Shrek the Third - A Comparative Analysis of Macrostrategies and Microstrategies in Subtitling and Dubbing

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1 Author: Melanie Petersen BA English/German Date of hand in: May 3 rd 2012 Supervisor: Anne Gram Schjoldager Institute: Institut for Erhvervskommunikation (E-kom) Characters excluding blanks: 54,878

2 Abstract This thesis examines the differences and similarities in macrostrategies and microstrategies in subtitling and dubbing by means of an empirical translation project. The project takes the form of a comparative analysis of the Danish, subtitled version and the Danish, dubbed version of the American computer animated movie Shrek the Third. The overall aim is to identify some of the differences and similarities in macrostrategies and microstrategies found in the data and the two following research questions are addressed: - Which differences and/or similarities can be established between subtitling and dubbing with regard to the microstrategies condensation, decimation and deletion and what could some possible reasons for the differences found be? - Which differences and/or similarities can be identified between subtitling and dubbing in terms of paraphrase and explicitation and what could these be due to? Schjoldager s Four-point Model for Translation Analysis, model of macrostrategies, and some of the strategies from her taxonomy of microstrategies as well as three of Gottlieb s microstrategies are employed. It is estimated which macrostrategies and microstrategies are likely to have been applied to the two Danish versions, the differences and similarities in the use of microstrategies as seen in scene eight of the movie are ascertained, possible reasons for the differences are given and the estimated macrostrategies are evaluated. It is concluded that subtitling and dubbing as found in the data differ significantly from each other with regard to condensation and deletion, as these strategies were restricted to the analyzed subtitles. Furthermore, the conclusion is drawn that the two modes of audiovisual translation in question differ in terms of decimation which occurred a much larger number of times in the subtitled version than in the dubbed one. It is proposed that these differences could be due to the greater demands of synchronization in dubbing as well as the difference in medium in that the constraints in subtitling may sometimes render it necessary to delete or condense something. Regarding condensation, the difference could be partly because subtitling is diamesic and some utterances are written more concisely than they are said. With regard to decimation and deletion, the differences could be results of the differences in target audience and mode, as the loss of meaning is arguably less

3 pronounced in subtitling than in dubbing in that the original dialogue is kept in subtitling and it is likely that the receivers know at least some English. It is also concluded that paraphrase and explicitation constitute two significant differences as they occurred a significantly larger number of times in the dubbed version than in the subtitled one. These differences could be due to the differences in mode and overtness in that subtitling is overt and a supplementary mode of translation, whereas dubbing is covert and a substitutional mode because this results in the translator of the subtitled version having a stronger incentive to stay close to the source text than the translators of dubbed version. Furthermore, it is suggested that the differences could be due to the two strategies having been employed to meet the greater demands of synchronization in dubbing. In addition, it is concluded that the two versions are similar as direct transfer occurred in similar situations and a similar number of times, direct translation was identified often in both versions, and the very same strategy was found in both versions of a segment a large number of times. With regard to macrostrategies, the conclusion is reached that the microstrategies identified in the subtitled version of scene eight suggest that the macrostrategy employed in this version is neither strictly source-text oriented nor strictly target-text oriented, yet more source-text oriented than target-text oriented. This is because condensation, decimation, deletion, and direct translation occurred extremely often. It is concluded that the microstrategies found in the dubbed version of scene eight indicate that the macrostrategy applied to this version is target-text oriented though the focus is also on the form and content of the source text to some extent in that decimation and direct translation occurred but paraphrase and explicitation were found particularly often. Consequently, the microstrategies suggest that the macrostrategy applied to the dubbed version is significantly more target-text oriented than the one applied to the subtitled version. It is stressed that though the findings indicate that subtitling and dubbing are characterized by certain features, one can only be certain as to the conclusions drawn in terms of the data used and other studies could produce rather different results or even very different ones. Characters excluding blanks: 4,127

4 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Methods and Data Audiovisual Translation Subtitling Dubbing Subtitling versus Dubbing The Skopos Theory 7 5. Presentation and Translation Analysis of Shrek the Third The ST The TTs 9 6. Macrostrategies TT TT Microstrategies Direct Transfer Direct Translation Oblique Translation Paraphrase Explicitation Condensation Decimation Deletion Presentation of the Analysis of Microstrategies Results Conclusion and Discussion 34 Bibliography.36 Appendices: - Appendix 1: Four-point Model for Translation Analysis Appendix 2: Transcription of Scene Eight of Shrek the Third Appendix 3: Analysis of Microstrategies in Scene Eight of Shrek the Third Appendix 4: List of Abbreviations....48

