Exhibition script: Arts of the Ancient Americas

Transcription

1 Exhibition script: Arts of the Ancient Americas Permanent collection galleries Open 2009 Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester, NY Curator: Jessica Marten, Assistant Curator Educator: Marlene Hamann-Whitmore, Curator of Education

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3 The reinstallation of the Ancient Americas galleries was made possible thanks to the following contributors: UNDERWRITERS This installation is underwritten by donors to the Gallery s Tribute Fund. SCHOLARS AND LENDERS Janet Berlo, PhD., Professor of Art History/Visual and Cultural Studies, University of Rochester; Ellen R. Kintz, PhD., Professor Emerita of Anthropology, State University of New York at Geneseo; Rebecca Stone, PhD., Associate Professor of Art History, Emory University and Curator of Ancient American Art, Michael C. Carlos Museum; Susan Schilling, Curator Emerita of Education, Memorial Art Gallery CONSULTANTS Barbara Moore, conservator; Kathy D Amanda, designer

4 What do BCE and CE mean? BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era) refer to the same time periods as the more traditional BC (Before Christ) and AD ( Anno Domini, which means The Year of our Lord ). In today s global society, constant interaction between people of all religious beliefs requires a shared, or common, way of reckoning time. Although the terms BCE and CE have their origins in the Christian calendar, they are now widely used by people of all faiths and cultures. For this reason, the Memorial Art Gallery has adopted BCE and CE for use in its galleries.

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6 MESOAMERICA: MEXICO INSET CASE 1a Colima Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Horned Hunchback Figure Vessel Clay By exchange from Stendahl Galleries, Many ceramic hunchback figures with single horns strapped to their heads have been found in the tombs of the Colima culture. The frequency with which hunchbacks and dwarfs appear in the art of the Ancient Americas may indicate their significant status as shamans or spiritual advisors. The horns strapped to the Colima figures are thought to represent powerful caps characteristically worn by shamans across many cultures. Shamanism is a religious system in which the shaman is a spiritual mediator between the physical and spiritual worlds. A shaman figure buried in a tomb may have served to guide the deceased s transition from the living to the realm of the dead. Colima Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Hunchback Dwarf Figure Vessel Clay Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Some figural art created by Ancient American cultures may not depict actual humans, but may use the human form as a symbol. The lives of the people of ancient Mesoamerica depended upon their ability to grow and produce food. The cultivation of maize (corn) was central to their world view. The human figure could capture aspects of a belief system that intertwined the cycles of life with the cycles of agriculture. For example, a hunchback ( fatback ) might symbolize abundance, and a dwarf might represent the stunted ears of corn a typical maize plant produces with the healthy ear. Mother and child figures might symbolize lineage or the way corn starts as a kernel, grows into a stalk of corn, and is harvested for consumption. Colima Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Seated Dog Vessel Clay R.T. Miller, Jr. Fund #2, 42.14

7 The rounded, hollow Colima vessels were made with reddish clay. The black spattering was not intentional, it is the result of the oxidation of the chemical element, manganese, present in the clay. This occurred when the manganese was leached out, over time, by contact with water in the tombs. The vessels smooth, lustrous surfaces were attained through burnishing a process of rubbing the surface with a smooth rock to make it shiny. In addition to ceramics, valuable goods obtained through trade, such as shell, green stone and obsidian were buried in the shaftand-chamber tombs of the Colima people. Colima Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Standing Dog Vessel Clay Gift of Canon and Mrs. Nathaniel T. Whitcomb, In nearly every world culture, dogs were the first domesticated animals. A large proportion of Colima tombs had actual dogs or dog-shaped vessels interred with the deceased. The frequently plump bodies of the dog vessels and their ubiquity in Colima tombs support different theories. Some scholars believe they represent a hairless breed of dog that was fattened and eaten at feasts. Others think the primary role of the dog was as spiritual guide to the Underworld. Those well-treated in life (and thus wellfed) would act as a guide for the owner s safe passage to the Underworld in death. Colima Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Jar with Relief Figures Clay Gift of Lili Wildenhain, Generous offerings of real food and ceramics representing foods were placed in tombs for the deceased s consumption in the afterlife. Other similar jars from the Colima culture represent regional foods such as fruits, vegetables and seafood. It is possible that the small, unidentified creatures on this jar were a food source.

