UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, EL PASO GaBi Hand Dryer Tutorial MFG 5390/IE 5390/ IE 4395 GREEN ENERGY MANUFACTURING CLASS Fall- 2013
Contents Purpose of the Tutorial... 3 Introduction... 4 Life Cycle Analysis... 4 Overview of LCA... 4 Importance of LCA... 6 Components of LCA with respect to ISO 14040 Series... 6 Tools available for LCA... 7 GaBi and its Functionalities... 7 LCA methodology for a Hand Dryer unit... 8 System boundary... 8 System Inventory & Data Analysis... 9 Raw Material Acquisition Phase... 9 Material Processing Phase... 9 Dryer Assembly Phase... 10 Dryer Use-Phase... 10 Dryer Disassembly Phase... 10 End of Life Dryer Phase... 11 Lab 1: Starting GaBi and Creating a New Project... 12 Opening GaBi... 12 Connecting a Data base... 14 Creating a New Project... 15 Lab 2: Creating a New Plan and Adding Processes... 17 Creating a Plan... 17 Adding Process to a Plan... 18 Searching for processes in GaBi database... 18 Creating a New Process... 20 Parameters... 21 Using Inputs & Outputs... 22 Entering flow amounts... 25 1 P a g e
Choosing Flow types... 26 Lab 3: Raw Materials Acquisition Phase... 28 Adding Process to Plan... 28 Adding Flows to Raw Material Acquisition process... 33 Lab 4: Material Processing Phase... 38 Defining a Material Processing process... 38 Adding Flows to Material processing... 38 Lab 5: Sensor Raw Materials and Assembly... 42 Raw Materials... 42 Creating New Processes... 43 Lab 6: Dryer Assembly Phase... 48 Input and Output Flows... 48 Lab 7: Dryer Use-Phase... 52 Adding Input & Output Flows... 52 Lab 8: Dryer Disassembly phase... 54 Lab 9: End of Life Cycle Phase... 58 Lab 10: Linking Processes... 60 Adding Transportation Process... 67 Lab 11: Creating a Balance... 74 Fixing & Scaling processes... 74 Balance Creation... 75 LCI View... 77 Weak Point Analysis... 80 Appendix 1... 82 Appendix 2... 84 References... 85 2 P a g e
Purpose of the Tutorial The main purpose of this tutorial is intended to support students in the Green Energy Manufacturing class at the University of Texas, El Paso; to learn developing Life Cycle Assessment models of a given product using GaBi version 5.0. The contents of this document are aimed for you to: Understand the basics of Life Cycle Analysis Understand the components of LCA with respect to ISO 14040 series After browsing through the document and completing this tutorial, you will be able to: Build Life Cycle assessment model using GaBi software Understand o Creating New projects, o System boundaries, o Allocation and Data collection, o Creating a new Process & Plan, o Adding Input and Output flows, o Fixing reference processes, o Create System Balance and Interpret results. Introduction briefly outlines what and the guiding principles of an LCA. LCA methodology outlines relevant data acquisition and understanding the parameters involved with respect to an electrical sensor driven hand dryer unit. The preceding Lab modules will there by outline a step by step procedure for building models in GaBi software. Note: The example used in this tutorial is based on the life Cycle phases spanning from material identification all the way to manufacture and disposal of an electrical motion sensor driven Hand Dryer unit. 3 P a g e
Introduction Life Cycle Analysis Life cycle analysis has its origins from 1960 s where scientists were concerned with the rapid depletion of fossil fuels and natural resources in order to understand and evaluate the impact of energy consumption [1]. Life cycle analysis/ Life cycle assessment can be defined as a systematic approach used to assess and evaluate the impact of a products life cycle stages i.e. from cradle to grave, on environment. A cradle to grave approach implies considering the life cycle stages spanning all the way from raw material acquisition, manufacturing, product assembly, maintenance, product disassembly and disposal. Overview of LCA A life cycle assessment as previously defined is a complete systems approach with the following stages associated [2]: Raw Material Acquisition Material Processing Product design Product Manufacture Product distribution Product Use Product Recycle/Disposal Figure 1: Life Cycle Analysis 4 P a g e
Figure 2: Input, Control, Output & Mechanism representation of LCA Raw Material Acquisition: This stage of LCA mainly focuses on the procurement of raw resources and materials that are deemed required for a product to be successfully manufactured. Prior identification of raw materials would help to effectively determine the phases of production significantly associated with waste as a co-product. Material Processing: It often involves a set of interdependent tasks associated to aid transformation of input to outputs carried out by people or machines [3]. Product Design: This stage is significantly associated with a framework relating to engineering design, to increase the functionality and usability of a product. Product manufacturing: Associated with manufacturing a pre-defined tangible product based on the product design stage using the acquired raw materials with the help of tools, labor and machines [4]. Product Distribution: Logistics used to make product available for use. Product Use and Disposal: This phase usually relates to the materials associated with human activity with respect to a products use and disposal. Incorporating effective techniques for a product disposal would help to identify and reduce a products environmental footprint. 5 P a g e
Figure 3: Life Cycle Inventory Example of a paper Towel Dispenser [5]. Importance of LCA It provides a scientific method to evaluate and analyze environmental effects associated with a product or process over its life cycle Helps to identify and quantify energy and materials used along with the wastes associated with a product Helps to assess the impact of energy and materials used along with their impact on environment Helps to identify and evaluate the scope for improvement throughout a product life cycle Components of LCA with respect to ISO 14040 Series Goal & Scope definition (ISO 14041) Inventory Analysis (ISO 14042)) Interpretation (ISO 14044) Impact analysis (ISO 14043) Figure 4: Components of an LCA [6]. Goal: Helps to identify intended application and audience for a product. Scope: Helps to identify and define a system boundary and functional units of a product. Inventory Analysis: LCA analysis helps to identify the required inputs (Raw materials, energy, and Water. etc.) and outputs (Product, Co-product, waste and pollution) for an identified process. 6 P a g e
