Interviews as a qualitative research method in management and economics sciences

Transcription

1 Interviews as a qualitative research method in management and economics sciences Małgorzata Styśko-Kunkowska The textbook is co-financed by the European Union from the European Social Fund

2 Interviews as a qualitative research method in management and economics sciences

3

4 Małgorzata Styśko-Kunkowska Interviews as a qualitative research method in management and economics sciences Warsaw 2014

5 This textbook was prepared for the purposes of International Doctoral Programme in Management and Economics organized within the Collegium of World Economy at Warsaw School of Economics. The textbook is co-financed by the European Union from the European Social Fund. This textbook is distributed free of charge.

6 Table of Contents CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION The growing interest in qualitative methods Interviews as a qualitative method Aim of the handbook and background The flow of the book CHAPTER 2. FIRST STEPS IN RESEARCH PLANNING How to begin the research process Expectations of academic environment A problem well-defined is half solved CHAPTER 3. METHOD CHOICE Consideration set of methods and method choice Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitative method Advantages of interviews as a qualitative method Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing with them Interviews in a mixed-method design Interviews in multi-method approaches Interviews in a case study method Typology of qualitative interviews Individual interviews Focus group interviews e-interviews Tele-interviewing Rules of method choice CHAPTER 4. SAMPLING AND RECRUITMENT The strategies of sampling and selection Number of cases and participants The particular criteria for selection From criteria to recruitment how to find a participant? Additional remarks: What about anonymity?

7 Table of Contents CHAPTER 5. HOW TO DEVELOP A TOPIC GUIDE The main characteristics of topic guide From research guiding questions and objectives, theoretical and epistemological approach into fieldwork Facilitation of natural process through group dynamic management Better insight into the phenomena via questioning and supporting techniques From topic guide to interviewing CHAPTER 6. HOW TO ANALYZE QUALITATIVE DATA General assumptions of qualitative approach to data analysis Main strategies of analysis Main stages of generic process of analysis Transcripts, recordings and field notes as bases of formal analysis The systematic data analysis via coding and displaying data Establishing the shared vision of reality via triangulation Understanding differences between participants Data verification Additional remarks CHAPTER 7. HOW TO REPORT QUALITATIVE DATA The role of the report The style of results reporting Structure of the report Content of the report and ways of presenting results CHAPTER 8. BRIEF CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to explain the background of this handbook and to provide an introduction to the further chapters. In particular, the current status of qualitative research involving interviews, definition of interviewing, aims of the book and its flow will be presented The growing interest in qualitative methods Qualitative insight has a long history in management and economics due to its contribution to knowledge development and its practical meaning (Denyer & Tranfield, 2006). However, for many years qualitative research as a primary source of data has been discouraged by academic journals, by academic environment and was limited in the course of MA and Ph.D. education (Cassell, Buehring, Symon, & Johnson, 2006). Undoubtedly, the current academic literature in management and economic sciences is dominated by quantitative research and positivist approach (Burton, 2007; Cassell, Symon, Buehring, & Johnson, 2006). Also, the academic environment still indicates a number of barriers toward qualitative methodology. In 2006 some British academics (Cassell et al., 2006) conducted the qualitative research to understand the current status of qualitative research in the management field. The project involved 45 in-depth individual interviews with four international stakeholders groups including qualitative researchers, academic disseminators (such as journal editors and funders), Doctoral Programme Leaders and practitioners. Researchers revealed the diversity of interpretations of the concept of qualitative research and a number of barriers including credibility, difficulties in assessing the qualitative research quality and problems with result presentation in academic articles. The results also suggest the need for more systematic training during graduate and postgraduate education. The distance toward qualitative research is not limited to academic environment in management and economic sciences. Bent Flyvbjerg (2006) described also misconceptions about qualitative methods among academics in social sciences. 7