8 Jalisco Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Cylinder Vessel Given in memory of Ruth D. Maurer by James W. Maurer, The wavy lines on this vessel represent water. The other design in repeated medallions has not yet been identified. Mezcala Culture, Guerrero, West Mexico ca. 300 BCE 300 CE Ceremonial Celt Figure Serpentine Gift of Ronni Solbert, These two green stone figures are anthropomorphized celts, or axe-heads. The frequency with which the Mezcala people made celt figures with human characteristics can perhaps be explained by the animistic belief that animals, plants, rocks and objects have spirits. The celt was a multi-use working tool that was passed down through generations. Because of its highly-valued role and ancestral connotations, the celt form took on symbolic value in ritual objects, some of which were worn by individuals. Mezcala Culture, Guerrero, West Mexico ca. 300 BCE 300 CE Ceremonial Celt Figure Metadiorite Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur L. Stern, In Ancient America, a variety of green stones sometimes called jadeite or jade were highly-prized, valuable materials. While the types of stones and the actual greenness vary, a symbolic association linked them to water and plant growth. The hard stone was sculpted by abrading it with other stones, which was a slow and arduous process. The durability and strength as well as the attractive, shiny surfaces would have contributed to the overall value of green stone and these celt figures. Colima Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Male and Female Figures Clay

9 R.T. Miller Fund, &.1 The ancient people of West Mexico focused upon the powerful bonds of familial relationships in their ceramics. Treating death not as an end of existence, but as a next stage in a larger journey, these transitional objects were made in the physical world for travel with the dead to the Underworld. Perhaps such figural ceramic groups were made to accompany the deceased into the afterlife as an extension of earthly comforts. Another, more symbolic and less personal approach interprets the ceramic groups as embodiments of agriculture, abundance or lineage. Chupicuaro Culture, West Mexico ca. 300 BC CE Mother and Child Figures General Acquisitions Fund, This mother and child may symbolize continuity and legitimacy of the family line. Women were identified with and valued for their role as progenitor; hence this figure s suitability for reproduction is emphasized in a generous belly and bulbous hips. Reinforcing powerful associations between women, fertility, food and the earth, Chupicuaro burials contained many ceramic food vessels and female figures. MESOAMERICA: MEXICO INSET CASE 1b Jalisco Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Mother and Child Figures Marion Stratton Gould Fund, This depiction of a mother nursing her child embodies fertility and abundance. As humans gain sustenance and food from the earth, so the child receives life-sustaining nutrition from the mother. Modification and adornment of the body were practiced by ancient West Mexico cultures. This figure shows skull shaping, scarification (on the shoulders), teeth filing, and adornment with elaborate ear pendants and arm bands. Skull shaping was accomplished by applying pressure to boards strapped to an infant s head, resulting in the elongation visible in these two figures. Such modifications manifest a culture s world view and ideas concerning beauty, status and social identification.

10 Nayarit Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 500 CE Seated Musician Figure with Drum Given in memory of Ruth D. Maurer by James W. Maurer, The drum depicted in the arms of this musician figure was made from the shell of a turtle. The nose ring, ear ornaments and cross-legged posture are all common characteristics of clay figurines across ancient Mexico. Nayarit Culture, West Mexico ca. 200 BCE 600 CE Standing Female Figure R.T. Miller Fund, Beads, armbands, pendants, and ear and nose ornaments have been found on skeletal remains in Ancient American tombs. This Nayarit woman is depicted with nose, neck and ear ornaments and scarification (cutting or branding designs into the skin) on her shoulders and arms. The specificity of adornment would have associated this figure with a particular culture and class. These details contrast with an abstracted body that minimizes certain physical features while emphasizing others. The small, truncated arms are likely a stylistic convention; the wide, heavy hips and legs emphasize the woman s connection with the earth and reproduction. Zapotec Culture, Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Central Mexico ca BCE Pipe or Incense Burner in the Shape of a Small Child or Acrobat Clay (blackware) Gift of Susan and Bernard Schilling, This object has been described as a pipe or an incense burner in the shape of a child or an acrobat. The bowl opens up on the figure s back and a spout or mouthpiece emerges from the forehead. The material likely burned in the bowl while smoke exited through the forehead spout; the smoke of copal incense was believed to be the brains of the gods. With eyes closed, hands held to the mouth, and cheeks and lips distended, the figure appears to be blowing or holding breath as if underwater. The unusual shape and orientation of flipper-like feet add to the impression that this figure is swimming.

