Unlocking Reading Comprehension: Writing Is the Key

Transcription

1 Unlocking Reading Comprehension: Writing Is the Key This T/TAC William and Mary Considerations Packet starts out with a brief review of research supporting the inclusion of writing to enhance reading comprehension, and goes on to highlight a specific instructional strategy, R.A.R.E. (Restate the question; Answer the question; Reasons given; and Examples from the text). Using the R.A.R.E. strategy, students at both the elementary and secondary levels learn how to respond accurately in writing to specific comprehension questions in all content areas. The packet also describes how to develop questions that teach and assess comprehension in all the purposes for reading. Why Teach Reading Comprehension Strategies? Reading comprehension occurs when a reader links new information with prior knowledge or personal experience to derive meaning from what was read. From the process, the student becomes a critical reader -- a problem solver. Reading comprehension, therefore, is not just a result of reading text. It begins before the reader even reads the text with the prediction of story outcomes based on prior knowledge (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). Predicting outcomes, clarifying vocabulary, creating questions while reading, identifying main ideas and themes, and summarizing the story are all strategies employed before, during, and after reading that contribute to the ability to derive meaning (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Proficient readers employ these strategies independently while reading. Students who are poor or marginal readers do not. Thus, learning how to comprehend what is read is an individual process. No one particular reading method works for all students all the time. Reading instruction requires individualized and creative methods to successfully enhance comprehension for all learners (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000; Lyon, 1998). For students who are not fluent readers including those students receiving special education services in reading comprehension, explicit instruction of comprehension strategies must be an integral part of reading instruction (Forness, 2001). Which Instructional Method Best Teaches the Strategies for Comprehending Text? Reading instruction should be flexible, adapting to individual needs; be creative and entertaining; integrate a variety of modalities; and be strategic, incorporating ongoing assessment of student progress (NICHD, 2000). One strategy for teaching reading comprehension that meets these criteria integrates writing with reading instruction. Because reading and writing are interrelated, what students learn in one area influences and reinforces what they learn in the other (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). In terms of the NICHD guidelines, writing can be easily modified to provide an instructional match; writing instruction is strategic and serves as an authentic assessment of student understanding. Teaching students to answer reading comprehension questions in writing is one way to strategically incorporate writing to enhance reading comprehension. Using 1

2 this approach, teachers craft questions that elicit specific responses related to the material read. There are multiple benefits to answering comprehension questions in writing including: Students demonstrate the degree of their understanding of what has been read based on the content of their answers. Students learn to manipulate words to form complete sentences that demonstrate an understanding of the text. Written responses give students the opportunity to use key vocabulary from the text to increase vocabulary development (T/TAC Considerations: A Word About Vocabulary, 2001). Students learn to reference the text in order to retrieve examples as support for statements and opinions. Students learn, review, and apply spelling, capitalization, and punctuation rules. The skill can be taught to a variety of learners at both the elementary and secondary instructional levels across all academic areas. Developing Quality Reading Comprehension Questions Since eliciting specific responses to comprehension questions is essential to understanding, crafting quality comprehension questions is key to effectively teaching reading comprehension. Comprehension is typically broken down into three levels of understanding: literal comprehension, inferential comprehension, and critical analysis (Salvia & Hughes, 1990). The chart provided below is an adaptation of Salvia and Hughes chart showing the components and subcomponents of reading comprehension. Students can be taught the various levels of comprehension by the kind of question asked at their respective instructional level. Additionally, each level of comprehension can be taught over the three purposes of reading (reading for a literary experience, reading to be informed, and reading to perform a task) in all content areas of instruction (Howard County [MD] Public School System [HCPSS], 1997; Rosenblatt, 1991). 2

3 Levels of Reading Comprehension Literal Comprehension Recall details Sequence events Retell the story Inferential Comprehension Infer main idea and details Predict outcomes Relate to personal experience Compare/contrast Infer cause and effect Draw conclusions Critical Analysis Identify author s point of view Distinguish between fact and opinion Distinguish between fact and fantasy Make value judgments Identify bias (Adapted from Salvia & Hughes, 1990) Paraphrase Summarize Judge adequacy/worth Apply ideas to solve problems Examples of Quality Reading Comprehension Questions Across the Purposes for Reading Literal Comprehension Questions (who, what, where, when, & how) ~ Who are the main characters in the story? (Literary Experience) ~ Where did the event take place? (Information) ~ What materials were needed to make the kite? (Perform a Task) Inferential Comprehension Questions ~ When the author used the expression.. in the story, it had a double meaning. Explain each meaning. (Inferences: Literary Experience) ~ Explain how your knowledge has changed or remained the same based on the information you read. Use examples from the text to support your ideas. (Compare/Contrast: Information) 3