Impact Assessment: helps to understand the impacts of inventory analysis data (e.g. global warming impact, resource depletion, solid waste, and eutrophication) Interpretation: Helps to ensure consistency of goal and scope of a product. Also the feedback obtained would help to identify the opportunities for possible improvements in the life cycle. Tools available for LCA GaBi: PE Europe GmbH & IKP University of Stuttgart, Germany (http://www.gabisoftware.com/) LCAit: CIT Ekologik, Sweden (http://www.lcait.com/) KCL-ECO: KCL, Finland (http://www.kcl.fi/eco/) PEMS: PIRA, UK (http://www.pira.co.uk/pack/lca_software.htm) TEAM: Ecobilan/PricewaterhouseCoopers, France (http://www.ecobilan.com/uk_team.php) Umberto: ifu Hamburg, Germany (http://www.umberto.de/en/home/) Boustead Model: Boustead Consulting Ltd, UK (http://www.boustead-consulting. co.uk/) SimaPro: PRé Consultants, The Netherlands (http://www.pre.nl) GaBi and its Functionalities In this tutorial we will use GaBi V5.0 software to get acquainted on how to perform life cycle analysis of a product spanning from cradle to grave. GaBi is a software tool to create life cycle analysis standardized based on ISO 14040 series. It supports large data management for modeling product life cycle. It helps to calculate different types of balances and to analyze/interpret the results. GaBi software is a modular system compromising plans, processes and flows. GaBi facilitates a user with modular individual life cycle phases such as manufacturing, use and disposal that can be grouped into categories and individually processed. 7 P a g e
LCA methodology for a Hand Dryer unit The first step is to gather all the relevant data available for any considered unit for which LCA has to be performed, in this case an electronic hand dryer unit. This step involves an extensive research towards identifying all the raw materials required for manufacturing along with the manufacturing process itself. In this case of the hand dryer unit, the data gather is based on few assumptions and a report prepared by Material Systems laboratory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; commissioned by Dyson, Inc. This report addresses the environmental impact of hand dryer units versus paper towel dispensers. System boundary The analysis in this tutorial is based on all the life cycle stages as per shown in figure 1. Figure 5 illustrates a holistic view considered for building a GaBi model. In order to assess the impact of a functional dryer unit, the primary focus of this study relates to Raw material acquisition, Material processing, Unit assembly, Product use phase, end of life and Disposal. Directed toward the higher part of a stream, extraction of raw materials initially required for the material processing stage are determined. The material processing stage is then contemplated to the manufacturing facility where the materials are processed with a throughput of system parts. These system parts are then assembled into a finished product. The parameters such as energy required and energy recovered for manufacturing are also considered for the analysis. After production and assembly of the product, it is then assumed to be transported to a consumer for its use phase. The packaging and maintenance of these functional units are considered beyond the scope of this analysis. Finally for the end of life cycle and the disposal phase the product is transported to a disassembly unit where the facility recovers a fully functional sub system along with few raw materials. Landfill for municipal disposal and waste for incineration are considered to be the byproducts of this phase. Raw Material 1 Raw Material 2 Raw Material 3 Material Processing Dryer Unit Assembly Transportation Use- Phase Disposal & Reuse Raw Material N Figure 5: Holistic view of a hand Dryer unit 8 P a g e
System Inventory & Data Analysis In this section we identify the relevant data required to perform a life cycle analysis for each individual stage shown in figure 5. Raw Material Acquisition Phase Table 1 below summarizes all the raw materials required for the material processing acquisition phase. Flow Material Amount / Units Nation Input Acrylonitrile butadiene 0.032 mg Europe styrene copolymer, ABS, at plant Input Aluminum, primary,at 25.7 mg Europe plant Input Copper, primary, at 0.029 mg Europe refinery Input Glass Fiber, at plant 0.494 mg Europe Input Melamine, at plant 1.7 mg Europe Input Polyethylene, LDPE, 0.459 mg Europe granulate, at plant Input Polycarbonate, at plant 0.464 mg Europe Input Polypropylene, 3.24 mg Europe granulate, at plant Input Polystyrene, general 1.89 mg Europe purpose, GPPS, at plant Input Polyurethane, rigid 0.063 mg Europe foam, at plant Input Polyvinylchloride, at 0.493 mg Europe regional storage Input Steel, converter, 1.31 mg Europe chromium steel 18/8, at plant Input Synthetic rubber, at 2.05 mg Europe plant Input Stainless Steel Hot 6.14 mg ----------- Rolled Sheet (ELCD) Output Materials for Production (a total of 44.064 mg) phase Table 1: Input and output Flows for Raw material acquisition stage Material Processing Phase Table 2 below summarizes all the input and outputs corresponding to the material processing stage. Flow Flow type Amount/Units Nation Input Electricity mix 0.402 KJ China (production mix) Input Material for production phase 44.064 mg ------------- 9 P a g e
Output Parts for assembly 4 pieces China Tables 3& 4 below summarize the input and output flows related to the raw material acquisition and processing of a motion sensor. Flow Flow Type Amount/Units Input Aluminum Extrusion profile 0.3 mg (metals) Input Copper wire (Cu; 0.6 0.05 mg mm)[metals] Input Polyethylene low density 0.5 mg granulate (PE LD) [plastics] Output Sensor parts 4 pieces Table 3: Input and output flows for Sensor raw materials Flow Flow type Amount/Units Input Sensor parts 4 pieces Output Motion sensor 2 pieces Table 4: Inputs and outputs associated with Motion Sensor production Dryer Assembly Phase Table 5 below illustrates the inputs and outputs required with respect to the Dryer assembly phase to obtain a functional hand dryer. Flow Flow Type Amount/Units Input Parts for assembly 4 pieces Input Electricity, medium voltage, at 0.42 KJ grid [supply mix] Input Motion Senor 2 pieces Output Dyson dryer 1 piece/ 4 Kg Table 5: Inputs and outputs associated with Dryer Assembly phase Dryer Use-Phase Table 6 below illustrates the inputs and outputs for the use phase of a dryer unit. Flow Flow Type Amount/Units Input Dyson Dryer 1 piece/ 4 kg Input Electricity [electric power] 17.2 KJ Output Dyson Dryer 1 piece/ 4 Kg Table 6: Inputs and outputs of the use phase Dryer Disassembly Phase Table 7 below illustrates the input and outputs associated with the disassembly phase of the dryer unit. Flow Flow Type Amount/Units Input Dyson Dryer 1 piece/ 4 Kg Output Air Blower 1 piece Output Plastic Casing 1 piece Output Printed Circuit 1 piece Output Motion sensor 1 piece Table 7: Inputs and outputs of Disassembly phase 10 P a g e
End of Life Dryer Phase Table 8 illustrates all the inputs associated to the End of life cycle phase and the corresponding byproducts as the outputs. Flow Flow Type Amount/Units Input Air Blower 1 piece Input Plastic Casing 1 piece Input Printed Circuit 1 piece Input Motion Sensor 1 piece Output Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 0.015 mg granulate(abs) [plastics] Output Disposal, municipal solid waste, 9.56 mg 22.9% water, to municipal incineration [ municipal incineration] Output Disposal, municipal solid waste, 40.8 mg 22.9% water, to sanitary landfill [sanitary landfill facility] Output Copper Scrap [waster for 0.001 mg recovery] Output Motion Sensor 1 piece Table 8: Inputs and outputs associated with End of life phase The data above and the assumptions made to the best accounts for the successful creation of a GaBi LCA model with respect to a hand Dryer unit, upstream from material extraction and acquisition phase to its recycle and disposal. 11 P a g e