11 Casas Grandes Culture, North Mexico ca CE Human Figure Vessel Ruby Miller Memorial Fund, This vessel likely held water, porridge or an alcoholic beverage. Casas Grandes was a trade emporium in the northernmost part of Mexico, where its sharing of influences with Southwest Native Americans is visible in the ceramics traditions of both cultures. Mixtec Culture, Teotitlan del Camino, Oaxaca, Central Mexico ca CE Incense Burner: Figure of Macuilxochitl Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Macuilxochitl, whose name means Five Flower, was the charming Mixtec patron god of dance, feasting, love, sexuality, and summer. Representations of Macuilxochitl were favored by women for their domestic shrines. Despite the seemingly fierce appearance of this figure, Macuilxochitl is identifiable by the flowers on his headband, the white butterfly wings around his mouth, and the vertical element of his helmet representing the crest of a bird. This object would have been placed over burning incense that produced a great deal of smoke. The thick, white smoke that exited through the holes in the figure s chest may have represented mother s milk. The smoke that exited through the figure s mouth may have been a form of communication with the gods. This complex object was a manifestation of life and agricultural cycles, transformation and renewal. Teotihuacan, Central Mexico ca. 100 BCE 600 CE Amulet Figure Green stone Gift of the Intermercado Limitado, Teotihuacan was the largest and most powerful city to rise in the Ancient Americas. This small amulet figure was likely worn on an individual s body to provide power, protection or status.

12 Zapotec Culture, Oaxaca, South Central Mexico ca CE Funerary Double Urn with Warrior Figure R.T. Miller Fund, 48.8 This warrior figure wears an elaborate headdress, large ear ornaments, a necklace with pectoral pendant and a loincloth. Although the two cylindrical vessels are now empty, they may have held funerary offerings believed essential to the deceased s survival and comfort in the afterlife. Aztec Culture, Central Mexico ca CE Figure of Quetzalcoatl Volcanic stone R.T. Miller Fund, Aztec deity sculptures exist in the thousands, despite a campaign of destruction by the conquering Spanish who believed they were heathen idols. This sculpture represents the Aztec creator god, Quetzalcoatl. His name combines the words for precious green feather (quetzalli) and serpent (coatl), thus combining the two religious/cosmological realms, the sky realm and earth. Representations of their gods were made recognizable to the Aztec people by their individual attributes. Here Quetzalcoatl wears his characteristic curved shell ear ornaments and conical headpiece.

13 The Mesoamerican ballgame was both ritual and brutal team competition. Played widely throughout Mesoamerica, it symbolized the cycles of life and agriculture and the struggle between the forces of good and evil. In ceremonies following the game, ritual sacrifice of ballplayers was believed to help maintain an orderly universe and agricultural abundance. The game, which is the root of many of our ball games today, was played on a man-made court with a hard rubber ball. Its specific rules and meanings differed depending on the time and the place but the most common form involved players using the ball to score without use of their hands, somewhat similar to soccer. Three kinds of stone objects relating to the game have been recovered in great abundance: yokes, palmas and hachas. These stone objects were ceremonial versions of the wood, leather or cotton pieces of protective gear worn during play. Such stone sculptures may have been prized as trophies or worn before or after the game during sacrificial rituals. The ancient city of El Tajin in Veracruz had at least seventeen ballcourts. This line drawing of a relief on the south ballcourt at El Tajin shows ballplayers in their equipment. The scene appears to take place after the game, as the figure on the right holds a knife used in the sacrificial killing of losing players. Caption: South ballcourt, El Tajin, Mexico Caption: Line drawing of South ballcourt relief, El Tajin, Mexico Veracruz Culture, El Tajin, Central Mexico ca CE Palma Stone Gift of Susan and Bernard Schilling, Palmas are pieces of equipment associated with the Mesoamerican ballgame. They have been named by modern-day archaeologists for their palm frond shape. Palmas worn during the game would have been made of materials lighter than the heavy stone of this ceremonial version. They were inserted into a ballplayer s yoke (protective belt) and projected up

14 the chest to protect vital organs from the fast-moving, hard rubber ball. Veracruz Culture, Central Mexico ca CE Hacha Stone Marion Stratton Gould Fund, The so-called hachas of the Mesoamerican ballgame were not axes as the Spanish name implies, but were named for their sharp, thin shape. Scholars debate over whether or not stone hachas functioned as markers on the ballcourt or representations of protective gear worn by the players. Hachas are frequently heads, which when worn on a player s yoke might have alluded to a trophy head of the player s previously defeated opponents. Veracruz Culture, Central Mexico ca CE Fragment of a Yoke Green stone Gift of Dr. Victor Logan, This is a fragment of a ceremonial stone yoke. The complete yoke was modeled after the much lighter protective belts worn sideways around players waists in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Much of the imagery associated with the ballgame involves blood and death, as the brutal game often ended in the sacrifice of the defeated team to nourish the earth and promote fertility. Many yokes were adorned with frog-like earth monsters believed to exist at the entrance to the Underworld. Photo included on label rail Caption: Frog Yoke from Veracruz, Mexico Veracruz Culture, Central Mexico ca CE Palma: Eagle Attacking a Skull Stone R.T. Miller Fund, In the Mesoamerican ballgame, players on the losing team were sometimes sacrificed by decapitation in rituals following the game. Skull

