PERSISTENCE OF EAP STUDENTS IN ASSOCIATE DEGREE AND COLLEGE CREDIT CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS. Pradel R. Frank. A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

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1 PERSISTENCE OF EAP STUDENTS IN ASSOCIATE DEGREE AND COLLEGE CREDIT CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS by Pradel R. Frank A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The College of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida December 2009

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3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincere thanks and gratitude go to each member of my committee for the time and guidance they provided during the dissertation process. I offer my thanks to Dr. John D. Morris for graciously accepting to be a member of my committee. I have gained a much better understanding of several statistical analyses as a result of his guidance. To Dr. Anne E. Mulder, I say thank you for inspiring me from the day we met. You cannot imagine how much of an impact you have had on me. To Dr. Dianne A.Wright, thanks for being there and for making me feel like I could call on you at any time. Finally, thank you to my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Deborah L. Floyd, who has spent the past two years guiding me through the process. I have learned a great deal about research and the dissertation process as a result of your supervision. I can t thank you enough for the many drafts that we labored over together. I will be indebted to you forever. I would also like to thank the faculty of the College of Education for sharing experiences, expertise, and knowledge of leadership, and for treating your students as colleagues in understanding leadership and systems. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Randy McClanahan, Senior Research Associate at ACT, for allowing me to use the SUNY SOS Form A and for the help she provided in designing the EAP SOS; several people at Miami Dade College who supported me along the way, the Wolfson Campus President, Dr. Rolando Montoya; the former chairperson of the ESL Department, Dr. Oswaldo Lopez; the assistant to the chairperson, Ms. Theresa Jones and my colleagues in the department. I couldn t have chosen a better place to iii

4 pursue my career. Last but not least, I thank my partner, Ms. Belkis Denis and my two children, Pradel, Jr. and Berdell, for being patient with me when I needed time away to work on my drafts. iv

5 ABSTRACT Author: Title: Institution: Dissertation Advisor: Degree: Pradel R. Frank Persistence of EAP Student in Associate Degree and College Credit Certificate Programs Florida Atlantic University Dr. Deborah L. Floyd Doctor of Philosophy Year: 2009 The purpose of this study was to examine the persistence of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) students at a large multi-campus community college/baccalaureate degree-granting institution in South Florida. The study aimed to determine whether there was a relationship among a specific set of independent variables, background and defining variables (age, enrollment status, prior college education, gender, race, ethnicity, and marital status), academic integration variables (academic goal and first semester GPA), social integration variables (faculty interaction, college facilities and grounds, sense of community, college services, and student life), and environmental variables (family responsibilities, employment status, outside encouragement, and financial aid) and the dependent variable, EAP student persistence. The variables were extrapolated both from student academic transcripts and from an adapted version of the State University of New York (SUNY) Student Opinion Survey-Form A (ACT, 2006). T test and chi square analyses were performed. v

6 No relationship was found between any of the independent variables and the dependent variable. The thirteen respondents had high first semester GPA, favorable environmental support, and were socially integrated into the institution. vi

7 To Belkis Denis, Pradel R. Frank, Jr., Berdell A. Frank, Annicette Duperval, Walter M. Frank III and Family

8 PERSISTENCE OF EAP STUDENTS IN ASSOCIATE DEGREE AND COLLEGE CREDIT CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS LIST OF TABLES...x LIST OF FIGURES... xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...1 Community College ELL Students...2 Rationale for the Study...3 Statement of the Problem...3 Purpose of the Study...4 Research Questions...4 Hypothesis...5 Significance of the Study...5 Researcher Bias...6 Definition of Terms...6 Delimitations...9 Limitations LITERATURE REVIEW...11 Profile of the Community College Student...11 Miami Dade College...14 Miami Dade College Students...14 Miami Dade College EAP Program...15 Miami Dade College Wolfson Campus...17 EAP Persistence Studies in Community Colleges...17 Summary of the Literature...20 Tinto s Student Attrition Model...21 The Bean and Metzner (1985) Nontraditional Student Attrition Model...23 Convergence of the Tinto Model and the Bean & Metzner Model...25 Discussion of Conceptual Framework...27 Background and Defining Variables...28 Age...28 Enrollment Status...28 Financial Aid...28 Gender...29 Prior Education...29 vii

9 Race...29 Ethnicity...29 Academic Integration...29 Academic Goal...29 First Semester Grade Point Average (GPA)...30 Social Integration Variables...30 Faculty Interaction...30 Environmental Variables...31 Family...31 Employment Status...31 Outside Encouragement...32 SUNY Student Opinion Survey-Form A (SUNY SOS) METHODOLOGY...34 Procedures...34 Phase1-The Pilot Study...34 Phase 2-The Study...36 Instrument...36 Data Analysis...37 Background and Defining Variables...37 Academic Integration...38 Social Integration...39 Environmental Variables...39 Dependent Variable...40 Chapter Summary RESULTS...43 Review of the Study s Purpose...43 Descriptive Statistics of the Study...44 Null Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Null Hypothesis Null Hypothesis CONCLUSIONS...51 Review of the Study s Purpose and Objectives...51 Discussion of Findings...51 Sample Limitations...53 Implications of the Study...53 Recommendations for MDC...54 Recommendations for Further Research...55 Summary...56 viii

