Grounding Demystified 3-1 Importance Of Grounding Techniques 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Grounding 42% Case 22% Cable 18% Percent Used Filter 12% PCB 6% Grounding 42% Case Shield 22% Cable Shielding 18% Filtering 12% PCB Layout 6% Categories of solutions applied for compliance. 3-2
Ground Systems Grounding concepts take more time to understand than any other EMI concept because, Ground systems have diverse requirements and sometimes they appear conflicting. 3-3 Examples: 1. Can we connect signal ground to chassis? 2. Should you connect the cable shield to chassis? 3. You must avoid a Ground Loop. 3-4
What Is Grounding? Connecting all grounds in the system in a manner such that all of the objectives are met. What is ground? Ground wire Zero volts Ground plane Signal ground Chassis ground Conductive paint A trace on PCB connecting chassis 3-5 Two Approaches to Limit the Noise 1. Stop the noise escaping the system 2. Stop at the circuit Often you use combination of the two. 3-6
Noise Generation In a Digital System I/O cable Power Cable Noise source In a digital system noise is generated by circuits. 3-7 Faraday Cage Faraday cage is the quiet RF reference. The chassis can be the Faraday cage if- 1. It encloses the electronics. 2. It is several times thicker than the skin depth. 3. No conductor violates the Faraday cage. 4. Large openings are avoided. 3-8
Chassis Ground Capacitor Printed Wiring Board Mounting Hole A direct low impedance connection to chassis is important. A low cost approach is to use the mother board mounting pads. Capacitive connection can be made to the signal ground at several points if single point ground is to be maintained. The effective capacitor leads must be short. 3-9 Connection To Chassis Connector bonded to system enclosure Motherboard Card edge guides Another economical way to make chassis connection is by means of connector body- such as D connectors. DIN connectors are available with shield and spring contacts for easy and reliable contact to the chassis. Power line filter body should also be used for chassis connection. 3-10
Wave Propagation Through A Shield B1 B2 E 0 = Incident field strength Reflected wave Transmitted wave E 3 R 1 = Reflection loss at B 1 = 20 log (E 0 /E 1 ) A = Absorption loss = 20 log (E 1 /E 2 ) E 2 R 2 = Reflection loss at B 2 = 20 log (E 2 /E 3 ) Eo = Incident wave E 1 Shield material Total shielding effectiveness = E 0 /E 3 = R 1 x A x R 2 x C m 3-11 Absorption Loss Absorption loss occurs due to induced currents The field decays with distance (d) traveled The decay is exponential, and is dependent on skin depth δ Skin depth depends on µ= Permeability σ= conductivity ω= Angular frequency of the wave δ= 2/(µωσ) 3-12
Grounding Considerations System performance: system must perform reliably. Safety of personnel: minimize electrical shock hazard. AF noise emissions and susceptibility. RF noise emissions and susceptibility. ESD immunity. Generally, the noise emission and noise susceptibility approaches are similar. 3-13 Grounding For Personnel Safety The main concern is that the metal enclosure remain at safe potentials. So it should be connected to the green wire ground of the power cord by reliable means. 3-14
Grounding For Safety CHASSIS 115 VAC NEUTRAL Equipment Circuit GROUND Safety ground wire is connected to the chassis. EMI filter capacitors are limited by leakage current -UL 1950 or IEC 950-3.5 ma -Medical devices - in micro-amps. 3-15 Ground Definitions --- Based on Purpose : General - Equipotential reference surface. EMC - Low effective impedance path for the return. ESD - Surface that can source or sink large amount of charge without changing its potential. Safety - Conductor providing a path for currents to flow during a circuit fault. 3-16
Ground Design Objectives For EMC Minimize Cross- talk. Minimize Emissions. Minimize Susceptibility. One must consider signal characteristics as well as allowable noise levels when designing a grounding scheme. 3-17 Ground System Considerations There are four important circuit characteristics to be considered during the design of ground system: 1. Frequency of signal: Digital signal is broadband. 2. Effective Impedance of path: not the resistance. 3. Current Amplitude: The voltage drop is proportional to the signal current. 4. Noise voltage threshold: The noise level that a circuit can withstand or generate. 3-18
Avoid a Ground Loop A B If a ground connects point A to B, it should not have an alternate path. 3-19 Ground Loop I n = Induced noise current V n =Noise voltage V n = I n X R s + V V IN S R S - I n Definition : A ground circuit allowing ground currents to flow in a loop causing two problems. 1. Induced noise voltage: magnetic coupling causes induced current resulting noise voltage. 2. The return current may take a path further away from the signal current and create a radiating loop. 3-20