9 Introduction Nevertheless, over the last two decades one may observe the renaissance of qualitative methodology (Burton, 2007; Denyer & Tranfield, 2006). The empirical articles involving qualitative methods have started to be published in prestigious journals such as Journal of Management Studies and Organization studies (Cassell et al., 2006), and Journal of Financial Economics (Burton, 2007). Journals in this field published special issues on qualitative research in finances and management with Management Decision in 2006 as one of the prominent examples. Additionally, the Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: International Journal was set up in 2006 to publish excellent works in this field (Cassell & Symon, 2012). Moreover, the systematic approaches to synthesis of qualitative research results have been developed (Denyer & Tranfield, 2006). Last but not least, qualitative methods (although not only interviews) have been applied to study many different topics including organizational analysis, information systems, finances and accounting (Burton, 2007; Cassell et al., 2006; Cohen & Ravishankar, 2012; Merrilees, 2007; Runyan, Huddleeston, & Swinney, 2007). One may observe many reasons of the coming back of qualitative methods. First, demand on the link between academic research and practice is growing and need for a better insight into various processes in a fast changing and complex social-economic environment is increasing; and both requirements are considered to be better achieved by qualitative than quantitative research (Cassell et al., 2006; Denyer & Tranfield, 2006; Gummesson, 2006). Second, some issues about qualitative methods have started to be clarified. Conventional misconceptions about some qualitative methods have been addressed in the literature as being false or too general (Buchanan, 2012; Flyvbjerg, 2006; T. W. Lee, 1999); this topic will be discussed thoroughly in Chapter 3. Moreover, the number of publications including books on qualitative methods has been increasing: on specific applications (e.g. in information systems in business and organizational setting and on designing and conducting qualitative research projects regarding a variety of methods (one may find information about them throughout the whole script). Finally, computer programs supporting qualitative analysis are rapidly being developed and completed by friendly handbooks and web-trainings (see section Additional remarks in Chapter 6). Although many authors repeat that applying qualitative methods is a way of thinking and there is lack of rigor procedure, in the last decade one may observe a movement toward the description and establishing of key procedures of conducting, analyzing and evaluation of qualitative research to enable publishing of valuable research results (Symon & Cassell, 2012a; Yin, 2003). 8 KEY POINTS The qualitative research has played the growing role over the recent years for many reasons. There are opportunities to reduce the distance in academic environment (dominated by quantitative researchers) toward this methodology; however, still some misconceptions need to be addressed.

10 1.2. Interviews as a qualitative method 1.2. Interviews as a qualitative method The variety of qualitative methods is huge (see Frame 1) with qualitative interviews as one of the leading methods of gathering qualitative primary data (Thorpe & Holt, 2008). Interviews may be conducted both as an independent method, as a part of mixed-method projects including both qualitative and quantitative methods (Venkatesh, Brown, & Bala, 2013), and multi-method projects including various qualitative methods such as case studies (Buchanan, 2012) and ethnography (Pritchard, 2012; Yanow, Ybema, & van Hulst, 2012). Frame 1.1. Examples of qualitative methods applied in management research Individual and group interviews (and variety of their types) Observation Participatory visual methods Other methods and techniques, e.g. diaries, analysis of documents Multi-methods: case study, ethnography Others: e.g. electronic interviews Source: Own elaboration, based on: Cassell & Symon (2004), Symon & Cassell (2012b). The term interview has many meanings. The method of interviewing is not exclusively a qualitative method. Interviews are the basis of at least three main quantitative methods, such as Paper and Pen Personal Interview (PAPI), Computer-Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI), Computer-Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI). In a quantitative research the term of interviewing is being used also to name some self-reporting methods with or without the presence of an interviewer, such as Computer-Assisted Web Interview (CAWI) or Computer- Assisted Self-Administered Personal Interviewing (CASI) in which respondents complete the questionnaire available in the Internet (CAWI) or in computer in the presence of an interviewer (CASI), or Audio Computer-Assisted Self-Administered Interviewing (ACASI) when a respondent answers questions that are played back by a software. So, what distinguishes a qualitative method of interviewing from quantitative interviewing? Intuitively every person who frequented any course on social or marketing research methods has his/her own overall idea what is qualitative research and qualitative interviewing, or at least has some selected associations in mind such as subjectivity, focus groups, etc. As some authors notice (Cassell et al., 2006), it is not easy to define qualitative research as a whole given that it includes many different methods, many different paradigmatic approaches (positivism, qualitative neo-positivism, interpretivism, critical theory or phenomenology, 9