5 1. Introduction It is possible to divide a large number of European countries into subtitling countries and dubbing countries based on whether the preferred mode of audiovisual translation (AVT) is subtitling or dubbing, respectively. Subtitling is the preferred mode in the majority of European speech communities comprising less than 25 million speakers (Gottlieb 2008b: 208), whereas there is a preference for dubbing in all non-anglophone major speech communities in Western Europe (Gottlieb 2008b: 216). I have always been interested in translation and find it intriguing to examine the two types of AVT in question. Furthermore, in a subtitling country like Denmark (Luyken et al. 1991: 31), one rarely encounters dubbing aside from in productions for children, cartoons and computer-animated feature films (Pedersen 2010: 9), and the movies that are dubbed are never released in a dubbed version alone but are always subtitled as well (Gottlieb 2008b: 218). Consequently, from an academic perspective, examining which differences and similarities exist between subtitling and dubbing is interesting, as the two are alternatives to each other and appear as translations of the same source text (ST). Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis is to identify some of the differences and similarities in macrostrategies and microstrategies between subtitling and dubbing as found in a comparative analysis of the subtitled and dubbed versions of Shrek the Third (STT) (Shrek the Third 2007). More specifically, this thesis addresses the following research questions: - Which differences and/or similarities can be established between subtitling and dubbing with regard to the microstrategies condensation, decimation and deletion and what could some possible reasons for the differences found be? - Which differences and/or similarities can be identified between subtitling and dubbing in terms of paraphrase and explicitation and what could these be due to? In order to answer these questions an empirical translation project in the form of a comparative analysis based on the computer animated movie STT is completed. A theoretical framework consisting of various definitions and theories is needed to conduct the analysis. For this reason subtitling, dubbing, The Skopos Theory, a model of 1/48

6 macrostrategies, a taxonomy of microstrategies and Schjoldager s Four-point Model for Translation Analysis are employed. This thesis comprises 10 chapters the first of which is this one, the introduction. In chapter two, the methods and the data are presented. Chapter three contains a discussion of subtitling and dubbing. Chapter four introduces The Skopos Theory. Chapter five is a presentation and translation analysis of the data. Chapter six consists of a presentation of a model of macrostrategies and an estimation of macrostrategies. Chapter seven introduces a taxonomy of microstrategies relevant to the analysis. In chapter eight, the analysis is presented by means of selected examples. The results of the analysis, possible reasons for the differences in microstrategies and an evaluation of the estimated macrostrategies are contained in chapter nine. In chapter 10, the conclusion and discussion are presented. 2/48

7 2. Methods and Data As mentioned in the previous chapter, an empirical translation project taking the form of a comparative analysis based on STT is conducted here. The data consists of three versions of STT: A ST and two target texts (TTs). The original, American English version is the ST, while the Danish, subtitled version (TT1) and the Danish, dubbed version (TT2) are the two TTs. Consequently, the comparative analysis is of the use of macrostrategies and microstrategies in TT1 and TT2. The data has been chosen for two reasons. Firstly, it is available in a Danish, subtitled version as well as a Danish, dubbed one. Secondly, it contains some relatively fast speech and is therefore ideal for answering the research question related to condensation, decimation and deletion. The constraints as to the scope of this thesis render producing an analysis of the microstrategies applied to the entire movie impossible for which reason the eighth scene is chosen as the data for this. Similarly, outlining all the differences and similarities in microstrategies is beyond the scope of this thesis and therefore the focus is on the most interesting of these. In order to be able to determine some of the differences and similarities between subtitling and dubbing as suggested by the data, a translation analysis of STT is carried out. It is estimated which macrostrategies and microstrategies are likely to have been employed in the translation of the ST into TT1 and TT2. Then the differences and similarities in the use of microstrategies in scene eight in TT1 and TT2 are ascertained, possible reasons for the differences are presented and the estimated macrostrategies are assessed. The translation analysis is loosely based on Schjoldager s Four-point Model for Translation Analysis (see Appendix 1) as the model in question provides a starting point for the estimation of macrostrategies and microstrategies. The model of macrostrategies presented by Schjoldager is chosen as it is based on a number of other models and contains the strategies included in these. The taxonomy of microstrategies used for the analysis is based primarily on Schjoldager s microstrategies, as these are not related to one specific type of translation and both subtitling and dubbing are dealt with here. Since Gottlieb s microstrategies are based on the context of subtitling and three of them are central to this thesis, these three are chosen to supplement Schjoldager s microstrategies. 3/48

8 A transcription of scene eight (see Appendix 2) is needed for the analysis of the microstrategies. Regarding transcription method, the data is segmented on the basis of the ST as this provides a shared frame of reference. The scene has been divided into 51 segments each of which contains an utterance that is considered to constitute an entity. Generally, a segment corresponds to a sentence. However, when more sentences are said extremely quickly after each other, they are considered to constitute one segment. Similarly, an utterance that would not ordinarily be regarded as a segment in itself composes a segment when the pauses before and after it are too long for it to belong together with preceding or subsequent segments. The transcription consists of three parts: The ST, TT1 and TT2. TT1 has been transcribed by writing the subtitles exactly as they appear on the screen. Accordingly, no changes have been made to these except for the fact that they have been divided into segments based on the ST. The ST and TT2 have been transcribed by writing what is said as precisely as possible. For example, contractions are written when these occur and the spelling that best reflects the pronunciation of a word is chosen when more exist. Three periods are used to indicate hesitance, prolonged laughter, or that only part of a word is pronounced. The symbol [Ø] is used to indicate that the ST in a segment has not been subtitled or has not been dubbed. 4/48

