Pacific Asia, 6, Cui, S. Y. (2002). Gong zhong huan jing yi shi xiang zhuang, wen ti yu dui ce [Public environmental consciousness: Existing situation, problems, and strategy]. Li Lun Xue Kan [Theory Journal], 4, 110, 87.

10 14 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 Economy, E. C. (2004). The river runs black: The environmental challenge to China s future. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Edmonds, R. L. (1999). The environment in the People s Republic of China 50 years on. China Quarterly, 159, Elvin, M. (1993). Three thousand years of unsustainable growth: China s environment from archaic times to the present. East Asian History, 6, Harris, P. G. (2004a, November). Chinese environmental attitudes and climate change: Survey findings on precursors of China s domestic and international policies on global warming. (Working paper series of the Centre for Asian Pacific Studies, No. 154). Hong Kong: Lingnan University. Harris, P. G. (2004b). Environmental values in a globalizing world: The case of China. In I. Lowe and J. Paavola (Eds.), Nature, justice, and governance: Environmental values in a globalizing world (pp ). London: Routledge. Harris, P. G. (2004c). Getting rich is glorious : Environmental values in the People s Republic of China. Environmental Values, 13, Hatch, M. T. (2003). Chinese politics, energy policy, and the international climate change negotiations. In P. G. Harris (Ed.), Global warming and East Asia: The domestic and international politics of climate change (pp ). London: Routledge. Hong, D. (1998). Gong min huan jing yi shi de ke xue ping pan he chou yang fen xi [A comprehensive judgment and sampling analysis of citizens environmental awareness]. Ke Ji Dao Bao [Science and Technology Review], 15. Jones, A. (1996). The psychology of sustainability: What planners can learn from attitude research. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 16, Li, L., Jin, H., Hao, H. W., Nu, W. S., & Xing, H. (2002). Fuzhou shi gong zhong huan jing yi zhi tiao cha fen xi [Investigation and analysis of public environmental attitudes in Fuzhou City]. Fujian Huan Jing [Fujian Environment], 19, 33. Li, N. N. (2001). Huan bao yi shi yu huan bao xing wei [Environmental consciousness and environmental behavior]. Xue Hai [Learning Sea], 1, Lo, C. W. H., & Leung, S. W. (2000). Environmental agency and public opinion in Guangzhou: The limits of a popular approach to environmental governance. China Quarterly, 163, 679. People s Daily. (2000, June 15). Gong min huan jing yi shi you dai ti gao [People s environment consciousness should be improved]. Ren Min Ri Bao [People s Daily]. Peterson, A. L. (2001). Being human: Ethics, environment, and our place in the world. Berkeley: University of California Press. Ross, L. (1999). China and environmental protection. In E. Economy & M. Oksenberg (Eds.), China joins the world: Progress and prospects (pp ). New York: Council on Foreign Relations. Servaes, J., & Malihoa, P. (2004). Communication and sustainable development. Retrieved on July 16, 2005, from Smil, V. (1996). Barriers to a sustainable China. In D. C. Pirages (Ed.), Building sustainable societies: A blueprint for a post-industrial world (pp ). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. State Environmental Protection Administration. (1999). Quan guo gong zhong huan jing yi shi diao cha bao gao [The whole China s public environmental consciousness investigation report]. Ren Min Lun Tan [Peoples Forum], 7, 21. Tang, J. (2000). Beijing ju min huan bao tai du he huan bao xing wei de she kuai xue fen xi [The social analysis of Beijing residents environmental attitudes and environmental behaviour]. Cheng Shi Wen Ti [City s Problem], 5, 24. United Nations Environment Program. (2002). Global environment outlook 3. London: Earthscan.