11 Introduction constructivism, realism, postmodernism 1 ), many different analytical strategies (e.g. grounded theory, template analysis, pattern matching) and individual approaches of authors. The broadest, the most generic and most conventionally used (also in management field) definition recognized qualitative methods as those techniques of data collection and analysis that rely on non-numerical data (Cassell et al., 2006). Although simplified and potentially controversial, this definition is most helpful to understand the core idea of qualitative interviewing as a starting point as well. However, to enable the gathering and analysis of non-numerical data, the whole research process has also specific characteristics, beginning from the problem definition and type of main research questions via the level of standardization, number of research units and methods of sample selection, data collection and analysis till the way of reporting data and possibility of generalization. Many authors even emphasize that qualitative research is the way of thinking, thus that application of procedures is not sufficient without good understanding of the core idea (Kvale, 1996). Also, it is not easy to define interviewing because the qualitative interview itself is not uniform, not only because it shares characteristics of differences within the qualitative approach. Without any doubt, the qualitative interviewing is a type of interaction between a person who conducts the interview and a participant(s) of the study; interaction which is based on a conversation (Thorpe & Holt, 2008). This interaction may be direct (complete) or indirect (limited) mediated by a phone or Internet. One participant or a small group of participants may take part in this interaction. As a research method, qualitative interviews have a structure and purpose directed on achieving research goals; however, this structure is lower than in case of quantitative interviewing. The conversation is focused on understanding and identifying meaningful parts of phenomena. To achieve it, the process of qualitative interviewing is flexible with domination of open questioning and a huge role of active listening on the part of the researcher to obtain this goal; in each interview the researcher may ask questions differently and the interview may have different flow. The tool (that is called topic guide) assumes the flexibility during the interviewing and is flexibly applied during the conversation. Interviews are often recorded and then transcribed what may be completed by some field notes. The process of analysis is based on coding, although a wide range of analytic strategies may be applied. Reports include a description of results and may be completed with quotations, tables, figures, but rarely numbers of answers. The statistical generalization is not possible mostly due to non-standardized and flexible procedures at all stages of the research process as well as due to a small number of research 1 In literature authors use different categorizations of approaches. For instance, Piotr Zaborek distinguishes positivist and phenomenological approach including critical theory, realism and constructivism; Nigel King (2004) make a distinction of positivist, phenomenological and constructivist approach, Orlikowski and Baroudi (2007 in Myers and Avison, 2007) positivist, interpretive and critical theory approach. 10

12 1.3. Aim of the handbook and background units and non-probabilistic methods of sampling. However, other type of generalization is possible and is named analytical or theoretical generalization, although generalization is sometimes considered not necessary at all. These characteristics predispose this method similarly as other qualitative methods to achieve different aims than aims of quantitative research. They enable to explore, descript or explain some phenomena, or to generate some ideas by obtaining better insight into participant s perspective and/or phenomena under consideration. They are best whenever the researcher expects the answer for questions such as How/which way? Why/what for? As one may see, this definition is extensive. Its aim is to bring closer the method of interviewing. I will come back to these characteristics in further chapters. KEY POINTS In short, interviewing as a qualitative academic method in management and economic sciences may be described as the method of data collection based on interaction between one interviewer and one or more participants. Moreover, it shares characteristics of a qualitative research as a whole group of methods including, among others, analyses that rely on non-numerical data, mainly gathered from small samples in a more or less flexible manner Aim of the handbook and background Many current practical handbooks on qualitative research including interviewing refer to social sciences in general (Kvale, 1996; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Silverman, 2001; Yin, 2003) or are targeted to practitioners in market research (Maison, 2010; Mariampolski, 2006). They do not refer to management and economics sciences and they omit examples specific for this field of study. The textbooks on qualitative research in organizational settings (Cassell & Symon, 2004; Gummesson, 2000; T. W. Lee, 1999; Symon & Cassell, 2012b) are very extensive and very detailed, sometimes too detailed for beginning researchers at the start of academic adventure with qualitative interviewing. Moreover, they rarely focus on the method of interviewing itself (with short texts of Alvesson (2012), King (2004) and Perry (1998) as exceptions). Thus, the concise handbook with a short overview of the method of interviewing, some practical guidelines and references for further reading for academic research involving the qualitative interviewing method in management and economic sciences is still lacking. This book is trying to fill this gap. In particular it is addressed to students in any educational programs in management and economics sciences. Its objective is to make interest in conducting interviews in organizational and economic setting, or at least to limit negative attitudes toward this methodology through introduction with its 11

