Situação da Geração Termonuclear no Mundo: EUA, Europa

Transcription

1 Situação da Geração Termonuclear no Mundo: EUA, Europa Antonio Gaivão Generation Coordinator GDF Suez Energy Latin America Em colaboração com: Luc Geraets (GDFSuez) Yves Crommelynck (GDFSuez)

2 INDEX 1. Generation I and Generation II technologies 2. Installed Capacity and Generation 3. Present and announced trends 4. New Evolutionary Reactors; Generation III and III+ 5. EPRs in Western Europe 6. AP Generation IV: Innovative concepts 8. Fuel Management for Sustainability 2

3 Nuclear Power Generation 1. Generation I and Generation II technologies 3

4 The first prototypes and research reactors: GENERATION I Fermi Pile: first critical chain reaction 1963 First reactor at Mol in Belgium: BR1 (11MW) 4

5 Main reactor lines Generation I Generation II Early Prototype Reactors Industrial Expansion Generation III Advanced LWRs Generation IIII + Generation IV - Shippingport - Dresden, Fermi I - Magnox - LWR-PWR, BWR - CANDU PHWR - VVER/RBMK - ABWR - System AP1000; AP600 - EPR Evolutionary Designs Offering Improved Economics - Highly Economical - Enhanced Safety - Minimal Waste - Proliferation Resistant Gen I Gen II Gen III Gen IV

6 GENERATION II : Basic elements of a nuclear power reactor Fuel: UO 2 (enriched or natural), MOX Moderator: Graphite, Water, Heavy Water Coolant: Water, He, CO 2, air, Na, Pb(-Bi) Control rods SCRAM system (emergency stop) Pressure vessel or pressure tubes Confinement building Steam generator/alternator 6

7 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) 7

8 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Nuclear island Conventional island Primary system Secondary system Energy conversion: Nuclear Thermal Mechanical Electrical

9 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Reactor 150 to 250 assemblies with 200 to 300 fuel pins each 80 to 100 tonnes of uranium Negative temperature reactivity coefficient Extra emergency stop by injection of boric acid in primary loop VVER= Russian PWR, hexagonal fuel structure Primary Circuit (cooling loop) Water under high pressure: above 150 bar (no boiling) Maximum water temperature: 325 C Vapour fraction controlled by pressurizer Heat transfered to secondary system in heat exchangers (Steam Generators) Secondary system (Steam to turbine) not radioactive, under low pressure (70 bar) 9

10 Lay-out of the primary system of a PWR 10

11 Reactor Vessel Vessel Is a cylinder in MnMo Steel with hemispherical bottom head and removable top head The internal wall is in stainless steel to prevent corrosion Is the only component that cannot be replaced. ( Pressure Vessel Surveillance Programme) Main functions/characteristics Support of the core and the mechanism of the control rod Resistance to the high pressure of the water Third barrier between the fuel and the environment 11

12 Steam Generator Steam Generator Is the meeting point between the primary and secondary system. Inside of the steam generator, the hot reactor coolant release the heat to the water of the secondary systems that is transformed is steam. Important points The content of the moisture in the steam must be as low as possible to prevent damage at the blades of the turbine Continuous control of the physical separation between the water of the primary and secondary systems. 12

13 Boiling water reactor (BWR) 13

14 Boiling water reactor (BWR) Reactor: 750 assemblies of 90 to 100 fuel pins 140 tonnes of uranium Control rods in the bottom part of the vessel 12-15% of the water vaporized in the upper part of the core less efficient moderation capability Primary Circuit (water steam loop) Primary cooling circuit under low pressure (75 bar) Water temperature in the reactor: 285 C (boiling) Steam dried above the core and then sent to the turbines which are part of the primary circuit The primary circuit water contains radioactive nuclides: The turbine must be placed in the confinement building and shielded during maintenance Associated costs are in equilibrium with the economies made by simpler design Most radioactive nuclides have short half-lives the turbine hall can be accessed quite soon after reactor shut-down The most present radio-isotope is N-16 with a half life of 7 seconds 14