15 racks displaying decapitated heads were often located adjacent to ball courts. This ceremonial stone palma (a stone version of a piece of the ballplayer s equipment) depicts an eagle attacking a human skull. This is a common motif in ballgame imagery and may reference the flesh-eating birds that gorged themselves on the bodies of the sacrificed victims. Remojadas Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico ca CE Warrior Figure General Acquisitions Fund, This large ceramic figure s intact survival for over a thousand years was likely due to its burial in a tomb. The figure wields a vicious-looking mace and wears black body paint common among warriors in ancient Veracruz. The appearance of its back suggests it wasn t made to be seen from all sides, yet its size and complexity indicate it was an important object. As with many of the objects on view in this gallery, it remains unknown whether the figure served a purpose among the living prior to burial, and what exactly its expected role was once placed in the tomb. Remojadas Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico ca CE Warrior Head R.T. Miller Fund, Veracruz, the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, is rich in archaeological sites with great quantities of ceramic and stone sculptures. This head is a fragment of a larger figure, now missing. The influence from the Maya civilization to the south is visible in the face s crossed eyes. The Maya believed that since humans had to squint their eyes to look at the sun, the Sun God squinted back. Thus, crossed eyes became a standard of beauty, and parents would hang beads between their children s eyes so they became permanently crossed. Remojadas Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico ca CE Smiling Figure Clay R.T. Miller Fund, Smiling figures have been found in abundance in the Remojadas region of Veracruz, Mexico. A flattened head, filed teeth and raised hands are their common features. Many more heads than bodies have been found,

16 possibly as a result of ceremonial decapitations. These unique figures may represent laughing, happy people associated with a god of dance or music, or perhaps their smiles show the effects of intoxicants fed to victims before they were sacrificed to the gods.

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18 MESOAMERICA: MAYA CIVILIZATION INSET CASE 1c Rio Blanco Culture, Veracruz, Central Mexico ca. 700 CE Molded Bowl R.T. Miller Fund, Molded items are a sign of a prosperous economy because they could be churned out in quantity for trade or disseminated to the lower classes. This small bowl, made with two half-bowl molds, was made in south central Veracruz and shows Maya influence in both form and imagery. Maya Culture, Campeche, Mexico ca CE Cylindrical Vase Clay Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Around the lip of this Maya cylindrical vase is hieroglyphic writing in what has come to be called the primary standard sequence. Such standardized sequences of glyphs are commonly found around the top of Maya vases from this period. These sequences have been interpreted as descriptions of the function or contents of the vessels and might even include the name of the owner or the scribe. The sequence on this pot has not yet been translated. The depiction of the seated individual includes a plumed headdress, ear ornaments, necklace and loincloth. Maya Culture, Chama, Guatemala Vase, ca. 800 CE Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 72.9 This vase from Chama, Guatemala has the characteristic black and white chevron bands found along the tops and bottoms of vases from this area. The painted figure sits cross-legged on the floor and gestures outward with his right hand. From this profile view, it is easy to see the graceful slope of his head resulting from cranial modification, the shaping of the human skull during infancy (while still soft and growing). The Maya based their standard of beauty on the figure of their Corn God. They believed a long, tapered head was most beautiful as it mimicked the shape of an ear of corn.

19 Photo included on label rail Caption: Maya skull with cranial modification Maya Culture, Uxmal, Yucatan, Mexico ca CE Warrior Head R.T. Miller Fund, 48.9 This head fragment wears an elaborate headdress and large ear ornaments. The blue pigment found on the accessories is now called Maya Blue. This color is a unique combination of indigo and a special clay that was frequently used by the Maya in their art. Maya Culture, Jaina, Campeche, Mexico ca CE Seated Female Figurine Whistle Marion Stratton Gould Fund, The Maya are noted for the realistic, lively human figures they depicted in their murals and ceramics. The many portrait-like ceramic figurine whistles found on the island of Jaina provide the modern viewer with an astounding amount of detail about the way the ancient Maya lived. The seated female figure was a popular form. Two molds were used: one for the head and one for the body. The rest of the details elaborate beaded jewelry, loose cape, ankle-length skirt were created by hand. The whistle is formed with a hole in the figure s back left shoulder that leads down into its hollow body cavity. It remains a mystery why the whistle form was so common in Jaina graves. The Maya practiced body modification and adornment that reflected their standards of beauty and reinforced class lines. The elaborate jewelry was likely made of precious metals and green stone. This figure s nose replicates the prolonged nose bridge that was produced in real life with an artificial nose piece. Between the ears and mouth are lines of scarification created by cutting or branding permanent designs into the skin.