9 3. Audiovisual Translation According to Pedersen (2010: 6), AVT includes all forms of translation that appears in an audio and/or visual context and The three main modes of AVT are subtitling, dubbing and voice-over. In this chapter, the two of these modes that are relevant to this thesis are introduced and compared in terms of selected aspects. 3.1 Subtitling There have been given numerous definitions of subtitling, and the one presented here has been chosen because it emphasizes some of the main characteristics of the mode of AVT in question. Gottlieb (2008b: 208) defines subtitling as diamesic translation in polysemiotic media (including films, TV, video and DVD) in the form of one or more lines of written text presented on the screen in sync with the original dialogue. Diamesic means that there is a change in language mode (Gottlieb 2008a: 45) and regarding subtitling this consists in the shift from speech to writing. Polysemiotic indicates that subtitles constitute multichannel texts (Gottlieb 2008a: 42). In addition, subtitling is overt (Gottlieb 2008b: 240, footnote 107) and a supplementary mode (Gottlieb 2008b: 220). It is possible to distinguish between intralingual and interlingual subtitling. The former stays within the same language, entails a change in language mode, and is carried out first and foremost for the use of the deaf and hard of hearing (Pedersen 2010: 2), whereas the latter involves translation from one language to another (Pedersen 2010: 3) and is the form of subtitling that this thesis is concerned with. Consequently, in this thesis the term subtitling is used in the meaning interlingual subtitling. There is some disagreement as to whether subtitling should be considered translation (Gottlieb 2008b: 209). Nevertheless, in this thesis the view is taken that subtitling is in fact translation. 3.2 Dubbing Various definitions of dubbing have been provided, and the one selected here is chosen because it stresses an important aim of dubbing which is to give the illusion that the dubbed version is an original and not a translation (Luyken et al. 1991: 73). Luyken et al. (1991: 73) define dubbing as the replacement of the original speech by a voice-track which is a faithful translation of the original speech and which attempts to reproduce the timing, phrasing and lip movements of the original. Frederic Chaume Varela draws 5/48

10 attention to the possibility of distinguishing between intralingual and interlingual dubbing. Intralingual dubbing involves replacing the original dialogue with dialogue which is produced after the filming but otherwise identical to guarantee sound quality, whereas interlingual dubbing includes a change in language (Pedersen 2010: 8). As this thesis deals with English and Danish, the term dubbing is used to mean interlingual dubbing. Dubbing is isomesic (Gottlieb 2008b: 210), as it stays within one language mode in that both the source language and the target language are rendered as speech. Moreover, dubbing is covert (Gottlieb 2008b: 240) and a substitutional mode of translation (Gottlieb 2008b: 220). As mentioned in the introduction, Denmark is a subtitling country in which dubbing is rarely encountered in other productions than those for children, cartoons and computer-animated feature films and the movies that are dubbed are always released in a subtitled version as well. 3.3 Subtitling versus Dubbing Subtitling includes a number of media-specific constraints. In this connection, Pedersen (2010: 3) mentions various temporal and spatial constraints, namely exposure times, reading speed constraints, subtitle density and condensation issues. Similarly, dubbing involves constraints due to numerous types of synchronization (Pedersen 2010: 8). However, the demands of synchronization are not confined to dubbing, as subtitles should be synchronized with dialogue and image (Tveit 2009: 90). An advantage of dubbing is that the viewers hear the dialogue in their own language (Pedersen 2010: 8) meaning that they do not have to make much of an effort. In addition, it has been argued that subtitles constitute a disturbance as they interfere with the image and consequently draw attention away from it (Ivarsson and Carroll 1998: 34). In this respect, dubbing has an advantage over subtitling, as one does not have to listen to the original dialogue or read any subtitles (Gottlieb 2008b: 240). Nonetheless, dubbing has been criticized for lacking authenticity as the original actors are robbed of their voices (Tveit 2009: 92; Ivarsson and Carroll 1998: 36). Furthermore, subtitles arguably further the acquisition of foreign-language and reading skills (Gottlieb 2008b: 240). From a financial point of view, subtitling is more desirable than dubbing, as dubbing is almost 15 times as expensive as subtitling (Luyken et al. 1991: 105). 6/48

11 4. The Skopos Theory The Skopos Theory is introduced in this chapter. The Skopos Theory was developed by Hans J. Vermeer in the1970s in Germany (Schjoldager 2008: 152). The word skopos is Greek and means aim, purpose, goal or function and although some inconsistencies in the use of the term can be observed (Schjoldager 2008: 154), Nord (2001: 28) states that the term Skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text. According to The Skopos Theory, the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (Skopos) of the overall translational action (Nord 2001: 27) and though a ST can be translated in more than one way, one of these will be more appropriate than the others (Nord 2001: 27). A central feature of The Skopos Theory is what Vermeer has called a dethronement of the source text which means that the ST is not considered to be the most important element as to the decisions taken. It is instead regarded as one of the many sources of information used in the translation process and the importance of the different information contained in it depends on the purpose (Nord 2001: 25-26). According to The Skopos Theory, the most important rule with regard to translations is the skopos rule which states that a translational action is determined by its Skopos (Nord 2001: 29). In summary, according to The Skopos Theory a translator needs to ascertain the skopos of the TT as this determines which macrostrategy and microstrategies are most appropriate. 7/48