Lab 1: Starting GaBi and Creating a New Project Opening GaBi In this task, you will start GaBi software: 1. To open Gabi 5.0 software, please double click the GaBi shortcut icon on your desktop, if the software is already installed. Or, you can also launch GaBi a. Start>All Programs> GaBi 5.0 > GaBi 2. If the software is not pre-installed in you system, you can access the software using UTEP my desktop. a. Please use the link below and follow the given instruction https://mydesktop.utep.edu/ b. You will find the screen shown below and long using your UTEP credentials c. Now, select Engineering in the main application tab 12 P a g e
d. Now, you will find Gabi 5 icon, please double click it in order to start working with GaBi software. e. You will find the following screen once you open the GaBi software 13 P a g e
Connecting a Data base 1. The first thing to do as soon as you open GaBi is to connect to the database. In order to do this select Education Data base and click Activate. This will allow you to connect and activate the educational database available. 2. Click O.K for you to activate the database. 14 P a g e
3. As soon as the data base is activated you should see the screen similar to as shown below ( you will observe a drop down menu in object hierarchy) Creating a New Project You will be developing a model of a hand Dryer unit. This model will be developed based on the data gathered and represented in the previous section named LCA Methodology for a Hand Dryer Unit. 1. Click on Projects in object hierarchy. 2. Now, a new project can be created by right clicking in the display and selecting New (or, use Ctrl+N). 15 P a g e
3. Name this project as: Life Cycle Analysis of a Hand Dryer Unit a. Use the ISO documentation tab to fill the project goals and system boundaries as shown. i. Goal: To analyze and Evaluate the impact of a considered Automatic hand Dryer with respect to its Life Cycle Analysis and its effects on Environment. ii. System Boundary: The system considered here would be spanning form cradle to Grave. Packaging and Maintenance is beyond the scope of this analysis. Note: Whenever a project is activated, all the plans, processes and flows newly created will be saved in this project. 16 P a g e
Lab 2: Creating a New Plan and Adding Processes Creating a Plan 1. The first would then be creating a new plan for the Dryer model. 2. In order to create a new plan, click on Plans in the object hierarchy. Now right click on the display and select New (or, press Ctrl+N). 3. Now, name the plan: Life Cycle Model- Dryer Unit. 17 P a g e
4. It is always recommended that you frequently save your plan by clicking on the save icon Adding Process to a Plan 1. You will now add process to a plan. 2. GaBi has an extensive database of well-defined processes 3. If any process to your liking cannot be found there is always an option of creating a new process and defining its inputs and outputs. Searching for processes in GaBi database In order to develop a model for Hand Dryer unit, we have pre-determined few raw materials as shown in table 1 for the material acquisition phase. From the table let s choose Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). 18 P a g e
1. Now to add a process to the plan, click on the search icon, and enter the name of the process you are looking for. 2. Select the type of object you are searching for, in this case, it is a process. Now search for Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and click on search 3. Now select RER Acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene (ABS) and drag and drop it in your plan. Here RER corresponds to the nation i.e. Europe 19 P a g e
4. Your plan should now look like as shown below with a process in it Creating a New Process Now that you are familiar with how to add an existing process from GaBi database to a plan, we will now create a new process in the plan. 1. Let s now add a raw material acquisition process. Trying to search for this process in the database will give you no matches, implying that a new process named raw material acquisition has to be created. 2. To do this, right click on the plan and select New process 20 P a g e
3. A window now appears where you can choose the appropriate type of the process being created. 4. Click O.K for now. We will select the appropriate type of process for other new processes in the upcoming labs. 5. Enter Raw material Acquisition and save the process. You can leave name of the Nation blank for now. Select the process type to be <u-so> where it signifies that this process type contains data for one specific process step. Parameters Below you can see area for parameters. Defining a parameter would be helpful when what-if scenarios are being created in the models. For this tutorial we will not consider what- if scenarios but rather aim toward creating a basic LCA model. 21 P a g e
Using Inputs & Outputs 1. In order to define inputs and outputs, right click on the Raw material acquisition process. Click on DB object, a window appears with respect to this process. 2. In this window you can now define inputs and expected outputs for the specific process. Based on Table 1 we see that Acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene (ABS) is one of the inputs to this process. 22 P a g e
3. You now have to define the input of ABS to the process, in order to do this, enter acrylonitrile or ABS in the input field. Gabi will try to predict which flow you are looking for. If many possible matches are encountered a window will open with all the possible flows with respect to your search. 4. Scroll down and select RER: acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer, ABS, at plant. Your process window with this specific input should look as shown below. 23 P a g e
5. With an input defined, it is now for you to define an Output for this process. In reference to Table 1, we see that the output flow is Materials for production phase with a total mass of 44.064 mg. 6. When you try to search for this output flow, you see that no results turn up, implying that a new flow has to be created. In order to do this please follow the following instructions: a. Let s name the output flow as production phase b. Try searching for Production phase in the output flow field and you will see a window prompting to create a new object. c. Click on create new object to create a flow, in this case an output flow. This process is the same if you wish to create a either new input flows or output flows. d. As soon as you create a new object, a window prompts you to select the type of flow being created. This categorization is relevant for balance calculations in GaBi so please make sure that an appropriate category is selected. e. In this case, select: Valuable substances > Materials and click OK. 24 P a g e