Low Frequency Grounds -Separated According to Circuit Noise Levels Chassis High Low Noise Digital Ground Noise Analog Ground Ground Ground Single Point Chassis ground normally carries no current. This arrangement avoids ground loops. Noise coupling by conduction is avoided. Chassis is connected to power ground for safety. It carries current only in fault condition. 3-21 Typical Single Point Grounding -for Low Frequency System Chassis Relays/Solenoids Motor Drivers Digital Logic 115 Volts Neutral Ground Power Supply Analog Circuits Digital Logic This grounding is inadequate for RF signals between the boards. 3-22
Ground Systems For Signal Currents Single point ground Series or Parallel ground connection Multi- Point Ground When signal spectrum contains high frequency energy. Multi- Point AC Ground When low frequency and high frequency is present. These ground systems are selected based on the frequency of signal and noise. 3-23 Series Ground Connection Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3 SPG Z1 Z2 Z3 I 1 +I 2 +I 3 I 2 +I 3 I 3 Question : when do you connect ground in this manner? 3-24
Parallel Ground Connection Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3 Z1 SPG I 1 Z2 I 2 Z3 I 3 Q: When do you connect ground in your system in this manner? 3-25 Multi-point Ground Connection Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3 Circuit 4 Low impedance ground reference Definition: circuits are connected to a reference ground plane at several different points by low impedance connections. The low impedance, single reference ground replaces the SPG, when we add a ground plane on the PWB. 3-26
Problem With SPG A D B E C F G It ignores signal connections! With the SPG, the signal circuit has magnetic loop coupling: These are formed by signal conductors and all ground paths returning through SPG. The coupling increases with frequency. 3-27 A D Solution B E C F G Provide ground paths close to the signal connections. This parallel path can be: (a) Twisted conductor with each signal (b) coaxial cable shield or (c) a conductor in the ribbon cable. Should you worry about the ground loop? Not for RF designs. 3-28
What Is The Return Current Path? Multi-layer board with ground plane Choices: Return current takes path of the lowest resistance. Return current is distributed inversely proportional to the resistance of each path. Return current takes path of the lowest impedance. 3-29 Return Current Division Current is divided : (1) shield and (2) ground plane. I L I L I SHIELD R L I GROUND Equivalent Circuit- Assuming ground resistance = 0 M L SHIELD R SHIELD I SHIELD R L I L -I SHIELD I L 3-30
Single Point Or RF Grounding Grounding scheme is chosen according to requirements. The RF and AF requirements are not contradictory. When low (audio) frequency and high (RF) frequency protection is required, use multi- point AC ground with only one DC connection. Separate grounds according to signal levels - since induced noise can affect signal only if ground loop is part of the signal circuit. 3-31 Ground and Signal Go Together V TH Read Head AMP AMP COMP Shift Register Digital circuit Keep ground with the signal when connecting different circuits. Ground is the return path for the signal and power current. This rule is very important - when we are breaking ground loop. 3-32
Transmission Line L L L C C C L L L Distributed parameters, and characteristic Impedance. Reflections can be controlled by controlling the impedance. The transmission lines used in practice are not ideal. For example, the distributed parameters include resistors attenuating the propagating signal. 3-33 Layer Stacks For Four Layer PCB Signal Ground Power Signal or Ground Signal/Power Signal Ground Would it help to put the ground layers on the outside surface? How useful are high frequency signals embedded into the ground and power planes? 3-34
Large Loops In Signal Return Paths Daughter Board Even with a ground plane in the PWB, a large loop in the signal path can exist. A return pin far away from signal pin will cause a loop. Mother board Large loops in signal return paths can be avoided by using distributed grounds. 3-35 Layout Near Board Edge Field lines Signal traces Ground plane Fringing near edge changes the characteristic impedance of the signal. This can result in ringing and additional radiation for high frequency signals. The advantages of the ground plane may be lost completely, if traces are laid outside the ground plane boundary. 3-36
Six Layer Board Layer 1 = signal Layer 2 Layer 3 = signal Ground Plane Layer 4 = signal Layer 5 Layer 6 = signal Power Plane The ground layer is two and power plane is five. The distance between signal layers and the reference planes should be maintained constant, say X. The distance between layer three and four > 3X. 3-37 Summary Chassis ground is important for RF. Consider Signal loop more important than ground loop look at ground as return path. Transmission line is your goal when you add ground and power planes on PCB. 3-38