20 Maya Culture, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico ca CE Fragment of a Head Stucco, pigment Gift of Isabel C. Herdle in memory of Gertrude Herdle Moore, Palenque was a medium-sized Maya city that focused much of its artistic output on impressive temples and pyramids adorned with stucco sculptures. This fragment of a head, which shows traces of reddish pigment, was likely once a part of the city s architectural adornment. Photo included on label rail Caption: Ruins of Palenque, Mexico Credit: Photo by Peter Andersen, 2005 Better quality image at Maya Culture, Campeche, Mexico ca CE Tripod Plate with God N (Pauahtun) Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Many Maya ceramics depict deities connected with death and the Underworld. This is no surprise as such ceramics were destined as offerings to accompany the ancient Maya elite to their tombs. The theme of this tripod plate is God N or Pauahtun, one of the principal gods of the Underworld. God N is represented as an old man with toothless gums and a large, Roman nose. A common attribute is his enormous snail shell from which he crawls. A long necklace, likely made of valuable green stone hangs from his neck. The power of this Underworld lord is revealed by the rulership glyph (Maya writing) attached to the top of the shell. Stylized smoke is emitted by both this glyph and the shell s spire. Not much is known about the language of Maya hand gestures, but the position of God N s hands suggest that he is receiving homage in his palace. A representation of God N can also be found on the large stone stela in this gallery, directly to your right.

21 Maya Culture, Chiapas, Mexico or Peten, Guatemala ca CE Grasshopper/Jaguar God Pectoral Green stone R.T. Miller Fund, A pectoral is worn on an individual s chest. The creature that adorns this pectoral has been identified as a grasshopper, a man, a jaguar god, or perhaps a combination of all three. Composite images that defy modern understanding are quite common in Ancient American art as embodiments of change or transformation. Rather than representing an actual animal, the composite creature was a representation or symbol of the wearer, or the characteristics the wearer wanted to possess. It is unclear exactly what the wearer of this pectoral intended, but the characteristics of both animals hold potential for great power. Swarming grasshoppers (locusts) are incredibly destructive. To this day, they arrive on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico every four years and devour all the crops in the area. Jaguars are night hunters comfortable on land, in trees and in the water. Powerful shamans and kings throughout Mesoamerica chose the jaguar as their alter ego because of their size, strength and versatility. MESOAMERICA: MAYA CIVILIZATION - STELA Maya Culture, Oxkintok, Yucatan, Mexico Stela No. 9: Two Dancing Figures, ca. 859 CE Stone Marion Stratton Gould Fund, A stela is a sculpted stone monument with carved figures and inscriptions. The Maya often placed stela before temple or palace entrances. The one on view here was found at the portal of the main group of buildings in the Maya site of Oxkintok, Mexico by archaeologists from the Carnegie Institution of Washington in Photo included on label rail Caption: MAG stela as found in Oxkintok, 1940 images\mexico This 1940 excavation photograph shows the Gallery s largely intact

22 stela in the location where it was unearthed. This photo also shows that since its excavation in 1940 and before it was purchased by the museum in 1967, the stela suffered damage by unknown hands. The fragment of the upper panel visible in this photo was broken off and is now missing. Also damaged were the glyphs (Maya writing) between the knees of the figures, which lost some of their surface carving. What remains of the stela shows two elaborately dressed dancing figures who face each other. Three bands of glyphs are visible: the long horizontal band along the top, a vertical row between their faces and one horizontal row between their knees. The horizontal row of glyphs across the top contains the date of October 9, 859 CE. Both smaller rows are now badly abraded and difficult to identify, but the first two glyphs in the short vertical row between the figures may identify the name of the individual standing on the left as White Jaguar. This figure is a youthful ruler or noble, possibly in the guise of one of the legendary Hero-Twins who in Maya mythology traveled to the Underworld to overcome its lords. The figure on the right has been identified as God N (Pauahtun), one of the principal Maya lords of the Underworld or region of the dead. He wears feathers on his arms and carries a codex, or folding-screen book, of bark paper with a jaguar-pelt cover. Below Pauahtun is a bowl or basket containing unidentifiable objects. The upper panel that was attached to the stela in the 1940 excavation photo may have depicted an elaborately dressed dancing ruler in the world of the living as a counterpoint to the Underworld scene visible here.