f. You can now edit the name of flow and add any additional information if required. g. The reference quantity of a new flow is set to Mass automatically, measured in Kg. based on table 1 we see that the reference quantity is in Kg and thus it remains unchanged. Entering flow amounts h. We have now added a sample input and an output for the raw material acquisition phase. i. It is now for you to add the pre-determined amount and quantities of each assigned input and output flows. j. With reference to Table 1 based on the given quantities, add this information by clicking the amount column and entering the required. (i.e. for input flow it is 0.302 mg & for output flow it is 44.064 mg) 25 P a g e
Choosing Flow types For GaBi to calculate the environmental impact of a system, it has to understand the potential input and output flows of the system. GaBi allows elementary and non-elementary flows. Elementary flows are defined as the flows which enter the techno sphere from nature and the flows that exit the techno sphere to the nature. In our example, bauxite, clay crude oil.etc. are required for extraction of ABS is an elementary flow entering the Dryer unit techno sphere and the carbon, water and land emissions that are the co-products from production are elementary flows leaving the techno sphere. Non-elementary flows are defined as the flows that move only across the techno sphere. Tracked flows are defined as valuable substances and energy flows that can be used in other processes. A tracked output and be connected to another tracked input from its following process in the process flow. Gabi requires that you always make sure to specify flows if they are either elementary, non-elementary or tracked. 1. When specifying flows, GaBi automatically specifies the flow types, if not, there is always flexibility for you to change them. 2. Now, for you input and outputs defined, double click on the tracked flow column corresponding to the flows you would like to change until you see X. (Note: Tracking a flow, will help you to connect it to other processes in the plan) 3. Once the flows are tracked, your Raw Material acquisition phase should look as shown 26 P a g e
Till now you have learned creating a new GaBi project, plan, and creating new processes. Also, you are now familiar on how to add an existing flow to a process along with defining a new flow for a process. We will now build the GaBi model for hand Dryer unit by creating required processes, and flows with respect to their individual phases. 27 P a g e
Lab 3: Raw Materials Acquisition Phase Adding Process to Plan In this lab you are tasked to create all the processes, and defining input and output flows for the processes required for the Material Acquisition Phase based on the data given in Table 1. 1. From Lab 1 & 2 you should already have the following process in your plan: a. Raw material Acquisition b. ABS 2. With reference to the Figure (Appendix 2), search for the rest of the processes required as an input for Raw Material Acquisition. 3. Aluminum profile: To add this process, click on search icon and search for aluminum and scroll down until you find RER Aluminum profile (primary production/production mix, at producer/aluminum semi-finished sheet product). Drag and drop it to your plan. 4. Copper Mix: To add this process, click on search icon and search for copper and scroll down until you find DE Copper mix 999,999% from electrolysis). Drag and drop it to your plan. 5. Glass Fiber: To add this process, click on search icon and search for glass fiber and scroll down until you find DE Glass fibres (technology mix/production mix, at plant). Drag and drop it to your plan. 28 P a g e
6. Melamine: To add this process, click on search icon and search for Melamine and scroll down until you find DE melamine (production mix, at producer). Drag and drop it to your plan. 7. Polycarbonate Granulate: To add this process, click on search icon and search for polycarbonate and scroll down until you find DE Polycarbonate Granulate (PC). Drag and drop it to your plan. 29 P a g e
8. Polyethylene low density Granulate: To add this process, click on search icon and search for polyethylene and scroll down until you find RER Polyethylene low density granulate (PE-LD). Drag and drop it to your plan. 9. Polypropylene Granulate: To add this process, click on search icon and search for polypropylene and scroll down until you find RER Polypropylene granulate (PP) (technology mix/production mix, at plant). Drag and drop it to your plan. 10. Polystyrene Granulate: To add this process, click on search icon and search for polystyrene and scroll down until you find RER Polystyrene granulate (PS). Drag and drop it to your plan. 30 P a g e
11. Polyurethane rigid foam: To add this process, click on search icon and search for polyurethane and scroll down until you find RER Polyurethane rigid foam. Drag and drop it to your plan. 12. Stainless steel: To add this process, click on search icon and search for stainless steel and scroll down until you find RER Stainless steel hot rolled coil (annealed & pickled/grade 304). Drag and drop it to your plan. 31 P a g e
13. Steel billets: To add this process, click on search icon and search for steel billets. Drag and drop US Steel, billets, at plant to your plan. 14. Rubber (Styrene-Butadiene): To add this process, click on search icon and search for Rubber. Drag and drop DE styrene butadiene Rubber (SBR) mix to your plan. 32 P a g e
15. Polyvinylchloride sheet (PVC): To add this process, click on search icon and search for PVC sheet. Drag and drop RER Polyvinyl chloride sheet to your plan. Adding Flows to Raw Material Acquisition process It is time now to define inputs and outputs of the raw material acquisition process, which you have previously created. By now, your plan should look as shown: 33 P a g e
Please refer to table 1 in order to identify the required inputs and outputs of the Raw material acquisition process. 1. We will now add the inputs for this process 2. Right click on Raw materials Acquisition process and select DB object to open process window. 3. Go ahead and enter aluminum, a window opens and scroll until you find RER: aluminum, primary, at plant and double click to accept this input. Also, enter the corresponding amount required i.e. 25.7 mg. 34 P a g e
4. Now search for copper and select RER: Copper, primary, at refinery. Double click to accept this input and enter the corresponding quantity required with reference to table 1 i.e. 0.029 mg. 5. Search for glass fiber and select RER: glass fibre reinforced plastic, polyamide injection module. Double click to accept this input and enter the corresponding quantity required with reference to table 1 i.e. 0.494 mg. 35 P a g e
6. Search for melamine and select RER: melamine, at plant. Double click to accept this input and enter the corresponding quantity required with reference to table 1 i.e. 1.7 mg. 7. Following the same method, please define all the other remaining inputs to this process along with their corresponding quantities, based on table 1. Your process with all the defined inputs and outputs should be shown below: 36 P a g e