15 Gas Reactor: MAGNOX, UNGG Origin: MAGNOX (UK), UNGG (France), etc. Graphite moderated Cooled by CO 2 Fuel: natural uranium in metallic form, in a cladding of magnesium alloy CO 2 replaced He (first choice) : less expensive Graphite as moderator Good slowing-down properties and small neutron absorption Large dimensions needed for optimal moderation very large reactor cores The graphite degrades due to the neutron irradiation The accumulated energy (Wigner energy) must be released by a tempering of the graphite matrix 15

16 Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) 16

17 Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) Goal: higher thermal efficiency (power) Higher fuel temperatures MAGNOX metallic uranium has bad swelling properties UO 2 pellets as fuel pellets in stainless steel cladding slightly enriched fuel up to %. Coolant CO2 Circulates through the core Reaches temperatures up to 650 C Goes by tubes to the steam generator located outside the core (but inside the concrete and confinement) Control rods penetrate the moderator Second scram system: nitrogen injection in the core coolant AGRs not economically competitive with PWRs and BWRs 17

18 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) 18

19 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) The most well-known design: CANDU (Canada) Fuel: natural uranium dioxide Moderator: Heavy Water in a big pool (calandria) Primary Coolant: Heavy Water under high pressure circulating in tubes traversing the calandria which contain the fuel Maximum Water temperature = 290 C Primary coolant generates steam in secondary system to drive the turbines The design with pressurized tubes allows the refueling of the reactor core during operation One assembly of 37 fuel pins and half a meter length (fuel pellet in a cladding of zircalloy); one channel is filled with 12 assemblies in a row The control rods penetrate the core vertically A second emergency system consists of adding gadolinium to the moderator 19

20 Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK) Russian design first foreseen to produce military plutonium Later modified for electricity production The core consists of pressurized tubes of 7m length which traverse the graphite (moderator) Cooling: boiling water at a maximum temperature of 290 C, as in a BWR. The fuel is slightly enriched uranium oxide put in assemblies of 3.5m length. Inconvenience of the design: moderation largely due to the graphite. In case of increase of the boiling and hence the bubble fraction, cooling capacity significantly reduced with no feedback effect on the core reactivity. On top of that, neutron absorption in the coolant is also reduced => positive reactivity coefficient 20

21 Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK) Originally designed for the production of fissile material from fertile isotopes = breeding 1 neutron to keep the chain reaction going 1 neutron for the conversion of a fertile nuclide into a fissile nuclide fast reactor with Pu U-235 Pu-239 n thermal n fast No dedicated moderation, although some results from the fact that the fuel is in the form of oxides or carbides 21

22 Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) Coolant (liquid Na) is not a moderator: Advantages Good heat transfer coefficient, compact core High boiling point under atmospheric pressure: 900 C Hydraulic properties close to those of water Non-corrosive for most steels if the oxygen content remains low Disadvantages Large affinity of sodium for oxygen: all core reloading must be done under inert atmosphere Sodium reacts exothermically with water Sodium becomes highly radioactive-> intermediate cooling system needed Relatively large positive void coefficient 22

23 Nuclear Power Generation 2. Installed Capacity and Generation 23

24 Present Energy Scene Final Energy Consumption Kg ep/year ihnabitant Share of Electricity in total ~18% Share of nuclear in Electrivcity ~17%

25 Installed Capacity and Generation

26 Nuclear Power Plants in the World Total 435 NPPs 364,000 MWe (252 PWRs; 93 BWRs)

27 Installed Capacity and Generation Nuclear Power Plants in operation 60,0 50,0 40,0 30,0 20,0 10,0 0,0 Share (%) of reactors in operation by type PWR VVER BWR PHWR CANDU GCR, AGR, MAGNOX LWGR (RMBK) FBR Country USA France Japan Russia Germany Corea Ucrania Canada UK Sweden Spain China Belgium Taiwan Sub total Others <4.000MW Total N of units Installed power MW Share in mix (generation) %