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24 CENTRAL AMERICA: COSTA RICA AND PANAMA FREE-STANDING CASE Central Highlands or Atlantic Watershed Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Ceremonial Grinding Stone (Flying-Panel Metate) Stone Marion Stratton Gould Fund, A metate is a tool for grinding and preparing food. Because of its crucial role in ancient people s everyday existence (see photo to the right) over time the metate evolved into a ritual object. Carved from a single piece of stone, the delicate open work on this flying-panel metate was accomplished by skilled artists using only tools made from stone or wood. Both real and supernatural creatures decorate the base. The central figure is a shaman in the form of a crocodile. Respected for its power and swiftness on land and in the water, the crocodile is a fitting representation for a shaman. Metates were also employed as funeral biers in the most prestigious tombs; the body was laid out on two or three metates placed side by side. The more elaborate "flying-panel" examples may have been manufactured especially for high-rank burials. Photo included on label rail Caption: A utilitarian metate (grinding platform) with a mano (handheld stone grinder). CENTRAL AMERICA: COSTA RICA AND PANAMA INSET CASE 2 Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Jaguar Vessel Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 69.90

25 This vessel has all the features of a jaguar: ferocious snarling face, sharp teeth, long tail and golden black-spotted coat. The hollow legs and the mouth contain small clay balls that rattle when the jar is shaken, in imitation of the jaguar s growl. Admired for their strength and agility, jaguars were a powerful and ubiquitous symbol frequently adopted by shamans as an alter-ego. Here the jaguar is depicted in a human-like crouch with the hands placed on the knees a position not possible for this animal. In fact, what we re witnessing is a typical meditation pose of a shaman and the transformation into his/her animal form. Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Seated Hunchback Female Figure Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Made in great multitudes and providing a wealth of detail, small ceramic figures like this one illustrate the prevailing hair, clothing, body piercing and tattooing styles of the day. This female figure, with her hands placed on either side of her belly, draws attention to her ability to bear children. Figures with hunchbacks are common subjects in many Ancient American societies and are often depict individuals with shamanic powers. Atlantic Watershed Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Shaman Figure (Sukia) Stone Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Henry Buxbaum, This seated shaman figure is a standard type that was produced in great quantities in central Costa Rica. Carved from volcanic stone these figures were included in burials, and perhaps made initially for domestic use. Hallucinogenic drugs, derived from native plants and animals, played a large role in this culture. Shown deep in a trance, the shaman here is most likely either inhaling or expelling a narcotic. He wears no earthly clothing or jewelry and there is no visible body modification, as he is both of this world and the world beyond.

26 Veraguas-Gran Chiriqui Culture, Panama ca CE Vulture Pendant Gold-copper alloy R.T. Miller Fund, This vulture pendant displays the bird in standard attack mode: outstretched wings, fanned tail and sharp and deadly talons at the ready. Located under the large horned tufts atop the head are ear ornaments, jewelry usually reserved for nobility and shamans. Combining human with animal characteristics indicates this piece may represent a shaman in his vulture form. The shamanvulture incarnation is made even more powerful by the diminutive jaguar shown clenched in the beak. The wearer would assert his dominance by wearing this pendant on his chest. Veraguas-Gran Chiriqui Culture, Panama ca CE Pendant in the Form of a Lizard or Jaguar Gold-copper alloy R.T. Miller Fund, Objects made from gold played a special role in Ancient American cultures and were worn by chiefs and other members of the elite as a mark of rank and status. The gold pendants produced in this region depict a vast array of human and animal forms, as well as human-animal combinations. Chosen for its particular characteristics, the animal represented here should not be considered merely ornamental jewelry, but may instead reference a specific species of poisonous lizard. Greater Nicoya or Diquis Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Figure Pendant Gold-copper alloy R.T. Miller Fund, Gold was associated with immortality in the Ancient Americas. Its unchanging nature made it a symbol of continuity, permanence and power, and it was prized for its ability to shine like and reflect the sun. Southern Central America is one of the world s largest gold sources, and the gold found there was highly prized by the Spanish explorers. Much of the goldwork produced by Ancient Americans was melted down and taken back to Spain as currency.

27 Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Incense Burner Clay Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Henry Buxbaum, Incense burners are found throughout the Ancient Americas, and this example is similar in purpose to the incense burner in the figure of Macuilxochitl in the case across the room. The smoke that emanated from an incense burner during a ritual could magically shroud the physical world before it dissipated into the mysterious world of the cosmos. The form itself is firmly rooted in the natural world: echoing the shape of an active volcano, the rough-textured bands of appliquéd pellets are symbolic of the scutes on an alligator s hide. Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca. 300 BCE 500 CE Ceremonial Half-Celt Pendant Green stone Marion Stratton Gould Fund, This form traces its lineage from actual working hand-axes whose blades, or celts, were used for farming and felling trees for land use. In this incarnation, the celt has become strictly ceremonial, yet it maintains its ties to the power and prestige that accompanies land ownership. The half-celt form is one subdivision of a whole celt, carefully split length-wise to produce two pieces, each with a flat back and curved and carveable front. Depicting a crouching figure, this image may represent the human-animal combination of a shaman. Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Ceremonial Horned Owl Mace Head Stone Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Once mounted on a staff, this ceremonial mace head descended from a similar form originally used for war clubs. These symbolic weapons were usually found in high-status graves and identified the deceased as warriors capable of self-defense, or the defense of their clan. Mace heads were made by the thousands yet found to represent a finite number of species or types, the