13 Introduction key ideas and procedures including explanation of some detailed issues that may raise some doubts. The choice of content and structure has several bases including my academic, teaching and practical experience. Since 1998 I has been a consultant in social and market qualitative research cooperating with various research agencies in Poland. This part of my experience includes projects with professionals and on management and organization issues as well as a broad scope of marketing topics and a wide range of research problems. During my teaching career I have run courses for international postgraduate students of Warsaw School of Economics (Doctoral Programme in Management and Economics), graduate courses on application of qualitative market research (specialty Economic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology at University of Warsaw) and other courses helpful in my methodological progress (on unstructured methods including interviewing in psychological diagnosis, on experimental psychology and on trainings). In my academic development, I have participated in single and multistage projects including qualitative interviewing methods (Hodgkins et al., 2012) as well as quantitative and experimental methods (Koenigstorfer, Wąsowicz- Kiryło, Styśko-Kunkowska, & Groeppel-Klein, 2013; Stysko-Kunkowska & Borecka, 2010; Wąsowicz & Styśko-Kunkowska, 2011). Invaluable contribution to my understanding of the application of the case study method in management and economics sciences have made publications of Piotr Zaborek from Warsaw School of Economics (Zaborek, 2007, 2009a, 2009b) as they are based on his academic experience in conducting case study research for his doctoral dissertation on information systems management in organizations (defended with honors!), his broad experience in teaching graduate and postgraduate students at Warsaw School of Economic and in leading business projects. Due to my psychological background, the book is slightly biased into the direction of soft aspects of qualitative research application in management and economics sciences, in which the investigation of interview participant perspective is of key interest. KEY POINTS The handbook is addressed mainly to students in any educational programs in management and economics sciences. Its aim is to introduce the qualitative method of interviewing, reduce potential distances toward it and make interest in broader application of this methodology in this field of study The fl ow of the book In this first introductory chapter I have presented the background for the rest of the book including the increasing interest and application of qualitative 12

14 1.4. The fl ow of the book methods in a field of management and economic sciences field of study and the general description of qualitative interviewing. The aim, recipients and background of the author were also explained. In the second chapter the process of qualitative research will be explained and its preliminary stages will be discussed. Special emphasis will be put on general expectations toward student papers, MA thesis and Ph.D. thesis as the important starting point for any research. Next, issues related with problem definition and formulation of key and detailed research questions will be discussed with highlighting specific topics by examples. The order of succeeding chapters is directed by the flow of research stages. The third chapter introduces the issue of method choice. It presents the establishment of method consideration set, the advantages of interviews as a qualitative method including the area of applications, and limitations of qualitative methods. Special emphasis is put on controversial characteristics of qualitative methodology in academic environment and ways to deal with them. Further on, particular methods will be described. First, issues related with application of interviews in mixed designs involving also quantitative research and in a multi-method designs with particular emphasis put on the case study method as compared with ethnography method. Next, typology of interviews will be presented completed with the description of individual indepth interviews, focus group interviews and methods of indirect interviewing with those, which use the recent technological achievements. The fourth chapter presents guidelines to designing the recruitment criteria and choosing participants. It is completed by some pieces of advice how to find participants. In the fifth chapter the main rules of designing a research tool (topic guide) will be discussed including underlying psychological processes and guidelines how to use the topic guide during interviewing. The sixth chapter is dedicated to issues of analysis. It discusses general assumptions of qualitative analysis; then main analytic strategies are presented (template analysis, pattern matching and the grounded theory approach as a background) and main stages of analysis. Further, it describes the detailed analysis process via coding and displaying data. Some issues related with relying on general patterns and ways of dealing with outstanding participants will be also highlighted as well as issues of data verification. In the final seventh chapter I present selected issues related to reporting results of qualitative interviews in academic papers with special emphasis on Ph.D. thesis and manuscripts for publication as indicating key directions of reporting qualitative data. Each chapter begins with a short summary and is completed with examples of research in management and economic sciences whenever possible. Each section ends with key notes containing practical conclusions for academic researches when applicable. In the end of most sections I present the literature references that I consider most valuable to deepen the knowledge for a given topic. 13

15

16 CHAPTER 2 First steps in research planning This chapter presents the process of research and highlights first steps in research planning the understanding of academic environment formal and informal requirements and issues related with problem and guiding research question definition. Specific issues related to qualitative research planning will be emphasized, e.g. dealing with not uniform attitudes toward the qualitative research, wording related to qualitative research questions, examples of unique contribution of the qualitative research involving interviews How to begin the research process When some researchers start thinking about a new research project, they begin with a general topic idea and start thinking about methods. For instance, they had observed very interesting phenomena in practice and they want to examine it. Some others start with the detailed review of literature that becomes the basis for the problem formulation and method choice. Whatever is the starting point, the researcher should thoroughly understand the whole process of planning, conducting, analyzing and reporting before taking the final decision about the research scheme and before the start of gathering data. The whole research process involving qualitative interviews alone, or as a part of mixed-method approach or multi-methods, has certain main stages (Sinkovics & Alfoldi, 2012; Yin, 2003), which are presented in Figure 2.1. In practice, one may meet also different approaches. Buchanan (2012) presents the case study, in which data collection is a starting point. Also in grounded theory approach (described later in details) fieldwork is a starting point. However, it is worth noticing that researchers who conduct such type of research have often great experience or at least knowledge both in their own field of study and in methodology. Thus, they know well the flow of the research process. For graduates and postgraduate students as academic researchers, the scientific environment as a whole and specific institutions have specific requirements and it is good to recognize them as a starting point. Defining the audience and its expectations sets the general 15