10 APPENDIXES A SUNY Student Opinion Survey-Form A State Operated (Original Instrument)...57 B EAP Student Opinion Survey...62 C ACT Permission Letter...68 D ACT Approval E MDC Request for Approval Letter...75 F Miami Dade College Dissertation Approval Checklist...77 G Consent Letter From Miami Dade College...80 H Florida Atlantic University Institutional Review Board Approval...82 I Tables...87 REFERENCES...91 ix

11 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Variables, Derivation and Statistical Analyses...41 Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for the 13 Respondents...45 Table 3. Table 4. T Tests Comparing Means Between Persisters and Nonpersisters of the 13 Respondents...49 Chi Squares Testing the Relationship Between Each Qualitative Variable and the Criterion for the 13 Respondents...50 Table 5. Descriptive Statistics for the 159 Sample...88 Table 6. Table 7. T Tests Comparing Means Between Persisters and Nonpersisters of the Chi Squares Testing the Relationship Between Each Qualitative Variable and the Criterion for the 159 Respondents and Nonrespondents...90 x

12 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. A Conceptual Model of EAP Student Persistence...27 xi

13 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Nonnative speakers of English are well represented in the United States. With the recent immigration waves from Latin America and other parts of non-english speaking world, the number of English Language Learners (ELLs) has grown rapidly. Different statistics are cited in the literature. For example, Arias and Morillo-Campbell (2008) found that more than 80% of ELL students in the K-12 system were native Spanish speakers. They also found that between 1990 and 2000 that the adult ELL population grew from 14 million to 21.3 million. In addition, according to the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) (2006), there are 47 million people or 18% of the population of the United States who speak a language other than English at home, and it anticipates that this number will rise to 40% by the year Furthermore, the National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition & Language Instruction Educational Programs (NCELA) (2008) found that there are 3,493,118 ELLs in the United States, two and a half million of whom are Hispanic. Moreover, Dicerbo (2006) and the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) (2008) report that one in five people age five and older speaks a language other than English. Finally, Mathews-Aydinli (2008) states that in the United States, nearly 45% of adults enrolled in state-administered adult education programs attend English as a second language (ESL) or English literacy [classes], which was approximately 1.2 million in (p. 198). In summary, ELLs are well represented in the U.S. educational system. 1

14 Community College ELL Students Nonnative speakers attending community colleges in the United States are a unique group of students. According to Curry (2004) and Blumenthal (2002), it is difficult to identify the typical community college ELL student. Differences exist within the population with respect to cultural, linguistic, educational backgrounds and goals. They state that community college ELLs can be foreign-born or children of immigrants; generation 1.5 students (teenagers); and international students. Some may have an eighth grade education, and others may have already earned a graduate or even postgraduate degree. Some may even have attended high schools in the United States. The needs of this student population also vary. Some may want to pursue undergraduate, graduate, or postgraduate education at a college or university in the United States; some may simply wish to speak what they term correct English; still others may wish to pursue vocational training in a field. A large percentage of these ELL community college students are Hispanic. The challenges faced by Hispanic students in terms of graduation both in the K-12 system and in higher education are well documented in the literature. Reynoso (2008), Sullivan (2007), and Kohler and Lazarín (2008) explain that the retention and graduation rates for Hispanic students at both the high school and college levels are lower than those for Whites and African Americans. Kohler and Lazarín report that 15% of Latinos ages who are fluent in English do not graduate from high school, and more than 59% of ELL students of the same age group do not graduate. In this study, these nonnative speakers of English are referred to as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) students. 2

15 EAP is the commonly accepted term for credit English as a second language (ESL) courses at MDC and the state of Florida. Rationale for the Study EAP students represent a significant percentage of Miami Dade College s (MDC) student population. These students represented 15% of the college s first-time-in-college student population in Fall 2006 (Miami Dade College (MDC), 2007a). From Fall 2004 to Fall 2005, EAP retention was 52%; more than 3,500 students did not return in Fall Greene (2008) states that EAP retention has continued to be below the institutional average of 81% for first-time-in college students from Fall to the Spring terms for the past five years. Furthermore, Morris (2006), in another study following a 2001 degreeseeking EAP cohort five years later in 2006, found that 14.9% were still enrolled and 7.9% had graduated, which gave a combined persistence rate of 22.8%. These studies show that EAP retention and graduation rates are below MDC s institutional average. Therefore, the rationale for this study was to examine the reasons that EAP students graduate or depart from MDC in order to improve program effectiveness and to provide valuable information to students, practitioners and policymakers. Statement of the Problem EAP is a program of study for nonnative speakers of English who are interested in pursuing higher education at MDC or another institution in the state of Florida. Students who do not complete the program cannot continue with their academic studies at MDC. Therefore, given the low graduation and persistence rates of degree-seeking EAP students at MDC, it is important for the college to identify the factors that impact these students 3