28 actual animal depicted may have been a distinguishing marker of a particular clan. Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Puma Vessel Marion Stratton Gould Fund, The puma is found throughout Central and South America. It is slightly smaller than the jaguar and its tawny coat is unspotted. Both animals are excellent hunters, being especially active at dawn and dusk. Their ability to move through the darkness, coupled with their strength and stealth, make them excellent alter-egos for the shaman. The cup on the back of this puma vessel is decorated with a depiction of another puma. Atlantic Watershed Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Pot with Double-Headed Lizard Clay (blackware) Marion Stratton Gould Fund, 72.8 This pot originates from the mountainous region of central Costa Rica. Painted with black-slip, the vessel was then decorated with incised marks made after firing. The two lizard heads serve both as handles and as a visual metaphor for the concept of dualism. This deeply-rooted artistic convention often depicts objects in pairs to represent the fundamental complexities of life and death. A central component of many societies in the Ancient Americas, symbolic dualism seeks to balance the opposing manifestations of male and female, left and right, light and dark, and night and day. Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Vessel with Bird Head Marion Stratton Gould Fund, Greater Nicoya Culture Zone, Costa Rica ca CE Human Head Effigy Bowl

29 Marion Stratton Gould Fund, The effigy vessel seen here takes the form of a human head and may refer to the practice of ritual decapitation. This bowl was made by the coil method and represents an early example of tricolor, highly polished vessels that flourished in the region of Costa Rica for over one thousand years. The painted decoration shares similarities with both the Maya ceramic tradition to the north and the Nasca effigy bowls to the south. The similarity in aesthetic approaches across cultures is the result of an active trading network which ran throughout the Americas.

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31 SOUTH AMERICA: PERU, ECUADOR, COLOMBIA WALL CASE Chimú Culture, Chicama Valley, North Coast, Peru ca CE Burial Mask Gold, silver and copper alloy R.T. Miller Fund, 47.9 Ruling from their capital city of Chan Chan, the Chimú state controlled a vast empire in the north and central coasts of Peru. They employed tens of thousands of artists, including skilled metalworkers that produced objects of precious metal for the nobility. Masks such as this would never have been worn by the living. They played an essential role in death and burial and were placed on the funerary bundle. These decorative masks helped indicate the rank of the deceased. The ornate, circular ear ornaments may have held actual feathers. The upper portion of the mask is decorated with puma heads and bent, stylized figures of warriors wearing elaborate feathered headdresses. Separate ornaments may have been attached to the mask near the eyes, around the nose and along the side of the face. The nose, which was raised in relief, has been lost. Photo included on label Caption: This is a complete Chimú mask comprised of thirty-five separate pieces. SOUTH AMERICA: PERU, ECUADOR, COLOMBIA INSET CASE 3 La Tolita Culture, Esmeraldas, Ecuador ca. 400 BCE 500 CE Standing Figure Clay (earthenware) Marion Stratton Gould Fund, This unusual figure simultaneously incorporates the physical qualities of

32 both a grown man and a very young child. Depicting a warrior or a hunter, his right arm is drawn back and appears ready to release a weapon. The figure was mold-made and probably produced for ritual purposes or burial. It would have been embellished with jewelry in the holes in his ears and nose. Quite often figures such as these would have been adorned with clothing and headdresses befitting the rank of a particular individual. Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Stirrup Spout Vessel with Warriors Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Bernard N. Schilling in memory of Lucy Eisenhart, The arts of the Moche, who flourished on the northern desert coast of Peru, evolved from earlier styles in the region. Known to have been weavers, metalworkers, mural painters and builders of large-scale monuments, only their ceramics remain as a testament to their achievements. Stirrup spout vessels so named because the shape of the spout recalls the stirrup on a horseman's saddle - were designed for the storage and libation of liquids. The unique handle design inhibited both evaporation and spillage as it allowed the vessel to be carried on a belt or sash. This vessel depicts two animated warriors in full regalia; each wears a half-moon nose ornament as a sign of rank and power. Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Stirrup Spout Vessel: Seated Woman and Child Clay (blackware) R.T. Miller Fund, Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Stirrup Spout Vessel: Frog R.T. Miller Fund, 45.30