17 First steps in research planning direction of thinking about the level of self-reflection during research process as the researcher should be able to justify almost any decision that was taken. Main stages are strictly related; they occur more or less simultaneously, and the researcher may come back to the previous stages. All the steps will be discussed in further sections and chapters of this book. Figure 2.1. Main stages of research process including qualitative interviews Research planning First steps in research planning Defining the audience and its requirements Research problem and guiding question definition Method choice Consideration set Reasons underlying a choice Preparation for fieldwork Design and sampling Topic guide development Fieldwork including interviewing or Interviewing completed with other methods Data analysis and interpretation Results reporting Source: own elaboration based on: Maison (2010), Malhotra & Birks (2007), Sinkovics & Alfoldi (2012), Stewart, Shamdasani, & Rook (2007), Yin (2003) Expectations of academic environment As mentioned, academic community and particular institutions have specific formal (and informal) requirements about the graduate and postgraduate students work, which may be applied also to other student papers. These requirements are independent of the chosen method; however, they direct attention to what has a key role when qualitative research is applied. I will present an example of Ph.D. thesis, but in my opinion it sets a general direction of academic expectations, even though they may be slightly lighter in case of seminar papers or diploma thesis. According to the formal guidelines for Ph.D. students in Poland (Dz. U. z 2011 r. Nr 84, poz. 455), the doctoral dissertation should meet three main criteria: (1) deliver original solution of the scientific problem, (2) convince that candidate has overall theoretical knowledge about a given field of science and (3) confirm that candidate has the skills to conduct an academic work alone. As underlines Robert Yin (2003), the author of Ph.D. thesis is supposed to convince academics about the significance of the problem and the results, the good knowledge in the theory and methodology as far as skills to conduct 16

18 2.2. Expectations of academic environment scientific research of good quality. Academics may be also interested in the relationships between the current research and previous theoretical models and research findings (Yin, 2003). If a student is planning to publish the work as an article, a chapter in a textbook, a book or text in conference proceedings (what is an obligation for Ph.D. students according to Dz. U. z 2011 r. Nr 84, poz. 455), he or she should think about it also in advance and have particular concern about requirements of journals or book editors in the field. Good quality of the whole research process, convincing knowledge in the field and in methodology and valuable contribution are again particularly worth being underlined as important for reviewers. The last one may be evaluated in various ways but with general conclusion that research should give original insight and widen the current knowledge in a field (Cassell et al., 2006). Buchanan (2012) advises also to follow the guidelines of the Harvard Business Reviews that recommends to contributors to search for the compelling insight (p. 361) that is expressed as so what and aha effects. Even if someone is not planning to publish research at the beginning, it is worth acting as if it was planned, than later wish that something was being neglected. Some students may say, What about practice? with tacit assumption that academic research is far from it. First, currently in the field of management and economy the close relation between academic research and practice is expected (Cassell et al., 2006; Denyer & Tranfield, 2006; Gummesson, 2006) and even the action research methodology was developed as a separate approach (Heller, 2004; Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Second, if a student wants to focus on issues rooted mainly in practice, even then the research should have academic bias in the whole research process for successful academic results. Defining the audience and its requirements is particularly important in qualitative research due to inconsistent, often distant or negative, attitudes in academic environment. Thus, not only formal but also informal beliefs within academic community are important. To deal with potential critics, any research author which work is reviewed should be able to justify any decision that was undertaken in a research process. Some other ways of dealing with possible critics are highlighted in the section about limitations in Chapter 3. Expectations of the academic community in the field one may identify by reading the most valuable journals in a given field. Formal and informal requirements of academics within a given institution, one may examine by talks with a supervisor and other academic workers, other students and by reading the most successful papers of other students. KEY POINTS In graduate and postgraduate student work, understanding of the academic formal and informal requirements is important to achieve success- 17