Note: please make sure all the inputs and outputs that you have defined are tracked, to be able to connect to the other processes in the plan. 37 P a g e
Lab 4: Material Processing Phase Defining a Material Processing process 1. You will now need to create a new Material processing process and add it to your plan. 2. You will observe that there is no such predefined process. 3. Right click on the plan and select New process. When a window opens up where you would like to save the process; select Production > Part production and click OK. 4. Enter the name Material processing, and select it to be unit process, single operation and save the process. Adding Flows to Material processing 1. Your plan by now, will look as shown 38 P a g e
2. Right click on Material processing process and select DB object to open process window. 3. Please refer to table 2 in order to identify the required inputs and outputs of the Material processing process. 4. In the column for input flows, click on the row and enter electricity, a window opens and scroll until you find CN: electricity mix in the object group: production mix, and double click to accept this input. Also, enter the corresponding amount required from table 2 i.e. 0.402 KJ. 5. Now, the input for this process will be the output of Raw materials acquisition process. 6. Enter production phase in inputs and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined in the previous lab. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts with reference to table 2. 7. To define the output of this process, enter assembly parts in output and a window will popup asking you to create a new object. 8. Go ahead and create this new flow. 9. When selecting the type, select: Valuable substances > Materials and click OK 39 P a g e
10. Edit the name of flow and add any additional information if required. 11. The reference quantity of a new flow is set to Mass automatically, measured in Kg. Based on table 2 we see that the reference quantity in this case is different. 12. To change this, select the reference quantity where it says mass, type in number of pieces and click search. 13. A new search window opens. Now, search for number of pieces. 14. Select Number of pieces from the object group of Technical quantities and accept the change. 15. Now that you see the reference quantity has been changed to Number of Pieces, click Save and close the window. 40 P a g e
16. You have now defined the output flow; please enter the corresponding flow quantities based on table 2. 17. You process with all the defined inputs and outputs will look as shown below Note: please make sure all the inputs and outputs that you have defined are tracked, to be able to connect to the other processes in the plan. 41 P a g e
Lab 5: Sensor Raw Materials and Assembly This lab will guide you to create a Sensor Raw material processing process and Motion sensor Assembly process along with adding the required raw materials and flows to the plan. Raw Materials 1. Copper wire: To add this process, click on search icon and search for Copper wire. Drag and drop EU-15 Copper wire to your plan. 2. Aluminum Extrusion profile: To add this process, click on search icon and search for Aluminium extrusion profile. Drag and drop RER Aluminium extrusion profile from the source ELCD/EAA to your plan. 42 P a g e
3. Polyethylene LD granulate: To add this process, click on search icon and search for Polyethylene low density granulate. Drag and drop RER polyethylene low density granulate (PE-LD) to your plan. Creating New Processes In order to process and manufacture motion sensors, we have to create two new processes named Sensor raw material processing and Motion Sensor Assembly. Once these processes have been created the corresponding input and outputs will be defined based on the flow quantities given in tables 3 and 4. 1. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 2. Select the type of object to be : Process>Production>Electronics and Click OK 3. Name the process Sensor raw material processing and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (u-so) process. 4. Click on save icon to save the changes made. 5. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. 6. Enter aluminum extrusion and press enter, a window opens and scroll until you find Aluminium extrusion profile and double click to accept this input. Enter the corresponding amount required based on table 3 i.e. 0.3 mg. 43 P a g e
7. Enter Copper wire press enter, a window opens and scroll until you find Copper wire (Cu;0.6mm) and double click to accept this input. Enter the corresponding amount required based on table 3 i.e. 0.5 mg. 8. Enter Polyethylene low density granulate press enter, a window opens and scroll until you find Polyethylene low density granulate (PE LD) and double click to accept this input. Enter the corresponding amount required based on table 3 i.e. 0.5 mg. 44 P a g e
9. To define the output of this process, enter Sensor parts in output and a window will popup asking you to create a new object. 10. Go ahead and create this new flow. 11. When selecting the type, select: Valuable substances > Materials and click OK 12. Edit the name of flow and add any additional information if required. 13. The reference quantity of a new flow is set to Mass automatically, measured in Kg. Based on table 3 we see that the reference quantity in this case is different. 14. Please go ahead and change the quantity form mass to number of pieces as shown in lab 4. 15. Now that you see the reference quantity has been changed to Number of Pieces, click Save and close the window. 16. You have now defined the output flow; please enter the corresponding flow quantities based on table 3. 17. You process should now look as shown 45 P a g e
18. For the Sensor parts to be assembled, let s create a new process named Motion Sensor assembly. 19. Tracing your steps based on the above, create the Motion Sensor assembly process and define its input flow to be Sensor parts which is nothing but the output of Sensor Raw material processing process. 20. Define a new output flow named Motion senor and when selecting the type, select: Valuable substances > Systems > Assemblies. 21. Change the quantity form mass to number of pieces as shown in lab 4. 22. Enter the corresponding flow quantities based on table 4. Note: please make sure all the inputs and outputs that you have defined are tracked, to be able to connect to the other processes in the plan. Your plan once you complete lab 5 will look as shown below 46 P a g e
