04/2012 PEACEKEEPING IN AFRICA CAN THE AFRICAN REGIONAL STANDBY FORCES DELIVER? INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

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1 INTERNATIONAL POLITICS 04/2012 ROSA LUXEMBURG STIFTUNG SOUTHERN AFRICA PEACEKEEPING IN AFRICA CAN THE AFRICAN REGIONAL STANDBY FORCES DELIVER? EMMANUEL NIBISHAKA B.PolSci; BA (Hons) International Relations; M.Phil.Conflict Management; Dip.PA Armed ethnic conflicts, civil wars, coup d états and failing states continue to pose a threat not only to Africa, but to international peace and stability. This is evident along the coast of East Africa, where piracy increasingly troubles international maritime transport. Following its transition from the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to the African Union (AU) in 2002, African leaders agreed a common vision for a stable and peaceful continent. Since its establishment the AU made efforts to become an active player in conflict resolution on the continent. The AU s Peace and Security Council (PSC), established in 2003, recommended the development of a common security policy and, by 2010, the activation of an African Standby Force capable of rapid deployment to keep or enforce peace on the continent. The ASF planned standby brigades in all African regions.1 The European Union (EU) supports the ASF by way of the African Peace Facility (APF) project with EUR 550 million to support peace, security and development in Africa.2 The objective of this paper is to analyse the evolution of the ASF project, identify the challenges and successes in implementation and suggest some feasible recommendations. AFRICAN SOLUTIONS FOR AFRICAN PROBLEMS THE ROAD TO THE ASF The ASF is rooted in the African Union's Constitutive Act (2000) and the ratification of the AU Peace and Security Protocol by the 1st Ordinary Session of the Assembly of the African Union in Durban in The Constitutive Act gives the AU the right to intervene in a Member State under grave circumstances, namely; war crimes, genocide and crimes against 1 Cilliers, J& Malan, M Progress with the African Standby Force. Occasional Paper no 98, Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. See also, Kent, V & Malan, M. 2003: African Standby Force: Progress and Prospects. African Security Review, Vol.12, No3. 2 Mpysisi, K How EU Support of the African Peace and Security Architecture Impacts Democracy Building and Human Security Enhancement in Africa. Stockholm, Sweden: International IDEA 3 African Union Constitutive Act of the AU. Available online at Accessed 11 March 2012 Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung 1

2 humanity. 4 The Constitutive Act further defined the need to recognise the role of regional organisations such as SADC, ECOWAS and EAC in promoting peace and security in Africa. 5 In May 2003, the African Chiefs of Defence and Security (ACDS) adopted a document 6 entitled the policy framework document on the establishment of the African Standby Force (ASF) and of the Military Staff Committee (MSC) 7. The AU endorsed this recommendation during its summit meeting two months later and, after two key meetings of the ACDS in May 2003 and January 2004, adopted an amended framework document in July The framework provided six scenarios that the ASF would have been able to meet by The most challenging being: (4) AU peacekeeping and preventive deployment within 30 days of a mandate; (5) a multidimensional peacekeeping operation, including the possibility of enforcement, with the military component deploying in 30 days and the entire mission in 90 days; and (6) deployment of a robust military presence in 14 days to stop a genocide. 8 Scenario Description Deployment requirement (from mandate resolution) 1 AU/Regional military advice to a political mission 30 days 2 AU/Regional observer mission co-deployed with a UN mission 30 days 3 Stand-alone AU/Regional observer mission 30 days 4 AU/Regional peacekeeping force for Chapter VI and preventive deployment missions (and peace building) 30 days 5 AU peacekeeping force for complex multi-dimensional peacekeeping missions, including those involving low-level spoilers 90 days with the military component being able to deploy within 30 days 6 AU intervention, e.g. in genocide situations where the international community does not act promptly 14 days with robust military force 4 ICRotP. Nd. International Coalition for the Responsibility to protect. Africa. Available online at Accessed 28 March African Union Constitutive Act of the AU. Available online at Accessed 11 March APSTA African Standby Force Training Policy. P.1. Available online at Accessed 23 March Mtimukulu, B A vision for African Standby Force. A draft Document for Discussion. Addis Ababa, 23 September. Available Online at Accessed 10 March Burgers, S The African Standby Force, Sub-regional Commands and African Militaries. US War College. Available Online at Accessed 7 March Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung

3 ASF IN REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE The ASF project s first objective was the establishment of strategic level management capacity able to implement scenarios 1 and 2 above. Also the capacity of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) to complement the African Union by establishing regional standby forces, up to brigade size, to meet scenario 4. 9 Secondly, by 2010, the AU would have the capacity to manage complex peacekeeping operations, while the Regions would create deployment mission headquarters (HQs) for scenario NORTH AFRICA The AU designated the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) to act as the regional organisation tasked with the formation and support of a North Africa brigade. 11 For some time, intraregional differences prevented any progress, as its members remained divided over Western Sahara. Compounding challenges was the fact that Egypt, potentially a major contributor, was not a member of AMU. As a result, a new body, the North Africa Regional Capability, was formed to take on the role of the REC for Northern Africa. 12 It signed a MoU with the AU in January Egypt provided headquarters for the brigade and contributes one battalion. Algeria pledged two autonomous battalions and two additional support companies, while Libya offers helicopter support. Tunisia signed an MOU, but the nature of its pledge is unknown. 13 WEST AFRICA: In West Africa, a 1,500 strong battalion is being established, the first element of an expected 6,500 strong ECOWAS brigade. In mid-2008, ECOWAS held its first exercise in Bamako, Mali to evaluate the efficiency of assigned units. 14 Another exercise was held at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in November last year. It is reported that the Nigerian Army battalion component of the force is located at Okitipupa in southwest Nigeria. Discussions continue over the use of a logistics depot at Hastings, Sierra Leone. A multinational planning cell is located at Abuja, Nigeria. 15 Reportedly, by May 2010, the ECOWAS Standby Force comprised a Task and Main Force. The Task Force includes 2773 personnel, amongst these 200 police members, a headquarters, two Infantry battalions (West and East) and a logistics battalion. The Task Force can deploy within 30 days and is selfsufficient for 90 days. The ECOWAS evaluation exercise took place in December 2007 during 9 African Union Experts s Meeting on relationship between the AU and the Regional Mechanisms for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, March. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Available online at Accessed 23 March ibid 11 African Standby Force. N.d. Available online at 12 African Standby Force. N.d. Available online at 13 U.S. Mission to the African Union, USAU: Africa Command Deputy Meets with AU Peace and Security Commissioner Lamamra, 09ADDISABABA735, 30 March 2009, via United States diplomatic cables leak 14 African Standby Force. N.d. Available online at 15 Ibid Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung 3

4 joint Senegal/France field training. The Logistics battalion, validated in Bukina Faso in June 2009, is led by Mali with Nigeria as second-in-command. Other members are Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal. The East Battalion was sanctioned following a multinational military field training exercise in May There are three centres of training excellence, namely, strategic level instruction at the National Defence College in Abuja, operational level tuition at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre in Accra and the Ecole de Maintien de la Paix Alioune Blondin Beye in Bamaka, Mali, for tactical level training. 17 CENTRAL AFRICA The Economic Community of Central Africa is in the process of establishing a regional standby brigade. In October 2003, at a meeting of Defence Chiefs of Staff in Brazzaville, it was decided that a brigade-size peacekeeping force, the Central African Multinational Force (French acronym FOMAC) be formed in line with the AU regional efforts in conflict management and prevention. 18 The meeting also recommended the establishment of a joint peacekeeping training centre and military exercises every two years. As initially planned, the first exercise took place in N djamena, Chad in November FOMAC would ensure sufficient air and naval assets with multinational general staff appointed by consensus, and comprise, according to Jakkie Cilliers: One major brigade at a low degree of notice of deployment, two major brigades at a medium degree of notice of deployment, three major brigades at the high degree of notice of deployment. 19 EAST AFRICA The established Eastern African Standby Brigade (EASBRIG) HQ and logistics base are both located in Addis Ababa, while its planning wing (EASBRICOM) is in Nairobi - the supporting secretariat. In 2007, at an experts meeting, a number of duplicate structures were identified between the existing Planning Element and Brigade headquarters. 20 The absence of an appropriate regional mechanism to harmonise the Eastern African standby force has delayed progress in this region. In 2004 Eastern Africa first mandated the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), consisting of only seven Eastern Africa troop contributing countries, to coordinate the Eastern African Standby Brigade (EASBRIG). When non-igad members protested against this role, the council of ministers approved the formation of an independent EASBRIG Coordination Mechanism (EASBRICOM) to assume coordination from IGAD. 21 The members of the Eastern Africa Standby Force now include Comoros, 16 African Standby Force. N.d Cilliers, J The African Standby Force, An update on progress. ISS Paper 160. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. 18 African Standby Force. N.d Cilliers, J The African Standby Force, An update on progress. ISS Paper African Standby Force. N.d. See also East African Brigade Coordinating Mechanism Report of the Experts Workshop on the Concept of Cooperation in Peace and Security in the Eastern Africa Region, Seychelles, September 21 Cilliers, J The African Standby Force, An update on progress. ISS Paper 160. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. 4 Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung

5 Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania, Madagascar and Mauritius. SOUTHERN AFRICA In July 2004 in Maseru, Lesotho, the SADC defence and police chiefs approved modalities for a SADC Standby Brigade (SADCBRIG) which was later approved by ministers of defence and security. 22 A SADC brigade (SADCBRIG) came into being on 17 August 2007 in Lusaka, Zambia. The SADCBRIG PLANELM functions in dual locations of Zambia and Botswana. Already active, the brigade facilitated AU deployments in the Sudan 23, while South Africa contributed to the UNAMID. The regional brigade has a centre of training excellence (the Regional Peacekeeping Training Centre in Harare), dedicated forces and elements in place, as is the brigade headquarters. The region also conducted a number of peacekeeping exercises in Botswana and South Africa but has not yet finalised the civilian component or the details surrounding the establishment of a logistic concept and depot. 24 GETTING ASF RUNNING SINCE 2003 As Rick Razoof (2011) puts it, the African Standby Force is under the nominal direction of the African Union and receives most of its training from the U.S. Africa Command and NATO. 25 While the ASF is not yet fully operational, some progress has been achieved. In October 2010, with support from the EU and other AU strategic partners, a continental staff exercise code named AMANI AFRICA or Peace Africa was conducted in Addis Ababa. The exercise was the culmination of a two year capacity building cycle with the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of the AU Commission (through the Peace Support Operations Division), to deploy the African Standby Force for a Peace Support Operation mandated by the AU PSC. 26 However, interventions in areas of conflict have been minimal. Previously under the former OAU, ECOWAS deployed military in Liberia in 1990, Sierra Leone in 1997, Guinea-Bissau in 1999 and Sierra Leone again the same year and those operations were conducted under the auspices of the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) 22 Ibid 23 African Standby Force. N.d Cilliers, J The African Standby Force, An update on progress. ISS Paper 160. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. 25 Rozoof, R Ivory Coast: Testing Ground For U.S.-Backed African Standby Force. Internet: 26 African Union Commission African Standby Force. Available online at African Union Commission Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung 5

6 multinational armed force. 27 Under the present AU, one notes the 2003 deployment to Liberia under the ECOWAS Mission in Liberia (ECOMIL). The discussed intervention in Ivory Coast, following the disputed elections in 2010, was destined to be the first deployment of the West African (ECOWAS) Standby Force brigade with troops from Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea (Conakry), Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. 28 It is however worthy noting that even the successful intervention conducted thus far was not entirely an ASF project. Before the initial activation of U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) on 1 October 2007, its current commander, General William Ward, affirmed: AFRICOM will assume sponsorship of ongoing command and control infrastructure development and liaison officer support. It would continue to resource military mentors for peacekeeping training, and develop new approaches to supporting the AU and African Standby Forces. 29 CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS Since its transformation from the OAU to the AU in 2002, the African Union Conflict Management institutions have been grappling with the lack of adequate finance and sustainable resources. Even if the continent recorded positive economic growth since the 1990s as intra- and interstate conflicts decline, African countries still lack the required financial means to create a self-sustainable conflict management institution like the ASF; as most individual African post-independence states remain relatively poor. In this regard, plans and actions that do not fall within the donor s perspectives will always be overlooked; and sensitive operations that jeopardise strategic interests and objectives of donor countries and organisations will remain challenges. In addition, the economic situation coupled with other domestic issues lead African leaders to prioritise domestic policies in Africa over commitment (both political and financial) to the AU and its projects. South Africa, initially a leading player in the AU and ASF project, shows little commitment to the development of the continental security architecture. It is therefore clear that the challenges of building a continental Standby Force, with enough rapid deployment capacity in a state of emergency, is currently almost impossible, since the obstacles highlighted above are far from over. 27 Agyapong, W Military Intervention in Intrastate conflicts in West Africa: ECOWAS Monitoring Group as a case Study. A thesis presented to the US Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Master of Military Art and Science. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Available online at Accessed 2 March Rozoof, R Ivory Coast: Testing Ground For U.S.-Backed African Standby Force. Internet: 29 Ward, William in Stars and Stripes, 30 September Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung

7 REFERENCES Cilliers, J& Malan, M Progress with the African Standby Force. Occasional Paper no 98, Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Mpysisi, K How EU Support of the African Peace and Security Architecture Impacts Democracy Building and Human Security Enhancement in Africa. Stockholm, Sweden: International IDEA. African Union Constitutive Act of the AU. Available online at ihttp:// Accessed 11 March Mtimukulu, B A vision for African Standby Force. A draft Document for Discussion. Addis Ababa, 23 September. Available Online at Second%20Draft%20Vision... Accessed 10 March Burgers, S The African Standby Force, Sub-regional Commands and African Militaries. US War College. Available Online at mands.pdf. Accessed 7 March Bam. S Head of Peace Support Operations Division (PSOD) of the AU Commission Cilliers, J The African Standby Force, An update on progress. ISS Paper 160. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies ECOWAS First ECOWAS Exercise to assess its readiness starts in Bamako. Press Release, 12 June. Available online at Accessed 23 March 2012 East African Brigade Coordinating Mechanism Report of the Experts Workshop on the Concept of Cooperation in Peace and Security in the Eastern Africa Region, Seychelles, September African Union Commission African Standby Force. Available online at Accessed 28 March 2012 Agyapong, W Military Intervention in Intrastate conflicts in West Africa: ECOWAS Monitoring Group as a case Study. A thesis presented to the US Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Master of Military Art and Science. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Available online at Accessed 2 March Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung 7

8 Ward, W Stars and Stripes, September 30. Cited from Phambazuka.org (New colonialism Pentagon carves Africa into military zones ) Available online at Accessed March 22, Rozoof, R Ivory Coast: Testing Ground For U.S.-Backed African Standby Force. Internet: Williams, P.D African Union Conflict Management Capabilities. Working Paper No7. Council on Foreign Relations, New York. Harwood, A IIGG Report on African Union. Available online at Accessed 14 March African Union Experts s Meeting on relationship between the AU and the Regional Mechanisms for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, March. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Available online at Accessed 23 March 2012 ICRotP. Nd. International Coalition for the Responsibility to protect. Africa. Available online at Accessed 28 March APSTA African Standby Force Training Policy. P.1. Available online at icy.pdf Accessed 23 March Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung

9 The diagram illustrates the current ASF components. 30 Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung 9 30 Adapted from Mtimukulu, B A vision for African Standby Force. A draft Document for Discussion. Addis Ababa, 23 September. Available Online at Accessed 10 March 2012

10 ACRONYMS AFRICOM AMIB AMIS AMISOM AMU APSA ASF AU CEN-SAD COMESA CEWS EAC EASF ECCAS ECOWAS IGAD MAES MIOC NARC OAU PSC REC SADC UNAMID UNOAU UNSC U.S. Africa Command African Union Mission to Burundi African Union Mission in Sudan African Union Mission in Somalia Arab Maghreb Union African Peace and Security Architecture African Standby Force African Union Community of Sahel-Saharan States Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa Continental Early-Warning System East African Community East African Standby Force Economic Community of Central African States Economic Community of West African States Inter-governmental Authority on Development African Union Electoral and Security Assistance Mission to the Comoros African Union Military Observer Mission in the Comoros North African Regional Capability Organization of African Unity Peace and Security Council of the African Union Regional Economic Community Southern African Development Community United Nations-African Union Hybrid Operation in Darfur United Nations Office to the African Union United Nations Security Council 10 Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung ROSA LUXEMBURG STIFTUNG