11 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 15 University of California, Davis. (2000, August). Transpacific air pollution is worse than suspected. Earth Times. Retrieved on July 16, 2005, from et0800s11.html Wang, Y. B. (2002). Yun nan kun min zhe che min zhong huan jing bao hu tai du he xing wei [Zhenche people s individual attitudes and behavior in environmental protection]. Yun Nan She Hui Ke Xue [Social Sciences in Yunnan], 1, 41. Wilkening, K. E., Barrie, L. A., & Engle, M. (2000). Trans-pacific air pollution. Science, 290, Xi, X., Fan, L., & Deng, X. (1998). Public Environment awareness in China: An analysis of the results of public surveys. Report prepared for the Centre for the Integrated Study of the Human Dimensions of Global Change, Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved on July 16, 2005, from Zhang, Z. (2003). The forces behind China s climate change policy: Interests, sovereignty, and prestige. In P. G. Harris (Ed.), Global warming and East Asia: The domestic and international politics of climate change (pp ). London: Routledge. Zhou, Y., RunHua, W., KaoCong, T., Jing, Y., Bing, T. X., & Zhou, Y. (2002). Chong qing zhu cheng qu ji jin jiao ju min huan jing yi shi diao cha [Chongqing cities and surrounding suburbs citizens environmental awareness/attitude situation analysis]. Chong Qing Huan Jing Ke Xue [Chongqing Environmental Science], 1, 15. Zhong guo zui shou guan zhu de hua ti [Issues of the most concern in China]. (2004). Retrieved on January 24, 2004, from sina.com Zhu, C. R., & Lu, H. (2003). Hu bei gong zhong huan jing yi shi kao cha [Public environmental consciousness of Hubei Province]. Sheng Qing Yan Jiu [Journal of Economic Tribune], 15, Zhu, Q. (2001). Guan yu nong min huan jing yi shi de diao cha yu si kao [The investigation and reflection on chinese farmers environment consciousness]. Diao Yan Shi Jie [The World of Investigation], 1, 29. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTED READING Chen, T. (1999). Lu se xiao fei yu huan bao wen ti de tiao cha [Green consumption and environmental problems survey]. Shi Chang Yu Ren Kou Fen Xi [Market and Demographic Analysis], 5, Based on a survey of 579 people in two districts of Wuhan city, shows that they are familiar with and concerned about the green consumption, although they lack specific knowledge (e.g., meaning of green food and standards of green products), and suggests several ways to promote green consumption, namely through more education. Fang, X. Q. (2002). Xiang cun shi fang sheng huan jing yi shi de tiao cha [Village teacher students environmental consciousness survey]. Huan Jing Jiao Yu [Environmental Education], 4, Based on surveys by the China State Environment Protection Administration and others, finds that environmental consciousness in China is low (e.g., limited environmental knowledge, low priority given to environmental protection, limited environmental participation) and suggests several potential methods to strengthen it (e.g., promoting environ-

12 16 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 mental education and organizations, giving the public opportunities to participate in environmental protection, and green consumption). Fok, Y. K. (2003). Zhong xiao cheng shi huan bao guan li chu yi [Medium and small cities environmental protection management]. Jin Ji Shi [Economics], 2, 260. Based on surveys of residents in several small and medium-sized cities, the article shows that residents environmental awareness in medium and small cities is improving (e.g., more priority given to environment protection, rising concern about living environment) and suggests several methods (e.g., mass media, education, environmental legislation) to improve environmental awareness. Gong zhong huan jing yi shi ying xiang wo guo huan bao zheng ce [People s environment consciousnesses influence China s environmental policy]. (2002, October 2). Zhong Guo Huan Jing Bao [China Environment Post]. Shows that environmental policies have been ineffective because few people are willing to act upon them, thus requiring leadership by the government to bolster environmental consciousness. Hong, D. (1999). Dang dai zhong guo huan jing wen ti de she hui te zheng [Contemporary Chinese environmental challenges]. Jiao Xue Yu Yan Jiu [Teaching and Study], 6, Shows that knowledge about environmental protection issues and environmental consciousness among Chinese was very weak in the mid-1990s. Huang, X. S. (2002). Gong zhong huan bao yi shi yu san xia ku qu de huan jing bao hu [The public s awareness of environmental protection and the environmental protection in the Three Gorges Reservoir area]. Chong Qing San Xia Xue Yuan Xue Bao [Journal of Chongqing Three Gorges University], 18(3), Environmental analysis of the Three Gorges dam project from the perspectives of water, atmosphere, waste management, etc., with associated assessment of the Chinese public s low environmental awareness and suggestions for boosting it (e.g., propaganda, education). Ji, P., & Qing, W. (2002). Shanghai bu fen di qu shi min huai jing yi shi tiao cha fen xi [Investigative analysis of the environmental awareness of residents in a part of Shanghai]. Shanghai Huan Jing Ke Xue [Shanghai Environmental Sciences], 21, Examines environmental awareness and behavior in 342 households in the Caoyang Community of Shanghai and argues that residents environment awareness is high (e.g., environmental knowledge and participation), with people obtaining environmental knowledge from the mass media (e.g., newspapers and TV) and those with the most knowledge being more likely to behave in sustainable ways. Jin, Y. J., & Jian, M. (2001). Huan jin bao ku, jing cheng bai xing guan zhu cheng du zhui duo xiao [Environmental protection: How much is known about Beijing people s level of concern]. Beijing Tong Ji [Journal of Beijing Statistics], Based on a survey in Beijing s eight districts, finds that Beijing people care most about sewage treatment and air pollution, with several factors (e.g., district, education level, gender, age, occupation) influencing people s satisfaction with the environment (for example, persons with more education were less satisfied with Beijing s environment.