19 First steps in research planning ful results in writing any paper, thesis, etc. These requirements are particularly important in research involving qualitative methods due to its still unclear status as a valid method in management and economics sciences. The main expectations include: (a) original and valuable contribution, (b) convincing presentation of knowledge in a field and in methodology, (c) good quality of research, (d) reasons underlying any decision in a research process. More about expectations of journal editors toward qualitative research process one may find in a publication of Catherine Cassel et al. (2006) that conducted qualitative research on the current role and status of this methodology in the management field (some issues from this research were highlighted in the introductory chapter of this handbook) A problem well-defi ned is half solved The statement in the title of this chapter in this or similar form has been attributed to many authors including John Dewey (an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer), Charles Kettering (an American inventor and social philosopher), or to Albert Einstein, and was repeated many times in many different contexts, as one may see in Google search. Most of handbooks on qualitative research (and other research methods as well) also emphasize the research problem identification having a key role for any further steps of research process. After the preliminary choice of a topic and identification of rationale of the study, the researcher should conduct a thorough, critical and rigorous review of literature including theoretical models and research and establishment of practice needs. This is important for at least two reasons. First, it helps to determine the potential contribution of the research because the topic could have been investigated by other researchers. Second, the gaps existing in the literature may be identified, so the research has a better chance for valuable and unique contribution. Further, the theoretical and conceptual foundations may be developed. The literature reviewing process should end with a preliminary problem statement and identification of a guiding research question. From technical point of view, at least two issues are important in a problem definition. First, to identify when qualitative methods involving interviews are the most appropriate solution. Second, to understand how to formulate the problem statement so that it fits for qualitative research. In this section I highlight only the latter one formal issues of this process. The remaining topics will be developed in the section about method choice. 18

20 2.3. A problem well-defi ned is half solved In qualitative research the problem formulation includes most often such terms as to explore, to recognize, to investigate, to determine 2 with the most qualitative terms to thoroughly, deeply, in-depth understand, to extensively and in-depth describe, to gain deep insight. In turn, research questions may include such terms as how and why or questions about specific role of some variables within a given phenomena. Frame 2.1. presents some examples of research questions in qualitative research involving interviews. The way of the formulation of the research problem and the guiding research question may help researcher to understand which type of methodology to use in the given occasion and will help to avoid the gross misfits (Yin, 2003) meaning that another method may be more beneficial than the chosen one. Frame 2.1. Examples of key research questions in qualitative research involving interviews How is relationship marketing implemented in a modern accounting practice? (Perry, 1998, p. 788) How does the marketing infrastructure of a foreign country impact on its own internationalization process? (Perry, 1998, p. 788) How do Australian high value-added manufacturing companies develop their market entry modes into China? (Perry, 1998, p. 788) Do the resources of brand identity and social capital mitigate a hostile local environment for small retailers (Runyan et. al., 2007, p. 392) How do factors such as gender and race play into participant accounts of their works and professional identity (Ashcraft, 2005, 2007 and Ashcraft and Mumby, 2004; see Alvesson & Ashcraft, 2012) In this introductory stage the researcher aim is also to refine the guiding research question by explicating a few (not too many) objectives (in a form of issues or questions). If they are too many, it may be unrealistic to investigate them within a given time framework. If deductive approach to theory development is applied (see Chapter 5), specific issues/questions are followed by theoretical model presentation (e.g. as a figure) and set of hypothesis. It is worth underlining that neither the guiding research question, nor detailed questions or issues, should be identified as questions to be asked directly during interviews. They work more as a research goal and research objectives. The researcher will return to the literature review, problem and guiding question formulation many times during the research process, to develop them further and to establish the consistent design. After the establishing the problem and guiding research question, and after the next stage of method 2 Although these terms are not exclusively qualitative, because most of methods including surveys may play explorative, explanative and descriptive aim. 19

21 First steps in research planning choice it is also worth thinking about the predicted contribution to the science development and to the practice. It is helpful to establish if a given problem is important enough to be investigated. Some examples of the contribution of qualitative research involving interviews are presented in Frame 2.2. I will develop this topic while discussing qualitative research advantages. Frame 2.2. Examples of an innovative contribution of qualitative methods involving interviewing, which were presented in papers published in the field of management and organization field Theoretical value, e.g. the development of coherent conceptual framework; lack of investigation of some variables as mitigators of some outcomes Filling empirical gaps, e.g. lack of research in a given field, or small number of published research on a given topic, or application of a given theory to a given target group, methodological rigor beyond those identified within previous studies Overpassing of limitations of quantitative methods, e.g. unfeasible with quantitative methods, qualitative insight into practitioners decisions such as perception of some aspects of the phenomena; emphasizing the important role of studying phenomena within its natural real-life context as complex relationships At this preliminary stage, the researcher should also make preliminary decision about the title that is evolving but gives some boundaries of the area under consideration (Sinkovics & Alfoldi, 2012). KEY POINTS Researcher tasks in this preliminary stage include: preliminary choice of a topic, a thorough, critical and rigorous literature review including potential contribution of the research and identification of the gaps existing in the existing literature, research problem definition, development of theoretical and conceptual foundations, identifying a guiding research question, articulation of research objectives/specific questions (not too many) in some approaches hypothesis; if they are too many and defining priorities, initial decisions about further steps. Nevertheless, the process of problem defining is evolving till closing the stage of planning. 20