12 5. Presentation and Translation Analysis of Shrek the Third In the following chapter, STT is introduced and a translation analysis is provided. As mentioned, the analysis is loosely based on Schjoldager s Four-point Model for Translation Analysis. Consequently, only the questions relevant to this thesis are included here and other relevant aspects are added. In 1995, DreamWorks bought the rights to the picture book Shrek! (DreamWorks Animation SKG 2011a). Since the first movie about the ogre named Shrek was released, the series has grown to include four movies of which STT is the third (DreamWorks Animation SKG 2011b). In the first movie, Shrek rescued Princess Fiona of Far Far Away and married her, and in the second one he prevailed over Prince Charming. In STT, the King of Far Far Away dies and Shrek, who does not want to become king himself, embarks on a journey to find the only other heir to the throne, a boy named Arthur or Artie as he is called. Accompanied by his companions, a donkey named Donkey and a cat by the name of Puss, Shrek finds Artie, deceitfully tells him that he is the only heir and the four of them return to Far Far Away. Here they are captured by Prince Charming and his henchmen. In an effort to save Artie s life Shrek pretends that he was only using him and Artie leaves. Donkey, Puss and some of the other fairy-tale characters escape and come to Shrek s rescue. A fight breaks out, but suddenly Artie appears and succeeds in convincing the villains that they can be happy too. However, Prince Charming is not convinced and attacks Artie and Shrek, but is defeated by Shrek. Artie, who no longer fears becoming king, takes his rightful place as the King of Far Far Away, and Shrek and Fiona return to their swamp where they become the proud parents of triplets. In scene eight Shrek, Artie, Donkey, and Puss have set sail for Far Far Away and Artie is excited at the prospect of starting a new life for himself as king. Unfortunately, his excitement quickly turns into fear as a result of Donkey and Puss thoughtless chatter about the responsibilities and dangers of being king and he struggles with Shrek for control of the ship, shipwrecking them off some coast. 8/48

13 5.1 The ST As mention earlier, the ST is the original version of STT. In terms of the communicative situation, the sender of the ST is the American animation studio DreamWorks Animation SKG and the receivers are those who have seen the movie. The receivers are likely to be primarily English-speaking children, but arguably the movie also appeals to adults (DreamWorks Animation SKG 2012) and it can therefore be argued that English-speaking adults are receivers as well. The medium used to present STT is polysemiotic as it is a movie. STT was produced at some time before May 18 th 2007 as this was the date of its release in U.S. movie theaters (DreamWorks Animation SKG: 2011c). Regarding the communicative purpose of the text, two motives for the text production are making money and entertaining people. According to Lowe (2007: 1), comedy covers all formally marked varieties of performed humor ( ) in any medium As STT is a humorous movie which aims to make people laugh, it can be characterized as a comedy. Furthermore, in The Many Faces of Movie Comedy, Gehring (1998: 80) identifies five subcategories of movie comedy: screwball, populist, black, parody, and personality-driven. In this respect, STT can be characterized as a parody as it parodies the fairy-tale genre by replicating the pattern of the genre in an amusing way (Gehring 1998: 88). Interestingly, this results in it being possible to characterize the movie as a fairy tale as well. Determining the genre of a text is relevant to translating it in that genres possess certain characteristics in certain languages and also give information as to the context and purpose of the ST (Holm 1995: 55). In addition, establishing the genre makes one aware of some of the challenges associated with a translation. As for STT, succeeding in communicating the humor conveyed in the ST is certainly a challenge. 5.2 The TTs TT1 is the Danish, subtitled version and TT2 is the Danish, dubbed version of STT. The Danish title of the movie is Shrek den Tredje and the two TTs were produced at some time before August 31 th 2007 where they were released in Danish movie theaters (Det Danske Filminstitut). 9/48

14 TT1 was produced by Kai-Asle Sønstabø and can be characterized as a mixed-media translation, as it is written whereas the ST is oral. The dialogue of TT2 was translated by Hans Christian Bang and the songs were translated by Trine Dansgaard, Morten Holm- Nielsen, and Hans Christian Bang. TT2 was directed by Lars Thiesgaard and is an oral translation because both the ST and TT2 are presented by means of the oral medium. Regarding professionalism, the two TTs are both professional translations in that they are produced for a financial reward, subject to professional rules, commissioned by DreamWorks Animation SKG, and done for the benefit of a receiver other than the translator (Schjoldager 2008: 29). With regard to translation area, even though the TTs do not contain much literary language as such, they can be categorized as literary translations as they are aimed at entertaining. The sender of both the TTs is the same as that of the ST, namely DreamWorks Animation SKG. However, the TTs differ in terms of target audience (TA). The intended receivers of both TTs are Danish-speaking people who wish to be entertained by the movie but do not understand some or all of the original dialogue, but the TA of TT1 is likely to be comprised of adults and older children who understand much of the original dialogue, while the receivers of TT2 are likely to be younger children who either are not able to read at all or are not able to read fast enough and effortlessly enough to enjoy the movie. In terms of skopos, both TTs aim to entertain by making the ST understandable and thereby recreate the effect of the movie. However, as TT1 is a supplement to the original dialogue and is likely to be aimed at adults and older children, whereas TT2 replaces the original dialogue and is likely to be aimed primarily at younger children, the functions of the two TTs differ somewhat from each other. 10/48