13 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 17 Li, J. (2003). Min jian hua jing yi shi yu xian dai huan jing bao hu [Public environmental consciousness and current environmental protection: Survey and analysis of public environmental consciousness in coastal areas]. Fu Jian Lun Tan [Journal of Fujian Forum], 2, Based on a survey of 402 residents of coastal cities in Fujian Province, finds that coastal people s environmental consciousness and willingness to prioritize the environment over economic interests is higher than at the national level, although people say they would seek help from government to protect the environment rather than participate in environmental protection efforts themselves. Li, K. T. (2002). Zhenzhou gong zhong de huan jing yi shi [On the public s environmental consciousness]. Henan Fang Zhi Gao Deng Zhuan Ke Xue Xiao Xue Bao [Journal of Henan Textile College], 14(2), Based on the investigation of 1,053 residents of Zhengzhou city, concludes that the level of their environmental knowledge is low and most would not voluntarily act to protect the environment, although paradoxically most would prioritize environmental protection over economic development when they conflict. Li, L., & Lin, N. (2003). Cheng shi ju min huan bao xing wei de shi zheng yian jiu [Actual evidence from research of city residents environmental protection behaviors]. Ya Tai Jin Ji [Asia Pacific Economic Review], Based on a survey of 272 citizens in Fuzhou, examines formation of environmental behaviors and suggests psychological techniques (e.g., education and propaganda) to alter people s environmentally harmful behaviors and to nurture their pro-environment behaviors. Li, T. M., Sue, Z. Z., & Xie, W. (2002). Dui Shanghai shi lu se xiao fei zhuang kuang de tiao cha yu fen xi [Investigation and analysis of Shanghai s green consumption situation]. She Kuai Ke Xue Social Science], 5, Based on a survey of 250 Shanghai residents, finds that the city s green consumption situation is fair (e.g., people purchase some green products and limit their waste) even though they lack knowledge about green consumption, which can be promoted through strategies such as education and green consumption laws. Li, Y. J. (2003). Cen yu shi huan bao diao cha du yun shi ba gu zhen miao zu feng qing chai cun min huan bao yi shi de tiao cha [Survey of the environment protection conception of the miao minority villages of bagn town in Duyun City]. Gan Su Nong Ye Ke Xue [Journal of Guzhou Agricultural Sciences], 31(4), Examines the environmental awareness of 175 villagers, determining that their environment knowledge is low (e.g., they are unaware of litter and the negative effects of their living customs upon the environment) and that they seek to promote their own economic benefit even if doing so damages the environment (such as through hunting). Liang, H. Z., & Sheng, H. H. (2002). Qian lun min jian huan jing yi shi yu huan jing bao hu [A view of environmental consciousness and protection]. Guangxi Shi Fan Xue Yuan Xue Bao Zi Ran Ke Xue Ban [Journal of Guangxi Teachers College, Natural Science Edition], 19(2), The authors view on environmental consciousness and the balance between modernity and environmental protection, calling for efforts to improve environmental consciousness among China s citizens.