28 Nuclear Generation: Historical Perspective Nuclear plants installation stagnates for 20 years by cause of: Rise of anti-nuclear political conscience nourished by the spectrum of military use; High adverse sensitivity of public opinion, after TMI (1979) and Chernobyl (1986) accidents; Deep transformations in Eastern Europe countries political order; Recession period for mature economies, with volatile long term planning of electricity needs; Deregulation of the electricity sector, in the direction of privatization and market driven models; Availability of ready to use primary energy alternatives for new power generation facilities: Natural gas and coal, with short construction periods; In countries where the potential exists, hydro electricity is a must; Promises (and research efforts) of energy alternatives (renewable: solar, wind, biomass) Nevertheless, nuclear generation contribution increased since 1990 due to: Significant increase of average availability and capacity factor of the nuclear plants, as result of improved operation (reliability); outage management (reduction of outage time) and international cooperation (quality management) through the WANO (World Association of Nuclear Operators, created in 1986) and the AIEA; Increase of the unit power output (+5 to 10%), by retrofitting of new equipment and use of the design reserve margins, after due certification (cost effective upgrades <200 USD/kW).

29 Nuclear Generation: Historical Perspective

30 Nuclear Generation: Historical Perspective Capacity Factor (%) Increase in average capability of plants in USA (103) (Corresponds to MW in 20 years) 91,

31 Nuclear Power Generation 3. Present and Announced Trends 31

32 Present and Announced Trends Continuation of nuclear energy contribution Life extension of existing plants from original 30 years to up to 60 years Certification of many existing NPP (second generation) for Plans for construction of new reactors: US and Canada: Future replacement of existing capacity / marginal increase Nuclear Power 2010 initiative (by DOE), Intense regulatory activity regarding new site licensing procedures ESP (early site permit) and COL (combined operation license) Europe and CEI: Future replacement of existing capacity (France, Finland, eastern Europe) Maintain of retrieve decision in others 20% reduction of overall installed power Note: Kyoto CO2 reduction burden shares: France, Finland = 0; Germany = -21%) Asia and Pacific: Important contribution to growth of electrical power Japan, Corea, China, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Corea DPR New developments of the nuclear industry (Generation III and IV reactors)

33 G8 on July 8, 2008 Expand development of nuclear power Utmost importance of non proliferation 29 countries willing to introduce nuclear power Japan (40% nuclear by 2030), US and Russia to expand capacity

34 Nuclear power generation: Zoom on Europe 16 out of 27 countries with nuclear energy Future of nuclear energy is not clear at national level : 4 countries decided to phase out (Belgium, Germany, Italy and Sweden) Italy revisiting its choice Austria strongly opposed Netherlands has extended the lifetime of its NPP by 20 years (2033) One new NPP in operation in 2007 (Romania) United Kingdom in the move (At least) 6 countries decided to build new NPPs Finland (1 EPR in progress + 1 ) France (1 EPR) Slovakia (2 VVER440) Romania (2 Candu) Bulgaria (2 VVER1000) United Kingdom (TBD) European Union very cautious, but recent initiatives in the nuclear field : European Nuclear Energy Forum High Level Group on Nuclear Safety and Waste Management Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform

35 New Nuclear Power Plants Country USA Canada France Finland Russia Ucrania Japan Corea Corea DPR China Taiwan India Indonesia Iran Turkey Argentina Brasil Others Sub total Total Under construction - MW At Project stage - MW Proposed MW

36 Nuclear power is part of the solution Important factor of stability Security of supply Diversity of reliable uranium supply sources No link with the volatility of fuel prices Stable, predictable and competitive costs Major contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions Saving of fossil fuels Rational use of primary natural resources CO 2 - free countries with nuclear and hydro obtain the best results in CO2 emissions 500 million tons saved each year in Europe, as much as the Kyoto target for the EU (8 % below the 1990 level) the emissions from about 3/4 of all the private cars in the EU

37 Nuclear Power Generation 4. New Evolutionary Reactors: Generation III and III+ 37

38 Main reactor lines Generation I Generation II Early Prototype Reactors Industrial Expansion Generation III Advanced LWRs Generation IIII + Generation IV - Shippingport - Dresden, Fermi I - Magnox - LWR-PWR, BWR - CANDU PHWR - VVER/RBMK - ABWR - System AP600 - EPR Evolutionary Designs Offering Improved Economics - Highly Economical - Enhanced Safety - Minimal Waste - Proliferation Resistant Gen I Gen II Gen III Gen IV