4 ~ What information did the author have to know before writing the directions for this activity? List at least three things he had to know. (Draw Conclusions: Perform a Task) Critical Analysis ~ Do you think the author chose the best title for this poem? Explain why or why not using specific information from the poem. (Literary Experience) ~ What did the author do to present the information in a clear way? Support your answer with specific examples from the text. (Information) ~ Are the directions clear enough? Explain why or why not giving examples from the directions. (Perform a Task) (Adapted from HCPSS, 1997) Considerations When Crafting Reading Comprehension Questions Teach the vocabulary specific to reading comprehension. Examples include Purposes for Reading: For a Literary Experience, For Information, To Perform a Task; criteria; question; response; target or well-developed response; example; reason; and text. Provide specific criteria for a well-developed response. Include written criteria with oral explanation. Display in the classroom. Model a well-developed response to the class. Compare to a weak response. Discuss using a visual organizer. Create meaningful questions. Ask yourself: Is this more than a simple recall question? Is the question about something meaningful in the text? Can the student support it with examples from the text? Don t ask too many questions about the same subject matter. Consider varying the format of your questions. Not all responses have to be in sentence form. Consider charts, lists, drawings, and labels as possible responses. Write the response yourself to see if the question can be answered according to the established criteria. Consider the instructional levels represented within your class. Ask yourself: Should all of the students answer all of the questions? Do some of the students require modified criteria for responses (e.g., graphic, framed sentences, or sentence starter)? 4

5 (Adapted from HCPSS, 1997) A Formula for a Well-Developed Reading Response Teaching comprehension strategies is a powerful instructional tool for special education students who have reading comprehension difficulties. An instructional intervention of even greater value, according to research, is the use of mnemonic strategies (Forness, 2001). Mnemonic instruction supplies a student with a concrete connection between a student s prior knowledge and information that is unknown or to be learned. Research shows mnemonic instruction is particularly effective for students with memory deficits that impact their ability to recall information necessary for understanding (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1999). A major benefit of mnemonics is that they can be used in all academic disciplines to evoke factual information or formulas. For example, the following mnemonics assist students in remembering the order of the planets in science and the order of operations in mathematics. Mnemonic Examples My = Mars Please = Parenthesis Very = Venus Excuse = Exponents Educated = Earth My = Multiplication Mother = Mercury Dear = Division Just = Jupiter Aunt = Addition Served = Saturn Sally = Subtraction Us = Uranus Nine = Neptune Pizzas = Pluto The Mnemonic R.A.R.E. When applied to answering a reading comprehension question in writing, a mnemonic can provide a visual prompt for recollecting a formula, which if acted upon by the student, will produce a well-developed response. An example of such a mnemonic strategy is R.A.R.E., which stands for: Restate the question Answer the question Reasons given Examples from the text (Adapted from HCPSS, 1997) 5

6 Restate the question The student is supplied a question in one of the levels of comprehension. After the student reads the question twice and chooses a stance, the R in the mnemonic reminds the student to restate the question, changing it to a statement. Did the character change or remain the same? Student Response: The character changed Answer the question The student provides the answer to the question, which in this example is whether or not the character changed or remained the same. Student Response: The character changed Reasons given Looking back into the text, the student finds and paraphrases the reason why the character changed. Student Response: The character changed because he became aware of slavery s horrors. Examples from the text Using the text as a reference once again, the student finds an example from the text to support the reason for the stance taken. Note: The number of examples required depends on the criteria given to the student at the beginning of the assignment. Student Response: The main character changed because he became aware of slavery s horrors. For example, a slave boy named James told him how his mother was taken away from him when he was a baby and sold to a plantation owner. (The preceding response was taken from Soldier s Heart by Gary Paulsen, 1998) Example of Modified Response Using R.A.R.E. Consider the instructional levels presented within your class. Ask yourself: Should all of the students answer all of the questions? Do some of the students require modified criteria for responses? A frame or sentence starter can be employed as a modification for a quality response. Colored markers can be used to highlight the parts of the question needed for restatement. Sample Question: 6