33 Moche Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Stirrup Spout Vessel: Seated Blind Man R.T. Miller Fund, The Moche were keen observers of humanity as evidenced by the wide variety of subjects treated in their ceramics. Although they often based their designs on realistic images and scenes from daily life, these vessels probably had religious and symbolic significance. Here, a portrait of a blind man may allude to both a specific individual and the shamanic practice of using senses beyond sight to determine meaning. This figure is seated and wears a sash that passes through the stirrup spout of another vessel. Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru ca. 200 BCE 100 CE Double-Spout and Bridge Vessel with Flying Shaman R.T. Miller Fund, The Nasca inhabited the southern coastal valleys of Peru. They produced distinctive ceramics decorated with images of shamans, ritually severed heads, supernatural beings and a variety of animal and plant forms. Frequently using hallucinogenic drugs to induce visions, shamans were often depicted in a transitive state of being, possessing both human and animal characteristics. This vessel portrays a wide-eyed shaman in the midst of an ecstatic flight. The shaman is shown with the upswept whiskers of an otter and the body of an ocelot, both of which live near water and were considered to be agricultural guardians. Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru ca. 200 BCE 100 CE Bowl with Flying Shaman and Trophy Heads R.T. Miller Fund, Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru ca CE Beaker with Flying Supernaturals R.T. Miller Fund, 47.20

34 Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru ca. 200 BCE 100 CE Bowl with San Pedro Cactus R.T. Miller Fund, Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru ca. 200 BCE 100 CE Spout and Bridge Vessel: Bird R.T. Miller Fund, Nasca Culture, South Coast, Peru ca. 200 BCE 100 CE Human Head Effigy Bowl R.T. Miller Fund, Nasca ceramics were hand-built without the use of the potter s wheel, employing both coil and mold-making techniques. Simple forms with extremely thin, even walls were preferred over the sculptural modeling favored in the ceramics of Costa Rica. Before firing, these vessels were painted with colored slips, fine clay pastes tinted with natural materials. Chimú-Inca Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Pepino Vessel with Small Lizard Handle Clay (blackware) Joseph T. Simon Fund, 43.8 The Chimú culture valued individually woven and embroidered textiles and fancy metalwork, but most of their pottery was mass produced mold-made blackware. Many copies of each design were created and disseminated and have been found in graves throughout the region. Chimú Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Double-Chambered Spout and Bridge Vessel with Llama or Alpaca Head Clay (blackware)

35 R.T. Miller Fund, Double vessels are typical of Chimú ceramics and were valued for their musical component: blowing into the spout produces a whistling sound. When filled with liquid the vessel can be made to whistle by itself by tipping it back and forth, thus forcing air from one chamber to the other, causing the whistle to sound. Here the whistle is incorporated into the head of a llama or an alpaca. Prized as a source of food, fiber and transport, they were valuable and essential animals and frequently depicted in the art of the Andean region. Capuli Culture, Highland Narino Region, Colombia ca CE Human Figure Vessel Clay (earthenware) Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Charles F. Hutchinson, This vessel is in the form of a stylized human holding a bowl, perhaps making a coca offering. Death, marriage, and almost any other social or religious ritual once included an offering of coca. Possessing ceremonial significance, the leaves of the coca plant have also been used in the Andean region for hundreds of years to treat ailments ranging from dysentery to altitude sickness. There is a small opening in the top of the vessel suggesting it may have been used to hold cremated human remains. The slit eyes may indicate death or a trance state. Inca Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Lime Dipper with Hummingbird Copper, bronze and silver alloy Gift of Mrs. Edward K. Brown, These tiny lime scoops were used in the preparation of a drug called coca. Lime from powdered seashells was scooped onto a coca leaf, made into a ball and chewed. In ancient times coca was restricted for the use of the nobility. It is used today to calm the stomach, combat the effects of hunger and thirst, and relieve fatigue induced by exertion in the high Andes mountains. A small hole in the neck of the bird allows for a thin cord to pass through, thus permitting the owner to wear this small, functional work of art.

36 Chimú Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Decorative Plaque with Geometric Repoussé Motifs Silver and copper alloy Gift of Mrs. Edward K. Brown, Chimú Culture, North Coast, Peru ca CE Pair of Earspools Silver Marion Stratton Gould Fund, a-b Although body piercing and tattooing may seem like a novel concept, it was a common practice and a sign of beauty and status in many cultures throughout the Ancient Americas. This matched pair of earspools once adorned the earlobes of a nobleman from the Chimú Empire. By wearing ever-larger ear plugs, ear lobes can be stretched out to accommodate such thick posts. These imposing earspools may have been secured with ties affixed either to a headdress or around the neck.