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Lab 6: Dryer Assembly Phase To replicate dryer assembly phase, we have to create two new processes named Dryer Assembly. Once created, the corresponding input and output will be defined based on the flow quantities given in tables 5. 1. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 2. Select the type of object to be : Process>Production>Material Production and Click OK 3. Name the process Dryer Assembly and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (u-so) process. 4. Change the name of the nation to be China (CN) 5. Click on save icon to save the changes made. 6. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. Input and Output Flows 1. In the column for input flows, click on the row and enter electricity, a window opens and scroll until you find CN: electricity, medium voltage, at grid in the object group: Supply mix, and double click to accept this input. Also, enter the corresponding amount required from table 5 i.e. 0.42 KJ. 2. Now, the next input for this process will be the outputs of Motion sensor Assembly process and Material Processing process. 3. Enter Motion sensor in input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts with reference to table 5. 4. Also, enter assembly parts for the other input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. 5. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts with reference to table 5. 48 P a g e
6. To define the output of this process, enter Dyson Dryer in output and a window will popup asking you to create a new object. 7. Go ahead and create this new flow. 8. When selecting the type, select: Valuable substances > Systems and click OK 9. The reference quantity of a new flow is set to Mass automatically, measured in Kg. Based on table 5 we see that the reference quantity in this case is different. 10. Because our functional unit is one Hand dryer (not mass) you should specify this in the quantities list. 11. Also, a conversion factor has to be defined for the mass. 12. Add a new quantity to the flow by clicking on the empty quantities box and typing number of pieces. 13. Type in the column 1[Quantity = *Kg] the number 4 and press enter. 14. This defines that the weight of one hand dryer is 4 Kg. 15. The number of pieces is automatically filled in by GaBi 16. Click Save. 49 P a g e
17. You will see that you can change the quantity of the defined output to either mass or number of pieces. 18. Enter the corresponding flow quantities based on table 5. Note: please make sure all the inputs and outputs that you have defined are tracked, to be able to connect to the other processes in the plan. Till now, you will have successfully created and defined the processes with each corresponding input and output flows for Raw material Acquisition phase, Sensor raw material acquisition and Assembly and Dryer Assembly. 50 P a g e
With the completion of lab 6, your plan should look as shown 51 P a g e
Lab 7: Dryer Use-Phase In this lab, you will create a process for use phase of the hand dryer unit. 1. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 2. Name the process Dryer Assembly and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (u-so) process. 3. Change the name of the nation to be United States(US) 4. Click on save icon to save the changes made. Adding Input & Output Flows 1. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. 2. Enter Dyson Dryer in input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts 3. Enter Electricity in input to add the second input flow. 4. Scroll until you find Electricity (at consumer), and double click to accept this input. Also, enter the corresponding amount required from table 6 i.e. 17.2 KJ. 5. Enter Dyson Dryer in output and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts (Note: The input and outputs for this process are the same as there no co-products associated with the use phase of a functional unit) 52 P a g e
Note: please make sure all the inputs and outputs that you have defined are tracked, to be able to connect to the other processes in the plan. 53 P a g e
Lab 8: Dryer Disassembly phase To mimic the disassembly phase we consider the input to be a dryer unit and the outputs to be Air blower, Plastic Casing, Printed Circuit and Sensor. 1. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 2. Select the type of object to be : Process>Disassembly and Click OK 3. Name the process Dryer Disassembly and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (u-so) process. 4. Click on save icon to save the changes made. 5. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. 6. Enter Dyson Dryer in input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts 7. Enter assembly parts in output and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amounts 8. Refer to table 7 for flow amounts 9. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 10. Select the type of object to be : Process>Disassembly and Click OK 11. Name the process Air Blower and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (u-so) process. 12. Click on save icon to save the changes made. 13. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. 14. Enter assembly parts in input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amount to be 1 piece 15. Enter Part 1 in output and a window will popup asking you to create a new object. 16. Go ahead and create this new flow. 17. When selecting the type, select: Valuable substances and click OK 54 P a g e
18. The reference quantity of a new flow is set to Mass automatically, measured in Kg. Change this to the reference quantity of Number of Pieces. 19. Enter the corresponding flow amount to be 1. 20. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 21. Select the type of object to be : Process>Disassembly and Click OK 22. Name the process Plastic Casing and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (uso) process. 23. Click on save icon to save the changes made. 24. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. 25. Enter assembly parts in input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amount to be 1 piece 26. Enter Part 2 in output and a window will popup asking you to create a new object. 27. Go ahead and create this new flow. 28. When selecting the type, select: Valuable substances and click OK 29. The reference quantity of a new flow is set to Mass automatically, measured in Kg. Change this to the reference quantity of Number of Pieces. 30. Enter the corresponding flow amount to be 1. 55 P a g e
31. Following the same and create 2 more new processes named Printed Circuit and Sensor 32. Define input and outputs as shown below. 56 P a g e
Note: please make sure all the inputs and outputs that you have defined are tracked, to be able to connect to the other processes in the plan. 57 P a g e
Lab 9: End of Life Cycle Phase 1. Right click on the plan and Select new process. 2. Name the process End of Life Dryer and verify that it is a Unit process, single operation (u-so) process. 3. Click on save icon to save the changes made. 4. Right click on the process and select DB object to open process window. 5. Enter Part 1 in input and you will see that GaBi automatically predicts this flow, as it has already been defined previously. Please enter the corresponding flow amount to be 1 piece 6. Similarly define, part 2, part 3 and part 4 as the other inputs for this process. 7. You now have to define the output of ABS granulate to the process, in order to do this, enter acrylonitrile or ABS in the input field. Gabi will try to predict which flow you are looking for. 8. Search for Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene granulate (ABS) in the object type: plastics and double click to accept. 9. Similarly define the following outputs a. CH: Disposal, municipal solid waste, 22.9% water, to municipal incineration [ municipal incineration] b. Disposal, municipal solid waste, 22.9% water, to sanitary landfill [sanitary landfill facility] c. Copper Scrap [waster for recovery] d. Motion Sensor 10. Your process should now look as shown 58 P a g e