16 decisions to persist or drop out in order to develop better programs and policies to address their needs. The problem, therefore, is that without knowing why EAP students do not finish their program of study, practitioners and policymakers are lacking valuable information necessary for informed program improvement. Purpose of Study The purpose of this study was to: (a) examine factors that impacted the persistence of a 2002 Level 4 EAP student cohort at Miami Dade College Wolfson Campus, (b) develop a framework to examine EAP student persistence by utilizing a series of variables, and (c) identify the relationship among these variables and persistence. Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What was the relationship between each of the environmental variables (family responsibilities, employment status, outside encouragement, and financial aid) and EAP student persistence? 2. What was the relationship between each of the academic integration variables (academic goal and first semester GPA) and EAP student persistence? 3. What was the relationship between each of the social integration variables (faculty interaction, college facilities and grounds, sense of community, college services, and student life) and EAP student persistence? 4

17 4. What was the relationship between each of the background and defining variables (age, enrollment status, prior college education, gender, race, ethnicity, and marital status) and EAP student persistence? Hypothesis The hypothesis was that there was no relationship between any of the independent variables and EAP student persistence. Significance of the Study The study was significant for the following reasons. First, this study contributed information about one community college s EAP population with a high drop out rate. To illustrate, from Fall 2004 to Fall 2005 MDC lost more than 52% of its EAP student population, which equated to more than 3,500 students not returning after one year of college (Morris, 2006). It was important to investigate the problem from a research perspective to understand the reasons why these students fail to persist with their academic goal. Second, it was anticipated that MDC faculty and leaders would be able to use the research findings to advance their knowledge of this area and, in time, advance programming that would improve the retention and graduation rates of EAP students. Third, since only one study was found involving EAP that examined the academic success of a large EAP sample at the community college level (Boyer, 1998), this study advanced knowledge about EAP students in the community college sector of higher education. Further, most EAP studies have focused on a small group of students, usually 6 or more (Bennett, 1996; Reynoso, 2008), but this study included a larger group of students. Fourth, this study investigated the degree of relationship among background variables, academic integration variables, social integration variables, and environmental 5

18 variables and EAP student persistence, which enhanced the richness of the findings and contributed to the literature. And finally, although a relationship could not be statistically established among the variables and persistence for the EAP respondents, the study set a framework for future studies involving EAP students. Researcher Bias The researcher is currently a full-time faculty member in the EAP program at MDC s Wolfson Campus. Therefore, the researcher has first-hand knowledge of the diversity of goals of these EAP students and the challenges which they face. To address this potential bias to the study, only responses to the instrument were analyzed, and the study was based on responses to the instrument and institutional data that were provided by the college. Definition of Terms The following definitions were utilized in this study. Academic Integration Variables. For the purposes of this study, academic integration variables were defined as academic goal as measured by the EAP Student Opinion Survey (EAP SOS) and first semester GPA. Academic goal included the highest degree EAP students intended to pursue at the time they were admitted into the institution. Associate in Arts (A.A.). For the purposes of this study, the A.A. was a program of study consisting of courses offered to freshmen and sophomores in baccalaureate programs. This degree was awarded when a student completed sixty (60) college credits and other specified performance requirements. This degree program was 6

19 designed to allow transfer to a four-year institution (Florida Department of Education, 2007, p. 98; Florida Department of Education, 2009). Associate in Science (A.S.). For the purposes of this study, the A.S. was a program of instruction consisting of college-level courses that prepared students for entry into employment or transfer to a four-year institution. The degree was awarded when a student completed not less than sixty (60) college credits as well as attainment of specified performance requirements. The degree contained credit hours of transferable general education courses (Florida Department of Education, 2007, p. 99; Florida Department of Education, 2009). Background and Defining Variables. For the purposes of this study, background and defining variables included age at the time of the completion of the survey, enrollment status, prior college education, financial aid, gender, ethnicity, and marital status as measured by the EAP SOS. College Credit Certificate. College Credit Certificate was defined as a short-term education program which can be part of an A.S. or A.A.S. degree (Florida Department of Education, 2009). EAP. In this study, EAP stood for English for Academic Purposes, which was offered to nonnative speakers of English who were pursuing the A.A. degree, the A.S. degree, or a college credit certificate. EAP SOS. The EAP SOS stood for English for Academic Purposes Student Opinion Survey, the adapted version of the SUNY Student Opinion Survey Form A (ACT, 2006). 7