22 2.3. A problem well-defi ned is half solved The perfect example of the research planning one may find in the publication of Piotr Zaborek (2009b) that describes the process of planning the study involving qualitative research for his Ph.D. dissertation. For better understanding of the planning process in academic student work, one may also read the article of Chad Perry (1998). Worth reading is also a more general paper of Rudolf Sinkovic and Eva Alfoldi (2012) about the usage of computerassisted qualitative data analysis software in all the stages of the qualitative research process beginning with literature review, problem definition title management, etc. 21

23

24 CHAPTER 3 Method choice In this chapter the issues related with the choice of interviews will be presented. In a beginning section the broader context of choice will be discussed. Next, main characteristics, advantages and limitations of qualitative methods will be completed with propositions how to deal with limitations, particularly with potential criticism in the academic environment. The final sections present different types of interviews. First, interviews as part of mixed-method and multi- -method approaches will be discussed. Next, both face-to-face (Individual In-depth Interview, Focus group interview) and indirect (interviews via internet and telephone) will be presented Consideration set of methods and method choice When the reader understands the main idea of qualitative research involving interviews, it is time to establish which type of method or group of methods to apply. Sometimes, the method choice is obvious from the research problem and research question; however, sometimes the borders in the application of some methods are not so apparent. Additionally, the qualitative method is not leading methodological solution in the field of management and economic sciences and its choice requires supporting arguments (which may be either explicitly presented in the final report, or at least ready to be presented for reviewers). Thus, the researcher should ascertain that a given method is the most appropriate for a given research question, or at least to avoid gross misfits (Yin, 2003). The researcher should start with initial consideration of wide range of methods, including qualitative methods of gathering primary data, quantitative methods, mixed methods, and analysis of secondary data, not to omit any method that may be best applied for a given aim. Next, the researcher should undertake the following steps: to establish a preliminary consideration set of core methods or sets of methods (e.g. qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach; if qualitative 23

25 Method choice case study, ethnography or just interviews) and then specific method types within a given method (e.g. if case study interviews, observation, etc.; if interviews individual or group interviews, standard interviews or variants), to identify their advantages and limitations regarding research problem and guiding research question, to chose the method definition, because in literature one may find many of them, to determine the underlying epistemological approach, to justify the choice regarding research problem and guiding research question, to check possible gross misfits, to check if the problem and guiding research question is formulated in an appropriate manner for a chosen method and reformulate it if necessary. In management and economics sciences literature, one may find at least four types of interviews applications in relation to other methods: interviews as a separate method 3, interviews as the only method in case-study research, interviews as a part of multi-method design 4 (part of case-study or ethnography method) and as a part of mixed-design approach including both qualitative and quantitative methods. The possible paths of decision are presented by the Figure 3.1. Figure 3.1. Path of possible choices in a preliminary consideration set Preliminary consideration set Qualitative multimethod design Qualitative Interviews Mixed method design Quantitative Secondary data, archives etc. Case studies Ethnography Source: own elaboration. 3 In the current publications in the field, whenever separate research including only interviews is presented, it is described mainly as explorative, or as a part of case-study approach. 4 The terms multi-method and mixed-method designs is being used interchangeably in literature; however, some authors distinguish them for better understanding of each concept (Venkatesh et al., 2013). I will use the term multi-method to name the set of one type of methods, e.g. only qualitative or only quantitative, while the term mixed-method include both types of methods: qualitative and quantitative. 24