15 6. Macrostrategies Numerous scholars have presented macro-level dichotomies. In this chapter, the model of macrostrategies presented by Schjoldager in Understanding Translation is introduced and applied to TT1 and TT2. Whenever a translator is to do a translation assignment, he or she needs to choose which overall approach to it to adopt. Admittedly, many translators are likely to make these choices without giving it much thought. Nevertheless, they do in fact make them and recognizing this will improve one s work (Schjoldager 2008: 67). In this thesis the choices related to this overall approach are referred to as macrostrategies. In Understanding Translation, Schjoldager introduces seven macro-level dichotomies presented by the scholars Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, Eugene Nida, Peter Newmark, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, Christiane Nord, and Arnt Lykke Jakobsen, respectively and then proceeds to present a model of macrostrategies inspired by these (Schjoldager 2008: 68-70). Schjoldager (2008: 71) points out that the scholars seem to be in agreement in some respects, one of these being that essentially translators have to choose between focusing on the form and content of the source text and the effect of the target text. Consequently, the model of macrostrategies presented by Schjoldager comprises a source-text (ST) oriented macrostrategy and a target-text (TT) oriented macrostrategy in which the translator focuses on the form and content of the ST and the effect of the TT, respectively (Schjoldager 2008: 71). Table 1 provides an overview of the two macrostrategies. Source-text oriented macrostrategy Target-text oriented macrostrategy Focus on source-text form and content Focus on target-text effect Communication of somebody else s communication Mediation between primary parties in a communication Overt translation Covert translation Table 1: A model of macrostrategies (Schjoldager 2008: 72) 11/48

16 According to Schjoldager (2008: 71), one should take at least three things into account when deciding which macrostrategy to apply to an assignment. These are focus, communicative role, and overtness. In terms of focus, one needs to consider whether others expect one to focus on the form and content of the ST or on the effect of the TT (Schjoldager 2008: 71). Regarding communicative role, one should determine whether one is expected to function as a communicator of somebody else s communication or as a mediator between primary parties (Schjoldager 2008: 71). A translator acts as a communicator of somebody else s communication when his or her function is to aid the addressees in understanding what was communicated in another language between two primary parties by producing the message in the addressees language (Schjoldager 2008: 24-25). A translator acts as a mediator between primary parties when he or she produces an addresser s message in the addressee s language because the two do not speak the same language (Schjoldager 2008: 22-23). With regard to overtness, one needs to give thought to whether the translation in question is to take the form of an overt or a covert translation. (Schjoldager 2008: 71). The term overtness refers to whether people are conscious of the fact that a translation is in fact a translation or even care if it is. When receivers of a translation know that it is a translation, the translation is overt. When they are unaware that a translation is a translation or are not interested in whether it is or not, it is covert (Schjoldager 2008: 31). As can be inferred from Table 1 when a translator focuses on the form and content of the ST, functions as a communicator of somebody else s communication and makes an overt translation, he or she employs a ST oriented macrostrategy. If a translator is expected to focus on the effect of the TT, function as a mediator between primary parties and make a covert translation, he or she employs a TT oriented macrostrategy (Schjoldager 2008: 71-72). As Schjoldager (2008: 73-74) points out the choice between the two macrostrategies is not always readily identifiable and in such cases macrostrategies which are neither strictly ST oriented nor strictly TT oriented can be employed. 12/48

17 6.1 TT1 In terms of the translator s focus, the Danish-speaking viewers wish to be entertained and consequently expect the translator to focus on the effect of the TT. It is acknowledged that the translator needs to focus on the form and content of the ST to some extent because of the media-specific constraints and supplementary mode of subtitling. Nonetheless, the argument put forward here is that the translator s focus is likely to have been primarily on the effect of the TT. Regarding the translator s communicative role, here it is argued that the translator s function is to aid DreamWorks Animation SKG in communicating with its Danishspeaking audience in a way that is very similar to the way in which the animation studio communicates with its English-speaking audience. Therefore, the translator functions as a mediator between the two primary parties DreamWorks Animation SKG and its Danishspeaking audience. Concerning overtness, as subtitling is a supplementary mode and viewers are therefore aware that the subtitles constitute a translation, TT1 appears as an overt translation. This represents neither a strictly ST oriented macrostrategy nor a strictly TT oriented one as the first two factors are characteristic of a TT oriented macrostrategy, while the last one is characteristic of a ST oriented macrostrategy. Therefore, a macrostrategy which is neither strictly ST oriented nor strictly TT oriented but more TT oriented than ST oriented yet less TT oriented than it would have been had the translation been covert is assumed to have been employed in TT TT2 With regard to focus, as the Danish-speaking viewers watch the movie to be entertained, they probably expect the translators to focus on the effect of the TT. It is recognized that the translators need to focus on the form and content of the ST to the extent demanded by synchronization, but it is argued here that the translators are likely to have focused mainly on the effect of the TT. In terms of communicative role, the translators function as mediators between the two primary parties DreamWorks Animation SKG and its Danish-speaking audience in that they aid the former by producing STT in the latter s native language. 13/48