20 Level 4 EAP. For the purposes of this study, a level 4 EAP student was a student who had a raw score between on the English Placement Test (EPT) or had a composite score between on the ACT-ESL (MDC CASSC Research and Testing Committee, 2005). Both tests were administered institutionally at MDC. Any Wolfson Campus student who was in level 4 EAP classes in Fall 2002 was included in the sample. Environmental Variables. For the purposes of this study, environmental variables included the roles of family responsibilities, employment status, outside encouragement, and personal finances as measured by the EAP SOS. ELL. For the purposes of this study, ELL stood for English Language Learner. ESL. For the purposes of this study, ESL stood for credit English as a second language. ESOL. For the purposes of this study, ESOL stood for English to Speakers of Other Languages. Full-Time (FT)-Credit Student. For the purposes of this study, full-time was defined as 14 credits of EAP which included speech and speech lab, reading, writing and writing lab and grammar. Additionally, only students with at least two major semesters of full-time classes were considered full-time. Grade Point Average (GPA). Grade point average was defined as an interval on a 4.0 scale. Level 4 EAP. For the purposes of this study, a level 4 EAP student was a student who had a raw score between on the English Placement Test (EPT) or had a composite score between on the ACT-ESL (MDC CASSC Research and Testing Committee, 2005). Both tests were administered institutionally at MDC. 8

21 Any Wolfson Campus student who was in level 4 EAP classes in Fall 2002 was included in the sample. Nonpersisters. For the purposes of this study, nonpersisters were MDC Wolfson Campus Level 4 EAP students who began enrollment in Fall 2002 but did not hold a degree by May Persistence. For the purposes of this study, persistence was defined as continuity of enrollment for students who are either persisters or nonpersisters. Persisters. For the purposes of this study, persisters were defined as EAP students who began taking level 4 EAP classes in Fall 2002 and completed their associate in arts, associate in science degree, or a college credit certificate in or before Spring The sample also included students who were in level 4 in Fall 2002 and stopped out for a semester or more but re-enrolled and finished their degrees at MDC in or before the end of Spring Students who dropped out of the college, but transferred to another institution were also considered to be a persister if they met the graduation requirement. Retention. For the purposes of this study, retention was defined as continuous enrollment from one academic year to another. Social Integration Variables. Social integration variables included interaction with faculty, college facilities and grounds, sense of community, and student life. Delimitations The study was delimited to the 2002 MDC Wolfson Campus level 4 EAP students seeking the A.A. degree, A.S. degree, or a college credit certificate. The cohort was followed from Fall 2002 to the end of Spring

22 Limitations Like all research studies, this study had several limitations. First, the sample population was not randomly selected. A criteria was established to determine population base. Out of 463 potential respondents that were provided by MDC, 229 names met the criteria that had been established prior to the study. Of the 229 names, there were 35 persisters and 192 nonpersisters. The 35 persisters were mailed a survey and 124 of the 192 nonpersisters were also mailed a survey. As a result, more persisters were included than might have been if random selection were used. Second, the survey was administered only in English, which may have impeded student responses. Due to limited English skills, the students may have misunderstood what the questions were asking. For example, one of the items asked, How many hours do you work per week? The question might have been understood by respondents to mean in the present as opposed to when they were taking classes. Third, the length of the survey may have been a factor that affected the response rate. The survey took minutes to complete. A shorter survey could have produced a better return rate. Fourth, the return rate on the surveys was low. Eleven percent (n=7) of the surveys for the pilot were returned, and about 9.8% (n=13) of the final study s surveys were returned. The information provided by these 13 respondents provided findings about their experiences which can be beneficial to the program at MDC. Finally, the researcher spoke in English to the potential respondents by phone to encourage participation. Some students might have been more willing to participate if they were asked in their native languages. 10

23 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter begins with a profile of the community college student and a description of the institution where the study was conducted. Second, a brief overview of dissertation studies involving EAP students is presented. Third, an explanation of the Tinto (1975) conceptual framework and the Bean and Metzner (1985) conceptual framework is provided. The chapter continues with a convergence of the theories toward a theoretical framework to study EAP student persistence. Finally, the chapter presents the rationale for the variables that were included in the theoretical framework and concludes with an explanation of the SUNY Student Opinion Survey-Form A (ACT, 2006). Profile of the Community College Student Community colleges play an important role in American society. As open admissions institutions, they have provided opportunities to millions of college students who are not academically prepared for higher education. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2003a) explains, The lower fees and open access policies at community colleges have broadened access to postsecondary education for students facing such barriers as poor academic performance in high school, limited English skills or other basic skill deficiencies or financial hardship (p. iii). Horn and Berger (2004), NCES (2005), Stovall (2000), and Zeidenberg, Jenkins, and Calcagno (2007) state that many community college students are not academically prepared for college-level work. 11