26 3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitative method KEY POINTS After the problem definition, the researcher s task is to consider a wide variety of methodological designs to choose the one which fits problem the best. If a qualitative method is considered, one may consider qualitative interviews as a separate method, the only method in the case study method, a variety of mixed-method designs, or multi-method designs. The aim is to establish the preliminary consideration set of methods and underlying rationale Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitative method Taking into account that readers of this handbook are probably most familiar with quantitative methods and that the quantitative methods are the most widespread in academic environment in management and economics field of studying, but also the tradition in literature on qualitative methods, as well as the definition of qualitative methods given at the beginning of the chapter, the qualitative methods are best characterized by opposition to quantitative methods. Various authors underline different aspects in this comparison (T. W. Lee, 1999), but jointly and independently of the approach, they create the consistent pattern. The main differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches and then differences between interviews in both approaches are presented in Tables 3.1. and 3.2. They are discussed and completed thoroughly in further two sections in which the strengths and limitations of qualitative approach as a whole and interviews in particular are discussed as well as in next chapters of this book regarding the subsequent stages of the research process. I presented the comparison of qualitative methods with quantitative methods as a whole; nevertheless the researcher should also remember that some specific quantitative methods may be relevant to the project problem as well. For example, Robert Yin (2003) notices that experimental and quasi experimental methods may achieve similar research aims to some extent because they are designed to explain a phenomenon (identify its causes and answer questions such as how and why ) and under some circumstances they may include small samples. However, experimental and quasi-experimental procedures of data collection and analysis share characteristics of quantitative methods such as the rigid procedure of data collection, structured questionnaire with mostly closed questions, analysis based on statistical inferences, and as a consequence the opportunities of statistical generalization and finally, presenting numbers, percentages and tables and results of statistical analysis. However, differently than qualitative and quantitative methods they require behavioral control over 25

27 Method choice events. Another quantitative method relevant to establish complex relationships within results is the structure equation modeling. Table 3.1. Main characteristics of qualitative and quantitative methods Research problem Research questions Level of standardization Number of research units Method of selection Data collection Data analysis Generalization Reporting Qualitative methods Need for understanding and identification of meaningful parts of phenomena with the aim of exploration, description or explanation plus ideas generating, see also further sections How/which way? Why/what for? Low General rules as a basis Some rules for systematization Relatively small samples: several a dozen or so interviews (20-50 persons) or one to several cases Non-probability sampling, mainly purposive Flexibility in research procedure; focus on understanding and identification of meaningful parts of phenomena Looking for repetitive patterns of results, analysis of meaning, analysis of similarities and differences, rarely counting of answers and statistics, sometimes counting what is countable Analytical or possibility of transferability of results (generalization to theory) Description, figures, tables, rarely numbers of answers Quantitative methods Exploration, description or explanation by: - assessment of a scale of a phenomena; focus on predicting outcomes - explanation by searching of causes and effects between a small number of variables Who? What? Where? How many? How often? How much? High Precisely defined uniform procedures Relatively large samples: units of analysis Random Rigidity, standardization of all the actions Statistical analyses Statistical, based on statistical representativeness of sample Generalization to general population Numbers, percentages and tables, results of statistics Source: Own elaboration, based on: Buchanan (2012), Cassell & Symon (2012), T. W. Lee (1999), Malhotra & Birks (2007), Noga-Bogomilski (2007), Saunders (2012), Yin (2003), Zaborek (2009a). Table 3.2. presents the comparison of more specific issues related with interviewing in qualitative and quantitative approaches. 26

28 3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitativemethod Table 3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as the qualitative method as compared with characteristics of quantitative methods Level of interaction Interviewee The person that conducts the research Level of standardization Tool Qualitative interviewing Two levels of interaction between the researcher and participant(s): complete (face-to-face) or limited (via phone, via Internet) Called participant or in some types of case studies informant Researcher, interviewer, moderator in case of group interviews; researcher itself, experienced or well-trained representative of researcher Non-standardized Flexible, but documented, structure at all the stages of the process Topic guide with different levels of generality: general including main topics or detailed including specific question and procedures Quantitative interviewing Three levels of interaction between the researcher (or his representative) and respondent from complete by limited to lack of interactions Called respondent Interviewer being representative of researcher, rarely researcher itself Standardization of all the actions including recruitment, place of fieldwork and the tool Structured questionnaire including uniform content, order and way of questioning Questions Mostly open questions Mostly closed questions Tool application Flexible, fitted to the research objectives, the participants and flow of the talk Question included in a topic guide should not be read by interviewer The huge role of active listening, going beyond guidelines in a topic guide Precise uniform instructions that enable to conduct the interview according the same procedures Process of analysis The interviewer goal Reporting It is based mostly on transcripts completed by field notes The process of analysis is directed by epistemological approach, with template analysis, pattern matching, grounded theory as some of examples Generic approach to analysis include coding To achieve answers to research objectives; To understand and identify the meaningful parts of phenomena Compare Table 3.1. Description may include quotations Based on statistical inferences To gather respondent s answers and conduct the interview according to the same precise uniform procedures Compare Table 3.1. Source: Own elaboration, based on: Maison (2010), Malhotra & Birks (2007), Noga- Bogomilski (2007), Stewart et al. (2007). 27