39 Large Evolutionary Reactors: Generation III Concept Extrapolation of second generation models (unit power ~1500MW; no major technologic step) Integration of operation return of experience (including major incidents) Improved intrinsic safety (passive systems), simplification of auxiliary systems Higher efficiency and availability with longer fuel charges Use of proven technologies (fuel, primary components, turbo group, I&C) Products: Projects: EPR 1500MW (European Project Reactor) by Framatome Siemens EDF AP 1000MW by Westinghouse ABWR 1350MW by GE Nuclear Energy System 80+ (CE > ABB > Westinghouse BNFL) CANDU 9 KNGR, VVER-91 1 EPR in Finland, Olkiluoto 3, for TVO 1 EPR in France for EDF 4 ABWR built (in service since 1995)

40 GENERATION III +: Evolutionary concepts Passive safety components Natural circulation core cooling Convective cooling of safety containment Heat removal by radiation AP1000, ESBWR, SWR-1000, PBMR, GT-MHR, APWR, EP-1000, AC-600, MS-600, V-407, V-392, JSBWR, JSPWR, HSBWR, CANDU-6, CANDU-9, AHWR,... 40

41 Inovative Small and Medium Reactors: Generation III+ Inovative Small and Medium Reactors (SMR) Generation III+ Name IRIS 300 Power MW 335 Type IPWR Characteristic Developer Integrated Presurized Water Reactor Intern. Reactor Inovative & Secure Westinghouse BNFL Country USA Certification by NRC Pre-certified NP IPWR Technicatome France CAREM 300 MRX IPWR IPWR Modular CNEA & INVAP JAERI Argentina Japan SMART 100 IPWR System Integrated Modular KAERI Rep Corea KLT IPWR OKBM Russia GTMHR 285 HTR High Temperature Gas Reactor Gas Turbine Modular Helium General Atomics / Minatom USA / Russia Pre-certified PBMR 165 HTR Pebble Bed Modular Eskom South Africa Pre-certified HTR-PM 160 HTR Pebble Bed Modular INET China 2nd Latin American Energy Integration Congress Santiago do Chile 26 October 2005

42 Nuclear Power Generation 5. EPRs in Western Europe 42

43 Evolutionary Pressurized Reactor (EPR) 43

44 EPR: Active safety system fourfold redundant Reactor building Turbine building Reactor vessel 4 safety buildings 4 x 100% 44

45 EPR: Double containment concrete steel concrete resists the impact of a large airplane 45

46 EPR: Passively cooled Core catcher Cooling water 46

47 EPR s in Western Europe 47

48 Olkiluoto EPR (September 2008) 48

49 Nuclear Power Generation 5. AP

50 AP1000: Advanced Passive PWR 1117 MWe (Westinghouse USA) 50

51 AP1000: Passive safety systems: less components 51

52 Passive emergency cooling of safety systems Heat exchanger (natural circulation) low-pressure cooling (gravity) high-pressure cooling (nat. circ.) medium-pressure cooling (nat. circ.) 52

53 AP1000: Passive emergency cooling of containment 53

54 GEN III and III+: Overview Generation III Generation III + ABWR EPR AP1000 ESBWR PBMR HTR-PM Type BWR PWR PWR BWR HTR HTR Generation III III III + III + III + III + Power US certification yes no a) yes no b) no no In use In construction Dwell time 72 hour 30 min 72 hour 24 hour Core melt frequency (1/year) core catcher no yes <24 hour <24 hour not needed not needed Construction time (yr) ? Technical lifetime (yr) ??

55 Nuclear Power Generation 6. Generation IV: Innovative concepts 55

56 Inovative Large Reactors: Generation IV International initiatives for joint development: IV Generation International Forum (GIF) International Project on Inovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO) Targets and criteria: Economic competitiveness Safety and reliability Non proliferation (minimum waste; full recycle of burnt fuel (*)) Multiple use: Electrical power, industrial heat, desalination, hydrogen vector Extension of primary energy reserves Fast Breeder Reactors (*), capable of burning the Uranium fission sub product Pu, would multiply by 60 or 100 the energy generation capability of the present fuels.