7 Who might be an appropriate audience for this article? Explain why. CRITERIA 1. NAME who would be an appropriate audience 2. Use R.A.R.E. Restate the question Answer the question Reasons given Examples from the text 3. Give 2 reasons from the text or from prior knowledge FRAME An appropriate audience for this article is. I think this because, and. SENTENCE STARTER An appropriate audience for this article is. HIGHLIGHTED QUESTION is Who might be an appropriate audience for this article Explain why. An appropriate audience for this article is Ensure an Instructional Match It is important to design an instructional assessment (IA) that provides baseline data on (a) what students know about answering comprehension questions in writing; (b) what they do when they answer a question in writing; (c) how they think; and (d) how they approach a written response (Rosenfield & Gravois, 1996; T/TAC Considerations: Instructional Assessment, 2002). To score the IA teachers need a well-developed rubric that will serve as a scoring tool throughout the instructional period. An example of an instructional assessment: 7

8 1. Provide the students with a familiar reading passage in one of the purposes for reading. 2. Make sure the reading passage should be at the appropriate instructional reading level for the students. 3. Have the students listen to the passage being read to them as they read along. 4. Instruct the students to answer in writing a predetermined number of comprehension questions at each of the levels of comprehension. 5. Score the results using the rubric (see below). 6. At regular intervals, administer this instructional assessment to measure growth and guide instruction (Rosenfield & Gravois, 1996; T/TAC Considerations: Instructional Assessment, 2002). A Rubric for a Well-Developed Reading Response Using R.A.R.E. 0 No response 1 Response reflects only one element of R.A.R.E. and does not follow the criteria* of the assignment (e.g., restatement only). 2 Response reflects only two elements of R.A.R.E. and includes only parts of the criteria of the assignment (e.g., restatement and answer and one requirement of the criteria*). 3 Response reflects three elements of R.A.R.E. and follows the criteria* of the assignment. 4 Response reflects the four elements of R.A.R.E. and follows the criteria* of the assignment. *Criteria The criteria of the assignment can be designed to reflect ongoing instruction in grammar, sentence structure, key vocabulary, or transition words, for example. 8

9 A TARGET RESPONSE A TARGET RESPONSE can be visually displayed in the classroom along with the rubric. It is an effective tool when modeling or critiquing student responses. In addition, students are able to refer to a displayed rubric when participating in a peer evaluation activity or self-monitoring. R.A.R.E. for Comprehension in All Academic Areas In the following, we will look at using R.A.R.E. in various academic subjects. Language Arts Mastery of R.A.R.E. is not only beneficial when used within the purposes of reading, but also across the purposes for writing (expository, narrative, and persuasive), thus, the format of R.A.R.E. generalizes readily to the formula for a well-developed paragraph: topic sentence, supportive details, and a closing sentence. The transition from answering a comprehension question in writing to writing a paragraph is logical to the student. The basic components of a well-developed written response to a comprehension question and a well-developed paragraph are similar. Keeping in mind the mnemonic R.A.R.E. and the purposes of writing, consider the organizer for an expository paragraph provided below. 9

10 EXPOSITORY WRITING ORGANIZER Form: Audience: Topic: Purpose: Interesting topic sentence: Three details to support the topic: Concluding sentence: Social Studies/History Incorporating R.A.R.E. into social studies and history units reaps a variety of benefits for the learner as well as the teacher. Specifically, R.A.R.E. challenges students to think critically. Depending on the level of questioning, a student can make comparisons, infer cause and effect, or make judgments. To provide support for the answer given, the student learns to reference the text, paraphrase from the text, and refer to class notes and organizers for supportive information. The student then synthesizes the information into sentences to complete the response. Such a process teaches valuable research skills. For the teacher, the finished product provides an authentic assessment of students understanding of the unit. Also, the criteria can be instructionally matched to be adapted to all instructional levels. 10

11 Example Grade 3 Different Regions, Different Resources Region Natural Resources Products Capital Resources Human Resources Deserts Rainforests Criteria: Use R.A.R.E. to answer the following question Use the R.A.R.E. organizer to help organize your ideas Use the answers you wrote in the chart to support your answer Use complete sentences Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling) R estate A nswer the question R easons given E xamples from the text How are the resources of the desert and the rainforest different? Support your answer with three examples from the Different Regions, Different Resources chart above. (Adapted from HCPSS, 1997) 11