18 Regarding overtness, as dubbing is a substitutional mode of translation and replaces the original dialogue and the viewers are likely to be younger children to whom it is probably not obvious that TT2 is a translation, TT2 is covert. Admittedly, they could know that TT2 is a translation but even if they do, they are certainly unlikely to care. Consequently, with regard to focus, communicative role as well as overtness, the translation displays features characteristic of a TT oriented macrostrategy and it is therefore likely that the translators employed this strategy. As a result even though it is possible to argue that the translators are likely to have focused on the form and content of the ST to some extent, the macrostrategy employed in TT2 is characterized as TT oriented and deemed to be more TT oriented than the one employed in TT1. 14/48

19 7. Microstrategies Many scholars have presented taxonomies of microstrategies. This chapter introduces a taxonomy comprising a mixture of Schjoldager s microstrategies and Gottlieb s microstrategies. After having made choices as to one s overall approach to a specific translation assignment, one needs to take decisions on a more concrete level. As opposed to the macrostrategies which have to do with one s overall approach, these choices are concerned with the decisions made at the micro level. As it was the case with the macrostrategies many translators are likely to make the choices related to microstrategies without giving it much thought, but being aware of one s choices will better one s work (Schjoldager 2008: 89). According to Schjoldager (2008: 89-92), her taxonomy of microstrategies is primarily inspired by Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet s model of translation procedures and Dirk Delabastita s model of five transformation categories but also by Birgit Nedergaard- Larsen s model for the analysis of subtitling, Cecilia Wadensjö s study of dialogue interpreting, Henrik Gottlieb s subtitling strategies, Andrew Chesterman s work with translation memes, Anne Marie Bülow-Møller and Karsten Pedersen s discussion of ST versus TT bias, and Karen Korning Zethsen s study of microstrategies. Schjoldager s microstrategies include direct transfer, calque, direct translation, oblique translation, explicitation, paraphrase, condensation, adaptation, addition, substitution, deletion and permutation (Schjoldager 2008: 92). In his PhD Thesis Subtitles, Translation & Idioms Gottlieb (1997: 75) presents the ten strategies expansion, paraphrase, transfer, imitation, transcription, dislocation, condensation, decimation, deletion, and resignation as those used in subtitling. As one cannot actually know which microstrategies translators have employed in specific translations without asking them, the analysis is based on which strategies the STs and corresponding TTs in the segments indicate were applied. In some instances one single 15/48

20 strategy seems to have been utilized, while in others more strategies can be identified in a version of a segment. Direct transfer is a good example of this as it can often be identified in single units in translations. In fact, this strategy is found in all the translations that include Artie s name. Furthermore, it can be difficult to distinguish between the strategies in practice, and it is often possible to argue that one strategy or another is identifiable. All the strategies, which could possibly be identified in each individual analysis, are not taken into account as this would result in differing numbers of strategies for TT1 and TT2 being compared. Generally, one strategy is identified in each of the two versions of the analyzed segments. However, in some instances related to condensation and decimation it is relevant to identify an additional strategy. For example, when decimation has been applied but much of the ST meaning is still conveyed. In other cases, identifying a strategy in addition to condensation and decimation does not make sense. For instance, when an utterance has been condensed to such a great extent that comparing what is left of it to the ST is meaningless. Consequently, additional strategies are identified with regard to condensation and decimation when it makes sense to do so. It is recognized that additional strategies can be identified with regard to explicitation. Nonetheless, for the sake of simplicity, this is not done here as it would sometimes result in three strategies being identified. In instances in which both condensation and explicitation or both decimation and explicitation can be identified, condensation and decimation are identified first as these will be dealt with first in the results. As the analyzed subtitled and dubbed versions do not appear in isolation but in contexts, this is taken into consideration in determining which microstrategies have been employed and mentioned when relevant. It has not gone unnoticed that a TT sometimes differs from the corresponding ST in terms of tense, punctuation, various differences between written and spoken language and linguistic differences between Danish and English. However, such differences are not taken into account, as they have not been found to constitute significant changes in meaning. Accordingly, meaning is the decisive factor in the identification of microstrategies. In order for readers who do not know any Danish to be able to understand the Danish transcriptions, glosses are added in square brackets when needed. 16/48