24 Zeidenberg et al. report that among recent high school graduates who entered through community colleges in the mid-1990s, over 60% had to take at least one remedial course. The communities that the community colleges serve and their curricula are just as diverse as their student population. The community college curriculum includes job training, transfer degrees, special interest classes, ESL (ESL) classes, among other offerings (Cohen & Brawer, 2008). The diverse goals of community college students are much discussed in the literature. According to Lingrell (2004), two-year community college students have multiple and varied academic goals. Some are seeking a specified credential; others are seeking to transfer to a university, and others are there to upgrade their skills by taking a few courses. Given these various interests, it should come as no surprise that many community college students are in need of developmental classes to transition them into a for-credit program. Zeidenberg et al. (2007) say that 42% of first-time students at public two-year colleges in Fall 2006 had to take at least one remedial course compared to 20% of their peers at public four-year institutions. The NCES (2003b) found 54% of a 1988 cohort entered college with one or more factors that put them at risk of not completing a postsecondary education. Bashford and Slater (2008), in a report examining retention at Miami Dade College (MDC), found that 80% of incoming students at MDC needed developmental education. Community colleges also educate a greater share of people of color, women and low-income individuals. According to the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC, 2008), community colleges enroll a total of 11.6 million students annually in 12

25 credit programs in the United States. This number comprises 46% of all undergraduates, 45% of first-time freshmen, 47% of African Americans, and 55% of all Hispanic students and other ethnic minorities in the United States. Among the full-time community college student population, 77% have either full-time or part-time employment; among the parttime student population, 83% are employed full-time or part-time. The community college student is also older than the traditional-age (18-24) student population attending four-year colleges and universities. AACC (2008) reports the average age of the community college student as 29 years of age. The challenges these students face toward degree completion are well documented in the literature. In a 2003a report involving transcripts from the 1988 to 2000 cohort, the National Center for Educational Statistics reports that a majority of community college students had to take one or more remedial courses in comparison to 19% of students who started out in a doctoral degree-granting institution and 30% of those who started in other baccalaureate institutions. In another study involving transcripts, credit completion, academic courses, lower grades, remedial assistance, withdrawal and repeat courses were found as variables in which these students differ from students who are not first-generation (NCES, 2005). The American Council on Education (2002) reports that a cohort attending four-year public institutions, when accounting for graduation, transfers and students who are still enrolled, had a sixyear persistence and degree attainment rate of 79%, while public two-year institutions had a persistence and attainment rate of 56%. EAP has also become an important component of the community college curriculum. The NCES (1998) reports that out of 25.5 million U.S. adults age 18 and 13

26 older who spoke a language other than English at home, 11% had participated in some form of EAP, and 42% did so as part of a college program. Estrada, Dupoux, and Wolman (2005) anticipate that half of college-bound youths will be immigrants requiring EAP classes, and their goals may vary. Miami Dade College MDC is a large, multi-campus, urban community college located in South Florida. According to MDC Institutional Research (2008), more than 160,000 students are currently enrolled annually. 83,995 students were enrolled in credit classes, while 77,673 were enrolled in noncredit classes. MDC operates eight campuses and numerous outreach centers throughout Miami Dade County (MDC, 2008a). At the time of this study, MDC was classified by the state of Florida as a community college with baccalaureate degree granting authority. The curricula and degrees included: the Bachelor of Science degree in Exceptional Student Education (ESE); the Bachelor of Applied Science in Public Safety Management; the Bachelor of Science in Nursing; the Educator Preparation Institute; Associate in Science and College Credit Certificates; Associate of Applied Science; Advanced Technical Certificate; Career Training Programs; continuing workforce and adult education, and recreation and leisure (MDC, 2008a; Florida Department of Education 2008). Miami Dade College Students MDC students are typical of other large urban community college students. According to MDC Institutional Research (2009a), its Fall 2008 credit student profile was as follows: 31% were between years of age; the average age was 26; 65% attended part-time; 10% were White non-hispanic; 19% were Black non-hispanic; 68% 14

27 were Hispanic, and 9% were other. According to MDC Fact Book (2008a), the college has the highest Hispanic undergraduate enrollment and the fourth largest Black non- Hispanic undergraduate student enrollment in the country. Furthermore, Community College Week (2008) ranks the college number 1 in the award of A.A. and A.S. degrees and 16 in the award of one-year certificates in MDC students are also academically underprepared for college. MDC (2009a) reports 74% of its students to be academically underprepared, 21% in all areas, and 13% in need of EAP. Bashford and Folsom (2005) state that MDC has a higher proportion of students needing remediation in more than one subject area in the community college system in Florida, and its graduation rate for college preparatory is lower than the system (15% vs. 17%). In general, MDC students have more than one variable that puts them at risk of not graduating and completing their program of study at the college. Miami Dade College EAP Program MDC offers a six-level EAP program to foreign students who graduated from a non-english speaking high school. Students are admitted into the program after completing the EPT or ACT-ESL. The test is given to those who took ESOL in the 11th grade or 12th grade in the U.S.; students who took the GED in Spanish; students who took an English proficiency test more than a year ago, and students transitioning from EDU 070 and 058 or 074 into a degree or college certificate program (MDC, 2008b). Students may take the test either computer-based or with paper and pencil at most of the campuses. The examination tests students on listening comprehension, reading comprehension, grammar, and writing. The students get a separate score for each content area and a composite score. Depending on the campus, in addition to the test score, an 15