14 18 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 Luo, X. (1998). Shang hai ren de huan jing yi shi [Microinvestigation of Shanghainese Environmental Consciousness]. She Hui Xue [Journal of Society], 5, Based on a survey of 300 people in Shanghai, shows that they are concerned about environmental pollution, have high environmental awareness, view environmental protection to be as important as economic development, act to prevent pollution, and are willing to pay for it. Ma, R., & Guo, J. R. (2000). Zhong guo ju min zai huan jing yi shi yu huan bao tai du fang mian de cheng xiang cha yi [China residents differences in environmental consciousness and attitudes between cities and villages]. She Kua Ke Xue Zhan Xian [Social Science Scientific Research], 1, Based on analysis of 155 households, shows that Chinese give environmental protection a high priority, see air and water pollution as the most serious environmental problems, and are willing to act on the environment s behalf (e.g., by planting trees and buying green products), but they rely on the government to protect the environment and great differences in environmental awareness obtain between villages and cities. Ma, T. F. (2003). Panyu ju min huan jing yi shi xiang zhuang fen xi ji qi due ce [On the present condition and the countermeasures of the environmental awareness of Panyu residents]. Panyu Zhi Ye Ji Shu Yuan Xue Bao [Journal of Panyu Polytechnic], 2(2), Based on a survey of 479 residents in Panyu City (part of the Guangzhou metropolis), finds that they express willingness to protect the environment but they have poor environmental knowledge and their behaviors are not proenvironment, with the author suggesting the causes of poor environmental education, traditional consumption values, and low overall educational levels. Qi, W. (2000). Cheng shi shi min huan jing yi shi diao cha yu ping jia [Survey and review of environment consciousness of citizens: The case of Hangzhou in Zhejiang]. Gui Hua Shi [Journal of Planning], 16(3), Based on 1,000 respondents in Hangzhou city, appraises their citizens environmental consciousness, finding that they care about water and air pollution, want a beautiful and healthy living environment, and express great enthusiasm for environmental participation (e.g., planting trees). Shen, J. S. (2002). Huan bao yi shi yu pei yang [Environmental consciousness and nurturing]. Huan Jing Jiao Yu [Environmental Education], 4, Discusses the importance of public environment consciousness for environment participation and argues for more environmental education to help raise it. Wan, Y., Sun, N., & Wen, J. C. (2003). Wuhan shi si bai ling qi ming xue sheng de huan jing bao hua ji jian kangyi shi de xian zhuang [The current situation of 407 Wuhan City students environmental-protection and health consciousness]. Zhao Guo Xue Xiao Wei Sheng [China School Health], 24, Aims to understand secondary students environmental and health consciousness and shows that the students had limited knowledge of environmental protection, especially regarding global issues, and that their daily behavior (e.g., use of water, spitting) was not conducive to health and environmental protection.

15 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 19 Wei, H., Lan, Z., & Hong, L. (2002). Zhong guo ban gan han qu ren kou huan jing yi zhi tiao cha bao gao [A survey report of environmental consciousness in semi-arid areas of China]. Shi Chang Yu Ren Kou Fen Xi [Market and Demographic Analysis], 8(5), Results of a survey of 1,128 people in semiarid provinces (Jinsu, Liangxia, Shangxi and Qianhai) showing a high degree of understanding about the environment but a low level of environmental awareness and failure to act to protect the environment, with priority given to economic development and reliance on government to solve environmental problems. Xin, J. Y., Yuan, J. Y., Lu, P., Chen, Q., & Pan, F. (2001). Gansu sheng gong zhong huan jing yi shi yu gan shou cheng de tiao cha yu fen xi [Investigation and analysis of Gansu province s public environmental awareness and level of feeling]. Gansu Huan Jing Yan Jiu Yu Jian Ce [Gansu Environmental Research and Monitoring], Based on a survey of 1,361 people in cities and villages of Gansu Province, finds that they express very strong willingness to protect the environment, but they lack environmental knowledge due to poor environment education. Xu, G. (2000). Ti gao ling dao gan bu de sheng tai huan jing yi shi [Environment consciousnesses among Chinese cadres]. Li Lun Yan Jiu [Theoretical Study], 4, Many of China s cadres are apathetic toward environmental protection, stressing economic stability and growth over preventing environment pollution, with three main causes for such attitudes: cadres professional success depends upon local economic growth, not environmental protection; local governments and enterprises are allies, with most local taxes coming from the latter; and environmental protection is a long-term task, but many cadres move to new positions after 3 or 4 years. Yan, Y. (2003). Lun xin wen ji zhe de huan jin yi shi [Discussion on environmental ideology of journalists]. Huan Jin Bao Hua [Journal of Environmental Protection], 48-49, 58. Using the case of protecting Tibetan sheep as an illustration, argues that environmental protection requires the active monitoring and reporting of the media to enhance public awareness of related laws and regulations, and