21 In the following, those of Schjoldager s microstrategies that are relevant to this thesis are explained and exemplified by means of examples from the analysis. In addition, Gottlieb s strategies condensation, decimation and deletion are explained and exemplified, the first and last of which are considered in addition to Schjoldager s definitions of the two. Furthermore, strategies are further specified when it is deemed necessary for the purposes of this thesis. Due to the space constraints of this thesis only the strategies relevant here are included. 7.1 Direct Transfer The microstrategy direct transfer involves transferring a ST item from the ST to the TT without changing it (Schjoldager 2008: 93). Consequently, employing this strategy results in the ST item and the corresponding TT item being identical. However, if the item in question exists in its own right in both languages (can be found in a dictionary) and merely happens to have the same spelling in both languages, it will be regarded as direct translation and not direct transfer. Even though it looks like the item has been transferred directly, it has actually been translated in such a case as it would also have been chosen if it were not spelled in the same way as the ST item. In order to be able to compare how often the strategy occurs in TT1 and TT2 in the analyzed segments, it is specified here that a ST item and its corresponding TT item need only be spelled identically to be analyzed as direct transfer. Accordingly, direct transfer can be identified in TT2 on the same grounds as in TT1, i.e. irrespective of pronunciation. An example of a segment which is analyzed as a result of direct transfer is segment 50. In this segment, Donkey interrupts Artie and Shrek s argument as he shouts out Shrek s name because the ship is about to be wrecked. ST: Segment 50 TT1 TT2 Shreeek! Shreeek! Shreeek! Example 1 The ST item Shreeek! is identical to the corresponding TT item in TT1 as well as the one in TT2. It has been transferred unchanged from the ST to the two TTs, and the microstrategy applied to both TTs in this segment is deemed to be direct transfer. 17/48

22 7.2 Direct Translation When translating by means of direct translation one tends to select the TT phrasing that one thinks of first. This strategy involves translating in a word-for-word procedure and often entails using linguistic equivalents in an attempt to cover all meaning components (Schjoldager 2008: 95-96). TT1 in segment 47 exemplifies this strategy. At this point in the story, Shrek and Artie are arguing and have just broken the wheel of the ship which leads Shrek to produce the utterance contained in the segment. ST: Segment 39 Artie, what are you doing? Example 2 TT1 - Artie, hvad laver du? [Artie, what are you doing?] I analyze TT1 in this segment as an example of direct translation because the translator seems to have translated it in a rather straightforward way staying quite close to the ST in that the ST items appear to have been translated in a word-for-word procedure by means of linguistic equivalents. 7.3 Oblique Translation This microstrategy involves translating in a sense-for-sense procedure and often includes the use of functional equivalents. Oblique translation and direct translation are somewhat similar but differ from each other in terms of aim as the former attempts to include the contextual meaning of a ST item, whereas the latter aims at covering all the meaning potential" of a ST element (Schjoldager 2008: 97). TT1 in segment 2 in the analysis provides an illustrative example of this strategy. In this example Artie expresses his thoughts on the fact that he is going to be king. ST: Segment 2 Me, a king? TT1 Mig som konge? [Me as king?] 18/48

23 Example 3 This example is analyzed as a result of oblique translation because it has been translated in a sense-for-sense procedure. This is evident from the translation of the ST element a into som [as] which can be described as a functional equivalent of a as it covers the particular meaning of a in this specific context as opposed to all the meaning potential of it. 7.4 Paraphrase If a translator uses paraphrase, he or she translates quite freely. Basically, the meaning of the ST is conveyed in the TT in that the contextual meaning of the TT is very similar to that of the ST, but it is difficult to determine which TT items correspond to which ST items (Schjoldager 2008: ). TT2 in segment 16 in which Donkey tells Artie about what it will be like to be king is an example of this microstrategy. ST: Segment 16 You ll be living in the lap of luxury. Example 4 TT2 Du kommer til at leve et liv i luksus. [You will be living a life in luxury.] It is assumed that the translator used paraphrase in this example. This is because the example can be said to have been translated rather freely as the TT conveys the same meaning as the ST while it is difficult to determine which TT items correspond to which ST items. 7.5 Explicitation The microstrategy explicitation involves making information which is implicit in the ST explicit in the TT. Consequently, even though the relation between the information made 19/48

24 explicit in the TT and the ST may not be readily identifiable, the information made explicit in the TT is related to the textual information implicitly present in the ST (Schjoldager 2008: ). TT2 in segment 32 exemplifies this strategy. At this point Puss is telling Artie about the horrors of plague. ST: Segment 32 The coughing, the groaning, the festering sores. Example 5 TT2 Alt den hosten og stønnen og væskende sår. [All the coughing and groaning and oozing sores.] Here it is argued that the translator used explicitation because the TT item Alt [All] makes what is implicitly present in the ST explicit in that is makes it explicit that there is a lot of coughing and groaning and that there are many festering sores. Although the relation between the TT item in question and the ST is not readily identifiable, Alt [All] contains information implicitly present in the ST. 7.6 Condensation According to Schjoldager (2008: 102), condensation entails translating something by means of something shorter and the result is a condensed expression in which the contextual meaning of the ST is still explicitly or implicitly rendered. According to Gottlieb (1997: 75-76), the strategy, as it is used in subtitling, includes concise rendering, results in condensed expressions and typically only entails loss of oral language features that can be regarded as redundant in the context of subtitling. In Gottlieb s opinion, subtitles resulting from condensation convey the meaning and most of the stylistic content of the original (Gottlieb 1997: 76). In addition, Gottlieb (1997: 75) states that condensation is found in translations of normal speech, but since he does not elaborate on this and it is not relevant to the purposes of this thesis, I will not take account of the speed of the speech to which this strategy has been applied. 20/48