28 oral examination is given to evaluate whether the student has been appropriately placed and/or has oral proficiency in English. The goal of the program is to teach students academic English and to prepare them for entry into a credit program. This program is also known as credit ESL to distinguish it from MDC s noncredit ESL program. EAP makes up a significant portion of the college s population. According to MDC Institutional Research (2009a), out of 10,279 first time-in-college degree-seeking students in Fall 2008, 13% needed EAP. Furthermore, MDC (2006), in the most recent study of EAP students, reports the following descriptive data on MDC s EAP student population for Fall 2005: MDC had a total enrollment of 6,916 EAP students: 4,859 were female and 2,057 were male. The majority were Hispanic (6,143). 4,684 were seeking the Associate in Arts degree; 1,948 the Associate in Science degree; 42 the College Credit Certificate; 186 were non-degree seeking; 37 for personal interest; 8 to transfer; and about 11 for other reasons. The average age was 33. A little less than half (3,425) were studying part-time, and a little more than half (3491) were studying full-time. As revealed by this data, EAP students have a number of characteristics which have been proven to adversely affect persistence: ethnicity, age, and enrollment status. The EAP program has had some success with its student population. EAP completers that transition into the college tend to do very well in comparison to the mainstreamed student population. According to Greene (2008), 53% of EAP students who completed Level 6 of the EAP program in Fall 2006 consistently outperformed their classmates in courses taken subsequent to EAP ( p. 1). However, the program has also had some difficulty with retention. Morris (2006) found that Fall 2004 to Fall 2005 retention of EAP students to be 52%; more than 3,500 16

29 of these students did not return in Fall MDC (2005), in another study involving EAP, found that out of the total of 2,198 students entering in Fall 2001, 14.9% were still enrolled and 7.9% had graduated by Fall According to Greene (2008), EAP retention has not improved since the academic year. Miami Dade College Wolfson Campus The student population at the Wolfson Campus is representative of the collegewide population. According to MDC (2009b), the Wolfson Campus student body composition is as follows: The campus is 63% Hispanic, 20% Black and 12% White. Sixty percent are enrolled part-time; 63% are working while attending college (11% fulltime); 49% are first-generation college students; and 72% are academically underprepared (18% in all three areas/14% needed EAP). In the academic year, the credit student headcount was 21,559. The campus has a retention rate of 82% from Fall 2007 to Spring According to the 2007 CCSSE report, as cited by MDC Wolfson Campus Brief (2009b), Wolfson Campus students cite transfer to a four-year institution (58.4%), lack of finances (53.6%), working full-time (40.4%), caring for dependents (26.3%), and academically unprepared (20.2%) as factors that are most likely to cause them to withdraw from the institution. EAP Persistence Studies in Community Colleges This section summarizes the related literature addressing EAP persistence and/or academic success. Bennett (1996) examined the motivating factors that led to EAP student persistence toward a credit certificate or degree program. Her study was based on eight EAP students at a rural community college. Like other EAP studies, it involved qualitative reporting of the experiences of the eight students. She found that the 17

30 motivating factors were socioeconomic status, academic self-concept, and family educational values. However, the study had some problems. First the sample was very small, so the findings could not be generalized to a larger population. Second, the students were selected by the researcher from a list of currently enrolled students provided by the college registrar s office, so students may have felt compelled to participate in the study because their professor or former professor was asking. Boyer (1998) examined the persistence of Vietnamese students in an EAP program in a community college in Southern California. Unlike Bennett, who was interested in motivating factors, Boyer was interested in assessing parts of Tinto s student integration theory and other variables (length of time in the U.S., total years of education, level of EAP, among other variables) to EAP persistence. The study had two groups of participants. One group included students who had continued their enrollment from one semester to the next for at least four weeks, while the other group consisted of students who had completed only one semester. She had a 92% completion rate to her survey for the persisters and a 42% return rate for the nonpersisters. Boyer s study had some important findings that are worth noting: (a) She found that total years of prior schooling did not affect persistence; (b) hours worked as a continuous variable did not affect persistence, but hours worked as a categorical variable did (those who worked full-time persisted less); however, both part-time work and working over 40 hours had no effect; (c) financial aid positively affected persistence. However, satisfaction with financial aid did not support academic integration; (d) age was unrelated to persistence but positively related to both academic and social integration; (e) gender had no effect on persistence; (f) encouragement of family and friends was found to significantly affect goal 18