12 R.A.R.E. Organizer Answer the following question using R.A.R.E. Use the R.A.R.E. organizer to help you answer the questions. Copy your complete answer in final form on the assignment worksheet. Staple your R.A.R.E. organizer to the final copy of your question. How are the resources of the desert and the rainforest different? Restate the question here: Answer the question here: Give a Reason for the answer here: Locate three Examples from the chart to support your reasons: Write complete R.A.R.E. response here: 12

13 Science Science investigations lend themselves well to writing responses at all instructional levels: questions are formulated; hypotheses are made; independent, dependent, and controlled variables are identified; data are collected; and conclusions are drawn. These are all opportunities for students to produce well-developed written responses. The differentiated instruction in science curricula coupled with R.A.R.E. allows students, even at primary instructional levels, to explain scientific relationships clearly and with understanding. Grade 4 Electricity and Magnetism Unit Example Using the Simple Switch 1. Illustrate and label the simple circuit with a switch just like the simple circuit your group constructed. 2. Explain how the electricity passes through the circuit. 3. Could the metal switch have been replaced with a plastic or wooden switch? Explain your answer. Criteria: Use R.A.R.E. for your responses Use complete sentences Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling) R estate the question A nswer the question R easons given E xamples from the text (Adapted from HCPSS, 1997) 13

14 Mathematics In the past decade, the delivery of mathematics instruction has been under scrutiny due to the mediocre performance of U.S. students on international assessments (cited in Maccini & Gagnon, 2002) according to researchers McLaughlin, Shepard, and O Day. In response, educators, parents, administrators, and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) have developed a rigorous set of standards that address the critical components of teaching mathematics. Included in these standards is a requirement to teach students to communicate their understanding of mathematic concepts and applications (NCTM, 2000). This standard infers that students must demonstrate the ability to communicate orally or in writing a firm understanding of applied mathematical theory. The NCTM is now calling for a different approach to teaching mathematics. Traditionally, mathematics instruction has been skill- and formula-based with a secondary focus on application of theory or problem solving. Specifically, the charge of the NCTM is to make use of instructional tools that provide a formula for communicating solutions to mathematics application problems. The mnemonic R.A.R.E. serves as one strategy to foster these skills. The benefits of using R.A.R.E. in mathematics are numerous and include: The mnemonic provides the student with a formula for a written response thereby generating critical thinking skills to solve problems. For example, to solve word problems students must recall the operations needed to calculate the problem. While doing so, students demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship. When required to write their thought process, students explain why they chose specific operations and how those operations resolve problems. The process teaches and reinforces the application of mathematic concepts. For the teacher, the process provides an authentic assessment of student understanding. Using graphic displays or representations illustrating word problems and instruction on problem-solving strategies (e.g., guess and check, logical reasoning, look for a pattern) prior to introducing an assignment using R.A.R.E. further enhance students ability to produce accurate, well-developed responses that reflect true understanding (Jitendra, 2002). 14

15 Example Primary-Level Word Problem Days Computers received Mr. Reid is the technology teacher at Jones Elementary School. He is setting up the new computer lab. Mr. Reid is keeping a table to show how many computers he receives for six days. If he continues to receive computers according to the pattern on his table, how many new computers will he receive on day 6? Identify the key vocabulary: What problem-solving strategy did you use? CRITERIA: Use R.A.R.E. to write the answer to the word problem you just solved R estate the question A nswer the question R eason E xample of pattern Use complete sentences Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling) Restate: Mr. Reid will receive Answer: 30 new computers by the Day 6 Reason: He receives 5 computers each day Example: Day1 he received 5 computers. On Day 2 he received 5 more computers Completed response: Mr. Reid will receive 30 new computers in 6 days for Jones Elementary School s new computer lab. The reason being he is receiving 5 new computers each day for 6 days. For example, on Day 1 he received 5 new computers. On Day 2 he received 5 more new computers, which equals 10 new computers. On Day 3 he received 5 more new computers to equal 15. By Day 6 with the pattern of adding 5 more computers each day, he will have a total of 30 new computers for the lab. Day = 5 Day = 20 Example: Day = 10 Day = 25 Day = 15 Day = 30 15