57 Inovative Large Reactors: Generation IV Target Criteria Sustainability Long-term availability of fuel and effective utilization of fuel minimizing the amount and toxicity of discharged fuel and other high level radioactive products increasing the proliferation resistance of the fuel cycle Safety & Reliability Very low likelihood and degree of reactor core damage by means of additional passive features and increased intrinsic safety, Economics capital costs O&M costs fuel cycle costs, decommissioning & decontamination costs, overall project duration : construction schedule, capacity factor, life time 57

58 Inovative Large Reactors: Generation IV 6 concepts selected for evaluation in GIF IV Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor Very High Temperature Reactor Supercritical Water Cooler Reactor Lead-Alloy Cooled Reactor Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor Molten Salt Reactor SFR VHTR SCWR LFR GFR MSR Fast / Open Fuel Cycle Thermal / Open Cycle Therm - Fast / Open - Closed Fast / Closed Cycle Fast / Closed Cycle Therm / Closed Feasibility Performance

59 Generation IV nuclear systems Lead Fast Reactor Sodium Fast Reactor Gas Fast Reactor Very High Temperature Reactor Supercritical Water-cooled Reactor Molten Salt Reactor (fast?) 59

60 GEN IV proposed designs neutron spectrum (fast/ thermal) coolant Temp ( C) pressure* fuel fuel cycle size(s) (MWe) uses GFR Fast helium 850 High U-238 closed, on site 288 electricity & hydrogen LFR Fast Pb-Bi Low U-238 closed, regional ** electricity & hydrogen MSR epithermal fluoride salts Low UF in salt closed 1000 electricity & hydrogen SFR Fast sodium 550 Low U-238 & MOX closed electricity SCWR thermal or fast water Very high UO 2 (thermal) closed open (fast) 1500 electricity VHTR thermal helium 1000 High UO 2 prism or pebbles open 250 hydrogen & electricity 60

61 Nuclear Power Generation 7. Fuel Management for Sustainability 61

62 FRONT END Natural U supply evolution Reserves Estimation of the resources Reasonably Assured Resources (RAR) price ranges 1 and 2 APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear November Rio 2008 de Janeiro 27 Novembro

63 Fuel Front End: Sensitive to Proliferation Uranium Mining and Extraction (~50% of demand) Uranium 235 Enrichment Ultra centrifugation technology dominates Important over capacity available (i.e. in Russia) Country/ Region Canada Australia Others Total production Other sources Supply from stocks Recovery of tails (spent fuel) Conversion of HEU to LEU as per 1994 agreement (USA/Russia), until 2013 CEI South Africa Central Africa USA Share 35% 21% 20% 9% 8% 3% 4% ton/year

64 FRONT END PWR Fuel Manufacturers (2007) Europe USA Timeframe : From mining to core loading : 27 months APINE Workshop Energia Nuclear November Rio 2008 de Janeiro 27 Novembro

65 FRONT END Conversion world capacities World Conversion supply and demand (thousand tonnes U as UF 6 ) Supplier Cameco (Canada & UK) 13,7 15,5 15,5 AREVA (France) ConverDyn (US) Rosatom (Russia) 5 5,5 10 CNNC (China) 1,5 2,5 2,5 UF 6 inventories 20,1 20,8 11 Total supply 66,3 72,3 72 Requirements (ERI) Source: Julian Steyn, EDI, Nuclear Engineering International Sept

66 Nuclear energy production in the future ( )? Generation II(I): spent fuel waste Uranium resource issue Sustainability of nuclear energy production 66

67 Fuel Back End: Sensitive to Proliferation Reprocessing for MOX (Mixed Oxides) fuel Adopted by: UK, France, Japan, Russia (partially) and also China and India. Waste (HLW) Storage Intermediate solutions available for nuclear waste storage Long term solutions in R&D (re-use in breeder reactors or deep geological disposal) Manageable volumes 1kg of natural Uranium ~ kg of coal, with present open cycle burning rate 16 t of processed Uranio = ton Coal (x ) 1000 MW LWR tonnes of spent fuel/year 3 m³/y of vitrified waste Security and Safety Certification of technologies by regulatory agences AIEA Consolidation of authority for monitoring, control and certification Common denominator for safety rules and standards Non proliferation concern International and National Safegards / Physical protection Control / Accounting and Monitoring of fuel cycle materials

68 Thank you