25 For the purpose of this thesis, Schjoldager s definition needs to be further specified as determining whether the contextual meaning of the ST is still explicitly or implicitly rendered can be quite difficult when considering polysemiotic media. Gottlieb s definition of the strategy needs to be further specified as well, as his explanation is somewhat restricted in that he writes very little about the strategy itself and instead provides examples of subtitles which he has analyzed as results of condensation. In addition, I am not content with the rather imprecise definition that condensation typically only includes loss of redundant oral language features and renders the meaning and most of the stylistic content of the original (Gottlieb 1997: 76). Consequently, here condensation is defined as a strategy in which something is translated by means of something shorter, resulting in an condensed expression which is due to concise rendering rather than deletion of any kind as all the contextual meaning of the ST is still explicitly or implicitly conveyed by the TT as a whole, i.e. can be inferred by a person who does not know any English by means of the subtitles or the speech rendered in dubbing, the image, and the original soundtrack (the last factor is of course only relevant in terms of subtitling). For instance, with regard to subtitles, if an item that sounds the same in Danish or similar enough for someone who does not understand any English to be able to decode what it means is the only item omitted from a subtitle, this will be analyzed as condensation. Furthermore, the entire content of a segment can have been omitted from the subtitles or from the dialogue in dubbing, but if the information can be inferred by any other means, no meaning is lost and the strategy is condensation. Condensation can be rather similar to paraphrase but differs from it in that it results in the TT being shorter than the corresponding ST, whereas paraphrase results in the TT being approximately the same length. Words that express an individual s mood, opinion, feelings etc. are considered to carry meaning and instances in which such words have not been subtitled or conveyed in the dialogue in dubbing are only analyzed as examples of condensation if the information in question is adequately rendered by other means. TT1 of segment 26 in the analysis provides an illustrative example of this strategy. In this segment, Puss tells Artie how devoted the bodyguards are to the king. 21/48

26 ST: Segment 26 All of them willing at a moment s notice to lay down their own lives out of devotion to you. Example 6 TT1 Alle sammen klar til med kort varsel at ofre deres liv for dig! [All of them ready to sacrifice their lives for you on short notice!] TT1 in this segment is analyzed as a result of condensation as all of the meaning of the ST is rendered in TT1, just in a shorter way. One reason why TT1 is shorter than the ST is that out of devotion to you has been translated into for dig [for you] which is considerably shorter but basically carries the same meaning. Similarly, at a moment s notice is rendered by means of the shorter expression med kort varsel [on short notice]. The fact that the ST item own seems to have been omitted has not been overlooked. It is not considered to result in decimation because it is argued here that it is implicitly conveyed in the TT by means of the word deres [their]. Had condensation not been applied here, I would have deemed the strategy to have been oblique translation as lay down is translated into ofre [sacrifice] which covers the meaning of lay down in this specific context. 7.7 Decimation Gottlieb (1997: 75-76) defines decimation as a strategy which results in an abridged expression with reduced content in that some semantic or stylistic content is lost. The scholar also states that decimation is used in fast speech of some importance (Gottlieb 1997: 75). However, I will not comment on either of these factors for the same reasons as those given in the case of condensation. The scholar s explanation of decimation itself is limited and one can only do one s best to deduce details of the strategy from the examples. Therefore, it is specified that decimation is a strategy in which one or more but not all units of meaning in a segment are omitted completely. Consequently, with decimation some or all of what is omitted from the subtitles or the dialogue in dubbing cannot be inferred from the image or original soundtrack (subtitling) or the image (dubbing) as it can be with my definition of condensation, nor is an entire segment, which cannot be inferred by any other 22/48

27 means, left out as it would be the case with deletion. As mentioned, I consider words which show a character s opinion, mood, feelings etc. to carry meaning. For this reason, translations in which such words are left out and cannot be inferred by any means are analyzed as examples of decimation. TT1 in segment 17 in which Donkey tells Artie about one of the perks of being king is an example of decimation. ST: Segment 17 They ve got the finest chefs around waiting for you to place your order. Example 7 TT1 De har de bedste kokke. [They have the best chefs.] The meaning contained in around waiting for you to place your order is neither explicitly nor implicitly rendered in TT1 and cannot be inferred by any means. Consequently, the fact that a number of units of meaning have been omitted completely results in the content being reduced and the strategy used is decimation. As for the ST meaning that is conveyed in TT1, since it has been translated in a sense-forsense procedure, it is deemed to be a result of oblique translation. This is apparent from the translation of finest into bedste [best] as the latter is a functional equivalent of the former in that it covers the meaning of the former in this specific context. 7.8 Deletion According to Schjoldager (2008: 108), the microstrategy deletion involves omitting one or more units of meaning present in the ST completely from the TT. Gottlieb (1997: 75-76) states that deletion entails omitting an expression and consequently loss of semantic or stylistic content. In addition, he states that deletion is applied to fast speech of less importance (Gottlieb 1997: 75). However, I will not comment on these factors for the reasons stated in the section about condensation. As this thesis includes the strategy decimation, Schjoldager s definition of deletion is not precise enough. Gottlieb s explanation of the strategy is limited as he writes little about the strategy itself. For these reasons, it is specified that deletion is a strategy in which an entire 23/48