31 commitment, social integration, and academic integration; (g) social integration had no effect on EAP persistence but affected academic integration; and (h) academic integration was negatively related to persistence but not significant. Bennett s study is very comprehensive in terms of the application of the Tinto model to the study of community college EAP students. However, the results might have been different with a more heterogeneous population. Reynoso s (2008) qualitative study examining academic resiliency of six Dominican language learners at Bronx Community College found seven factors that contributed to students academic resiliency. The factors were (a) faculty support, (b) tutoring support, (c) counseling support, (d) peer support, (c) family support, (d) self motivation, and (g) bicultural identity development. This study relates to the Bennett (1996) study in that it discusses the influence of peers and family in the persistence of EAP students. It also describes the personal experiences of the six EAP students and stresses the importance of providing support to EAP students. In another EAP study involving 10 Hispanic students, De La Cruz (2008) found mentoring to have an impact on Latino English language learners. She interviewed 10 Hispanic students, and she found four types of mentors that help them to succeed throughout their postsecondary education. The helpful mentors were (a) family mentor, (b) advisor mentor, (c) self-mentor, and (d) peer mentor. Like Boyer (1998) and Reynoso (2008), De La Cruz found the support of peers and family to be important in the success of EAP students. In addition, her findings also support Reynoso s findings of the importance of self motivation, which seems to appear in all of the studies. 19

32 In yet another study involving 22 EAP students who failed a class and their instructors, Song (2006) found that the variables for failure revealed by the instructors correlated well with the variables identified by the students. These variables were negative attitude, lack of interest, effort, or motivation, insufficient target-language use, and deficient first-language reading and writing skills. Family and employment responsibilities also played a role. Finally, Dean and Dagostino (2007) believe the role of motivational factors should be considered in community college English language learner success. The motivational factors they believe should be examined are mastery, selfdetermination, belongingness, and social responsibility. According to Dean and Dagostino, these motivational factors may be intrinsic (involvement, curiosity, challenge, and social interaction) or extrinsic (compliance, recognition, competition, and work avoidance). Summary of the Literature A number of themes seem to emerge from the review of the literature. First, there is the importance of motivation. This theme appeared in Bennett (1996), Reynoso (2008), De La Cruz (2008), Song (2006) and Dean & Dagostino (2007). Second, EAP students are greatly influenced by the support systems (peers and family) they have around them (Bennett, 1996; Boyer, 1998; Reynoso, 2008; Dean & Dagostino, 2007). Finally, the studies discuss the need to provide some mentoring to EAP students (Reynoso, 2008; De La Cruz, 2008). 20

33 Tinto s Student Attrition Model Tinto s (1975) A Conceptual Schema for Dropout from College has been used extensively to examine factors that affect the persistence of mainstreamed students at four-year colleges and universities (Bolton, 2004; Ennis, 2005; Geeham, 2004; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1980; Tinto, 1975, 1982). According to several studies, Tinto s model is based on two important factors: academic and social integration (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Bolton, 2004; Borglum & Kubala, 2000; Bryant, 2001; Geeham, 2004; Hoyt, 1998; Kohen, Nestel & Karmas, 1978; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1980; Stage, 1989; Wall, 1996). Fewer studies have utilized the Tinto model to study persistence at the community college level (Bers & Smith, 1991; Cofer & Somers, 2001; Nora, Attinasi, & Matonak, 1990; Summers, 2003). However, the model has been well-used in research studies and over 70% of its hypotheses have been validated (Cabrera, Castaneda, Nora & Hengstler, 1992). The model holds that each student comes to college with a number of pre-college attributes which affect how they interact with the institution; these factors determine how well a student is academically and socially integrated into the institution. This also affects their commitment to the institution and to their goal. Tinto (1975) argues: The process of dropout from college can be viewed as a longitudinal process of interactions between the individual and the academic and social systems of the college during which a person s experiences in those systems as measured by his normative and structural integration continually modify his goal and institutional commitments in ways which lead to persistence and/or to varying forms of dropout. (p. 94) 21

34 To explain, the individual comes to the institution with a number of pre-college attributes, experiences, and family backgrounds which have a direct or indirect impact on college performance, educational expectations, and commitments. Given all these characteristics, the Tinto model holds that it is the individual s academic and social integration that most directly relate to college persistence. Furthermore, the model holds it is the interplay between the individual s commitment to the goal of college completion and his commitment to the institution that determines whether or not the individual decides to drop out from college and the forms of dropout behavior the individual adopts (p. 96). Therefore, a student who is not committed to the goal of completing college is more likely to drop out. Tinto calls this voluntary withdrawal. Likewise, a student with high institutional commitment may decide to remain in college even though he or she doesn t have much commitment to the goal of completing a college degree. Tinto (1975, 1982, 1998), however, does not reject the influence of other external factors. He argues that the external factors manifest themselves through the constant reevaluation of commitment to the institution and to the goal of college completion that the student engages in once inside the institution. Tinto bases this argument on economic theory of cost-benefit analysis. This point is particularly important specifically when one is conducting studies involving nontraditional students, especially EAP, because the goals of these students are very different from the goals of traditional students. Cabrera et al. (1992) view the inadequate attention paid to the influence of external factors as one of the limitations of the Tinto model but concede that the model has been very useful in 22