11. Landfill: To add this process, click on search icon and search for Landfill. Drag and drop RER Landfill (Commercial waste for municipal disposal) to your plan. 12. Waste incineration: To add this process, click on search icon and search for waste incineration. Drag and drop EU-27: Waste incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW)) to your plan. Your plan should now look as shown below. 59 P a g e
Lab 10: Linking Processes Once, all the required processes have been defined along with their assumed inherent input and output flows, it is now to link/connect all these defined inputs and outputs in order to obtain the results. 1. You should by now notice red spots on the top left and top right corners of your processes. These red dots represent your tracked inputs and outputs indicating that they have to be connected to their corresponding flows. 2. If you cannot see the red dots, Click View in the menu bar and select view tracked in/outputs. 60 P a g e
3. As soon as your tracked flows are enabled your plan looks as show 61 P a g e
4. From the figure below, you will notice that there are 14 red dots on the top left and 1 red dot on the top right of the process indicating that, there are 14 inputs which are to be connected to the Raw materials acquisition phase and 1 output. Outputs Inputs 5. To connect the inputs and outputs, select Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene process, click on the brown bar and drag your mouse onto the inputs of raw materials acquisition process. 6. When linking processes GaBi verifies to check for output and input matches. 7. When connecting ABS to Raw Material acquisition, you will notice a window that allows you to specify which output is to be connected to which input flow. In this case GaBi is not sure whether the ABS output is to be connected to acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene copolymer or any other input. 8. Select the source to be Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene granulate and sink it to RER: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. 62 P a g e
9. You will notice an arrow connecting from RER: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene granulate to Raw material acquisition process. 10. Tracing through the instruction above, connect all the other 13 inputs to Raw material acquisition process. 11. You plan will look as shown below. 63 P a g e
12. The output from Raw material acquisition process should now be connected to the input flow of material processing phase. 13. You will notice a red dot on the top left of Material processing process indication that there is one more input that is to be connected. 14. From lab 4 you see that this this input corresponds to electricity. Search and add CN: electricity grid mix process to you plan. 15. Now, connect the output from Electricity grid mix to Material processing process by sinking the flow to electricity grid mix in material processing phase. 64 P a g e
65 P a g e
16. Now, connect all the flows related to sensor raw material processing process and Motion sensor assembly process. 17. Similarly connect the required inputs to the Dryer Assembly process. 66 P a g e
Adding Transportation Process To increase the detail in the model, let s assume that the assembled dryer will be transported from China to United States for its Use Phase and Disposal. 18. Locate a plane in the process and add it to your plan. A 22 ton payload is sufficient. 67 P a g e
19. Now, connect the output of Dryer assembly phase to the cargo. 20. Sink the output Dyson Dryer to Cargo 21. To provide the other input flow required to the cargo: Plane, select the process, click on the bar and drag and drop it to your plan. 22. Select the appropriate process, in this case CN: Kerosene and click on Accept. 68 P a g e
23. You should now look like 24. Process parameters: a. Transportation process is a good example of parameterized processes. In plane process you can define the distance to be travelled, payload or distance covered on different types of routes. b. For now let s set the distance to be 4000KM c. Double click on the process and set the distance parameter to be 4000 69 P a g e
25. Now connect the output of the Cargo as an input to the Use phase process. 26. Also, add US: Electricity grid mix (Texas) PE process to your plan and connect the output of this process to be the input of Use phase process. 27. Now, assume the dryer to be transported using a Truck trailer for a distance of 100KM. 28. The output of Truck-Trailer process will now be connected to Dryer disassembly process 70 P a g e
29. Similarly go ahead and connect all the other processes; you plan should look similar to as shown below: 30. You will notice that there are 3 outputs from the End of Life Dryer process still to be connected. 31. Let s now go back and see what these free floating outputs are a. Right click on the process and select DB object b. You will see that, Motion Sensor, Copper Scrap and Abs are not connected. 71 P a g e
32. Assuming that these material obtained will be re-used for the manufacture process all the way again, a. Connect ABS & Copper Scrap to Raw materials Acquisition Phase. b. Similarly, Connect Motion senor output from End of Life Dryer process as an input to Dryer Assembly process. c. Click on view in the menu bar and select show flow names. 33. Your final view should look as shown 72 P a g e
73 P a g e
Lab 11: Creating a Balance In order for us to analyze the environmental impact of this model, you have to create a balance. A balance file in GaBi contains the results of all the calculated LCI and LCIA. Before creating a balance, let s fix and scale the processes. Fixing & Scaling processes It is a very important step when creating a plan to define the reference process. On every plan created, there should be one process that is always fixed. This helps GaBi to calculate all the results in relation to this fixed unit. As you created the plan, you have specified the functional unit of the process to be 1 hand dryer. You can now scale this functional unit of the plan to any number of hand dryers as per your wish. 1. Double click to the Dryer Assembly process and enter the scaling factor to be 10 and select fixed. 2. This implies that the process flow in the plan will replicate the manufacturing process plan as created for ten hand dryers. 3. You will get an error if more than one process in a plan is fixed. 74 P a g e