journalists require environmental knowledge to discover and understand environmental problems. Yi, S. T., Lu, S. T., Ren, Y., & Zhou, X. Y. (2002). Lian Yun Gang shi min huan jing yi shi wen juan tiao cha ji fen xi yan jiu [Survey and analytical research on Lian Yun Gang citizens environmental awareness]. Huanjiang Daobao [Environment Herald], Based on a survey of 1,000 people in Jiangsu Province, finds that Lian Yun Gang citizens have high environmental awareness (e.g., regarding green consumption and action against air pollution), people s satisfaction with environmental quality is low, and those with more income have greater environmental consciousness. Yi, X. C. (1995). Qingdao shi gong zhong huan jing yi shi tiao cha yu jin hou dui ce yan jiu [Qingdao public s environmental awareness investigation and upcoming strategic research]. Shangdong Huan Jing [Shangdong Environment], 67(4), Findings derived from a survey of 1,143 people in Qingdao city, Shandong Province, show that respondents environmental awareness was of the passive self-protective type, meaning that they had some knowledge of environmental protection and concern about environmental problems (e.g., environmental quality, air pollution, relation between economy

16 20 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR / January 2006 and environment), but they would not participate in environmental-protection behavior (e.g., not littering). Yu, J. C. (2001). Guangdong sheng xinhua zhen gong zhong hua jing yi shi tiao cha [Guangdong province Xinhua Zhen public s environmental awareness investigation]. Huan Jing Ru Ran Yu Fang Zhi [Environmental Pollution and Treatment], 23(2), People in the community of Xinhua Zhen, Guangdong Province, show high environmental awareness (e.g., knowledge of different kinds of pollution and its prevention) and believe that environmental protection should be a high priority, but they depend upon the government to protect the environment and they do not act to do so themselves (i.e., they will not sacrifice their economic interests for the environment). Zhong guo huan jing wu ran ri qu yan zhong [China s environmental pollution is serious]. (2002). Zhong Guo Qing Nian Bao [China Youth Daily]. Reflects growing, officially sanctioned coverage of the serious problems associated with environmental pollution. Zhong guo ling dao gan bu zai er ling ling er nian zui guan xin de shi qing [Issues of the most concern for Chinese officials in 2002]. (2003, December 18). Zhong Guo Qing Nian Bao [China Youth Daily]. Argues that most Chinese officials care about environmental protection. Zhong, Y. P., Tan, Q. B., Ying, Z. (2003). Chong xing shi zhu cheng qu ji jin jiao ju min huan jing yi zhi zhuang kuang fen xi [University Students Environmental Consciousness and Environmental Behavior Investigation Survey]. Chong Xing Huan Jing Ke Xue [Journal of Psychological Science], 26(3), Based on a survey in 605 students at three universities, investigates several factors influencing environmental awareness (e.g., educational background, age, family) and argues that environmental education in the universities is very important for increasing environmental awareness of the students. Zhou, J. (2003). Ying xiang lu se xiao fei xing wei de yin su fen xi ji qi ying xiao ke shi [Factor analysis of consumption behavior that affects green consumers and the implication on its marketing]. Bei Jing Gong Shuang Dai Xue Xue Bao She Kuai Ke Xue Ban [Journal of Beijing Technology and Business University, Social Science], 18(2), Classifies consumers as light green, middle green, and dark green consumers and shows that green consumption is directly proportional to factors such as educational level and income. Zhou, X. (2002). Huan jing jiao yu dehe xin li nian he mu biao [The core meaning of environmental education and its goal]. Bei Jing Shi Fan Da Xue Xue Bao [Beijing Normal University Journal], An environmental consciousness survey conducted throughout China during June 2001 shows that Chinese have very strong environmental consciousness insofar as they are attentive to environmental pollution affecting their daily lives, they hold positive attitudes toward environmental protection measures by local governments, and they support efforts aimed at improving Chinese environmental consciousness through more education because they understand that weak environmental consciousness will lead to environmental degradation.

17 Harris / ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN CHINA 21 Zhu, C. R., & Lu, H. (2003). Hu bei gong zhong huan jing yi shi kao cha [Public environmental consciousness of Hubei province]. Sheng Qing Yan Jiu [Journal of Economic Tribune], 15, Derived from a survey of 699 people in cities of Hubei Province, shows that public environmental awareness is not strong, environmental knowledge is poor, and people rely on government for environmental protection, although they state a willingness to participate in environmental protection. Zhu, Q. (2001). Guan yu nong min huan jing yi shi de diao cha yu si kao [The investigation and reflection on Chinese farmers environmental consciousness]. Diao Yan Shi Jie [World of Investigation], 1, Environmental consciousness of Chinese farmers is very weak, with most of them unaware of the reasons for the environmental degradation in their villages and unclear about how agricultural productionand fertilizers contribute to environmental pollution.