35 identifying such external factors as the influence of others, finances and getting ready on persistence. Though this model has been used extensively to identify factors affecting the persistence of university students, it may be appropriate in studies involving community college students and nontraditional students, especially EAP. The Tinto model s applicability towards the study of two-year colleges has also been supported by several research studies (Bers & Smith, 1991; Cofer & Somers, 2001; Nora et al., 1990; Summers, 2003) However, Tinto (1982) explains one of the limitations of his model is that it is insensitive to the persistence problem experienced by two-year institutions although he believes social integration and academic experiences are both variables that impact community college students matriculation. Other researchers, as well, have identified some problems with the framework but have not completely ruled it out in the study of persistence of community students. Geeham (2004) reported that efforts to employ the model to the community college population have resulted in inconclusive results because of the diversity of the student population and the various goals held by community college students. The Bean and Metzner (1985) Nontraditional Student Attrition Model Because the Tinto model was not developed to study attrition of nontraditional students, Bean and Metzner (1985) built on his research and proposed A Conceptual Model of Nontraditional Student Attrition. Bean and Metzner identify three of the characteristics of these nontraditional students: (a) They don t live on campus; (b) they are older than traditional age students; and (c) they attend school part-time. Bean and 23

36 Metzner believe that social integration is not a significant factor in these students decisions to persist or dropout. They believe the external factors are more important. The model defines persistence from semester to semester. The Bean and Metzner model maintains many of the original components and conditions of the Tinto model. The model agrees on the importance of background variables and that persistence should be viewed as a longitudinal process. Unlike the Tinto Model, the Bean and Metzner model bases student dropout on four sets of variables: (a) poor academic performance, (b) intent to leave, (c) background and defining variables, and (d) environmental variables (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Bolton, 2004). Furthermore, it uses a path model structure which allows the researcher to test both direct and indirect effects of a variable. The main aspect of the Bean and Metzner (1985) model is that they have added environmental variables as an important piece in the study of college attrition of nontraditional student. This is an important addition because the experiences of traditional students are very different from those of nontraditional students. The Bean and Metzner model includes academic outcome as having a direct impact on dropout rates and a direct effect on intent to leave. The Tinto model does not refute this but includes it as an important variable that impacts academic integration and institutional commitment and persistence. Bean and Metzner also include the influence of psychological outcomes in their model. Accordingly, psychological outcomes have a direct effect presumed most important on intent to leave and a direct effect on dropout. The Tinto model does not reject the direct effect of psychological outcomes on persistence, but the Tinto model refers to them as goal commitment. According to Tinto (1975), if you are not satisfied, 24

37 you will reevaluate your commitment to the institution and withdrawal and nonwithdrawal decisions will be made accordingly. Convergence of the Tinto Model and the Bean & Metzner Model Both models have some validity in community college student persistence studies. The student integration model has been used since the 1970s in studies involving retention and persistence at traditional four-year institutions. According to Cabrera et al. (1992), it appears to be robust because almost 70% of the hypotheses of the Tinto model have been validated, whereas only 40% of the student attrition model s hypotheses have been supported. For those in the community college sector, the nontraditional student attrition model has some appeal because it puts a lot of strength on the importance of the external environment on students decisions to persist or not (Summers, 2003). However, most of the other variables of the nontraditional attrition model can be easily incorporated into a category in the student integration model. This study utilized the environmental aspect of the Bean and Metzner (1985) model along with the social integration and academic integration variables of the Tinto student integration model to measure the impact of all these variables on EAP persistence. This framework is supported by research. Bailey and Alfonso (2005), in a study funded by the Lumina Foundation, elaborate on the difficulty of applying the Tinto (1975) model to community college students. Specifically, they found issue with the social integration aspect of the model because many community college students study part-time and do not have a high level of social interaction with the institution. They believe for these students the environment, in terms of availability of classes, advisement, convenient transportation, high-quality online education, applied pedagogies, 25

38 and well-designed internships, may play a greater role (Bailey & Alfonso, p. 14). However, they do not rule out the effect of social integration through interaction with faculty and peers that occurs in the classroom. Cabrera et al. (1992) also identify some commonalities in the two models. They explain that both models have the pre-college characteristics, which have been included in this framework. Both models argue that persistence is longitudinal, and this point is also held in this model. Both models agree that persistence involves successful interaction between the student and the institution. Cabrera et al. agree that studies can be enriched by combining the two studies. Thus, the conceptual framework for this study is displayed in Figure 1. 26