Balance Creation 1. To create a balance; Click on the balance icon in the menu bar 2. Click YES, to save the changes made before the balance is calculated 3. The GaBi dashboard will open This dashboard allows you to navigate between LCI and LCIA results. You have to save the results by clicking the save button and the balance will save in the balance folder of your database. 4. Save your balance. (Note: if you change anything in the plan, a balance has to be re calculated) 5. In the dashboard we see, global warming potential, acidification potential and other impacts. 6. Placing your mouse pointer on the graph allows you to see the impact individually. 75 P a g e
Eutrophication Potential [kg Phosphate-Equiv.] Ozone Layer Depletion Potential [kg R11-Equiv.] Global Warming Potential [kg CO2-Equiv.] 7. You can also, trace down the results for your plans and sub plans using the dashboard. GWP 100 years - Life Cycle Model- Dryer Unit 118.97 110.0 102.91 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Total 15.81 0.17 0.04 0.03 0.01 GLO: Cargo plane PE... US: Diesel mix at refi... Rest CN: Kerosene / Jet A... GLO: Truck-trailer PE... US: Electricity grid mi... ODP, steady state - Life Cycle Model- Dryer Unit 1.49e-9 1.4e-9 1.2e-9 1.0e-9 0.8e-9 0.6e-9 0.622e-9 0.641e-9 0.4e-9 0.2e-9 0.0e-9 Total 0.001e-9 0.07e-9 0.155e-9 0.001e-9 RER: Aluminium extr... US: Diesel mix at refi... Rest CN: Kerosene / Jet A... RER: Aluminium profil... US: Electricity grid mi... EP - Life Cycle Model- Dryer Unit.069.061.008.000 Total GLO: Cargo plane PE... US: Diesel mix at refin... CN: Kerosene / Jet A1... GLO: Truck-trailer PE... US: Electricity grid mix... Rest 76 P a g e
Acidification Potential [kg SO2-Equiv.] AP - Life Cycle Model- Dryer Unit.38.3.261.2.119.1 Total.001.000 GLO: Cargo plane PE... US: Diesel mix at refin... CN: Kerosene / Jet A1... GLO: Truck-trailer PE... US: Electricity grid mix... Rest LCI View 1. Click on the balance tab. 2. This tab helps you to see the results as a list and provides will several options to control. 3. You will currently see the list as a single flow shown in Kg. This shows the Life Cycle inventory of the model all the way from what is entering the system to what is leaving the techno sphere. 4. To see the valuable substances, production residues in life cycle, deposited goods; deselect the option just elementary flows 77 P a g e
5. To see a separate spread of inputs and outputs, select separate IO tables. 6. This allows you to view inputs and outputs separately. 7. To navigate, double click on the flows which allow you to see sub categories. 8. Double clicking the bold will allow you to see the sub categories. 9. As an example, double click on lows on the inputs to expand and collapse until you find crude oil. 10. This gives you crude oil consumption 11. Flows>Resources>Energy Resources> Nonrenewable resources>crude oil 78 P a g e
12. Double Click on Life Cycle model- Dryer Unit to see the relative contributions. 13. Quantity options a. There are many different quantities that can be displayed in LCI 79 P a g e
b. Browse to the Quantity/Ev to expand a window. c. Select: CML2001-Nov.2010, Global Warming potential to display all the KG Co 2 equivalents for the plan developed. Weak Point Analysis Weak point analysis in GaBi helps you to understand the weak points of the plan created. Once a weak point analysis is calculated, you will observe that some of the values are highlighted in red. This implies that they contribute to more than 10% of the total sum of the life cycles Co2 emissions. The other grey 80 P a g e
values imply that their contribution is minimal. The columns that you observe to be disappeared indicate that they have no contribution at all. 1. Click on the weak point analysis button 2. You will notice that carbon dioxide contributes to most of the result. 3. Also, relative contribution can be seen by selecting Relative contribution. 81 P a g e
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Appendix 1 Global Warming potential It is defined as the relative measure of the amount of heat trapped by a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. For example, 100 year GWP of methane is 72 implies that the same mass of methane and carbon dioxide were introduced into atmosphere, that methane will trap 72 times more heat than carbon dioxide over the next 100 years. [7] Ozone Depletion Potential Fig: Global warming potential and ozone depletion potential [8] ODP of a chemical compound is defined as the relative amount of degradation caused in the ozone layer with CFC-11 being fixed at an ODP of 1.0. It can also be precisely defined as the ration of global loss of ozone due to given disruptive effects of a substance compared to a reference substance. [9] Eutrophication Potential Eutrophication is defined as the enrichment of nutrients at certain given place. It can be aquatic or terrestrial. Air pollutants, waste water and fertilization in agriculture all contribute to eutrophication. The result in water is an accelerated growth of algae, preventing sunlight from reaching the lower depths, leading to a decrease in photosynthesis and less oxygen production. [10] 82 P a g e
Fig: Eutrophication Potential (Kreissig&kummel 1999) [10] 83 P a g e
Appendix 2 Fig: Detailed view of LCA for a Hand Dryer unit for building a GaBi model 84 P a g e
References [1] Svoboda. Susan, Note on life Cycle Analysis, University of Michigan Corporate Environmental ManagementProgram,<<URL:http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/CORPpdfs/CORPlca.pdf>> [2] Materials life cycle assessment in graphic design, The sustainable graphic design blog. << URL:http://sustainable-graphicdesign.blogspot.com/2011/07/materials-life-cycle-assessment-in.html>> [3] Process Engineering, Wikipedia. << URL:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_%28engineering%29>> [4] Manufacturing, Wikipedia. <<URL:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing >> [5] Kisson la Toya, Mushet Davis and, Santos Xiana, Life Cycle analysis of hand-dryers for NDSU. <<URL:http.www.ndsu.edu.pubweb%2F~bezbarua%2FDocuments%2FLife%2520Cycle%2520Analysis%2520of%2520Handdr yers%2520xiana_david_latoya_fall%25202006.ppt&ei=mm8luvuyovepsasz8ygwag&usg=afqjcnggf8r_fmsry- _tpzmmab6egleasq&bvm=bv.51495398,d.cwc>> [6] What is LCA?, by TPC Solutions Pty ltd, 012011. <<URL:http://www.bpic.asn.au%2FLiteratureRetrieve.aspx%3FID%3D80351&ei=NhkmUp7tEIWerAG93IDwCQ&usg=AFQj CNHkSB6iXjZqQcOC1Q6mS_JIKhqVhQ&bvm=bv.51495398,d.aWM>> [7] Global Warming potential. <URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/global-warming_potential> [8] Global warming and Ozone depletion potential. <URL: http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=drge2l5xagng9m&tbnid=3l97i YWmo6CAMM:&ved=0CAQQjB0&url=http%3A%2F%2Fccsr.aori.utokyo.ac.jp%2F~imasu%2FJapanese%2FEnglish%2F4.htm&ei=vQ1KUrONLoTR2QXouICYBQ&bvm=bv.53371865,d.b2I&psi g=afqjcnhkqqmxsswlrzea6wz7kv1obsh2cg&ust=1380671226432889> [9] Ozone depletion potential. <URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ozone_depletion_potential> [10] Pollution Categories. <URL: http://www.stiftung-mehrweg.de/calculator/pollutioncategorydescription_en.html> [11] GaBi paper Clip tutorials. <URL: http://www.gabisoftware.com/fileadmin/marketing_material_gabi/gabi_paper_clip_tutorial_handbook_5.pdf> 85 P a g e