16 Example Secondary-Level Word Problem Bob and Sue worked in a large sporting goods shop. Over a two-week period, Sue sold 10 more cans of tennis balls than Bob. Together they sold 50 cans of tennis balls. How many cans of tennis balls did each person sell? 50 Bob X Sue X + 10 Identify the key vocabulary: What problem-solving strategy did you use? What information in the problem was not needed? CRITERIA: Using R.A.R.E., write the answer to the word problem you just solved R estate the question A nswer the problem R eason for answer E xample of equation Use complete sentences Use C.U.P.S. (capitalization, usage, punctuation, & spelling) Use the completed equation for your example (Adapted from Jitendra, 2002) 16

17 Restate: Each person sold Answer: Bob sold 20 cans of balls and Sue sold 30 cans of balls, totaling 50 cans Reason: Problem solved with a two-step equation because there is a variable Example: Example of two-step equation Completed response: Each person sold the following number of tennis balls: Bob sold 20 cans of balls and Sue sold 30 cans of balls. This totals 50 cans of tennis balls. This problem is solved with a two-step equation because there is an unknown number, called a variable. The number of cans of tennis balls Bob sold is a variable, or X. If Bob sold X number of cans, then Sue sold X + 10 because she sold 10 more cans than Bob. Here is the example of the two-step equation: Example: X + (X + 10) = 50 2X + 10 = X = X = 20 Check: 20 + ( ) = 50 Conclusion Reading comprehension is a critical skill for all students in all academic content areas. Teachers must be deliberate, analytical, strategic, sensitive, and creative in their quest to teach reading comprehension. Linking reading and writing for improved comprehension provides a valuable experience for internalizing learning (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). The mnemonic strategy R.A.R.E. challenges students at both the primary and secondary instructional levels to construct meaning through reading and writing. It facilitates explicit instruction and serves as an authentic, multidisciplinary assessment for all students, especially those with memory difficulties that interfere with their ability to comprehend. 17

18 References Forness, S. R. (2001). Special education and related services: What have we learned from meta-analysis? Exceptionality, 9, Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (1996). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. York, ME: Stenhouse Publishers. Howard County (MD) Public School System. (1997). Offices of Language Arts, Science, & Social Studies Curriculum. Ellicott City, MD: Language Arts, Science, & Social Studies Curricula Writing Teams. Jitendra, A. (2002). Teaching students math problem-solving through graphic representations. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, Lyon, G. R. (1998). The NICHD research program in reading development, reading disorders and reading instruction: A summary of research findings, keys to successful learning: A national summit on research in learning disabilities. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED ) Maccini, P., & Gagnon, J.C. (2002). Perceptions and application of NCTM standards by special and general education teachers. Exceptional Children, 68, Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1999). Teaching students ways to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge, MA: Brookline. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Retrieved July 25, 2003, from National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the national reading panel: Teaching children to read: Findings and determinations of the national reading panel by topic areas. Retrieved July 11, 2003, from Paulsen, G. (1998). Soldier s heart. New York: Random House. Rosenblatt, L. (1991). Literature S.O.S. Language Arts, 68, Rosenfield, S.A., & Gravois, T.A. (1996). Instructional consultation teams: Collaborating for change. New York: Guilford Press. 18

19 Salvia J., & Hughes C. (1990). Curriculum-based assessment: Testing what is taught. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Additional Resources The following Considerations Packets are available through the T/TAC website at An Essential Tool for Designing Effective Instruction A Word about Vocabulary Explicit Instruction to Improve Inferential Comprehension Instructional Assessment The following resources are available for loan through the T/TAC Library. Visit the T/TAC website at for a complete listing of materials. Select the Library link on the home page and enter your selection. Title Author Call letters Best Practices in Literary Gambrell, L., Morrow L, CRD 139 Instruction Neuman, S. B., & Pressley, M. Teaching Our Children to Honig, B. TT153 Read: Components of an Effective Comprehension Reading Program Reading with Meaning: Miller, D CRD 205 Teaching Comprehension in the Primary Grades The Fluent Reader Rasinski, T.V. CRD 247 Reading to Learn in the Richardson, J.S., Morgan, R.F., CRD 255 Content Areas and Fleener, C. When Kids Can t Read What Teachers Can Do Beers, K. CRD 256 This Considerations Packet was prepared by Louise LeBron, July