FFusion 2 Technology Programme 1999 2002

FFusion 2 Technology Programme 1999 2002 Technology Programme Report 1/2003 Final Report

FFusion 2 Technology Programme 1999 2002 Final Report Eds. Seppo Karttunen Karin Rantamäki National Technology Agency Technology Programme Report 1/2003 Helsinki 2003

Tekes your contact for Finnish technology Tekes, the National Technology Agency, is the main financing organisation for applied and industrial R&D in Finland. Funding is granted from the state budget. Tekes primary objective is to promote the competitiveness of Finnish industry and the service sector by technological means. Activities are aimed at diversifying production structures, increasing productivity and exports and creating a foundation for employment and social well-being. Tekes finances applied and industrial R&D in Finland to the extent of nearly 400 million euros annually. The Tekes network in Finland and overseas offers excellent channels for cooperation with Finnish companies, universities and research institutes. Technology programmes part of the innovation chain The technology programmes are an essential part of the Finnish innovation system. These programmes have proved to be an effective form of cooperation and networking for companies and the research sector for developing innovative products and processes. Technology programmes promote development in specific sectors of technology or industry, and the results of the research work are passed on to business systematically. The programmes also serve as excellent frameworks for international R&D cooperation. Currently, 45 extensive technology programmes are under way. ISSN 1239-1336 ISBN 952-457-095-5 Cover: Oddball Graphics Oy Page layout: DTPage Oy Printers: Paino-Center Oy, 2003

Foreword The FFusion 2 technology programme has provided the national setting for fusion research activity in Finland during 1999 2002. The objective of the programme was to promote collaboration between research institutes and the industry in R&D work for International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, ITER. The programme has been a fully integrated project in the European Fusion Programme of Framework Programme 5. Thanks to the recent, excellent progress in the study of fusion, the world is now ready for the next step: to go forward with the exploration of burning plasma in ITER. ITER s design was completed in 2001 and negotiations on the ITER legal entity as well as on site selection, cost sharing issues, and procurement rules have started. Negotiations should be concluded by mid 2003, after which, the decision to construct ITER is in the hands of politicians. Globally, there is a growing interest towards fusion: the United States seriously considers rejoining ITER and the Republic of China has expressed a strong interest in becoming an ITER partner. Tekes contribution has been focussed on technology: the ITER vessel/in-vessel area (mainly first-wall materials), multimetal components, joining and beam welding methods, welding and cutting robots as well as water-hydraulic tools and manipulators for divertor maintenance. Another important part of the programme has been education and training which have had a significant role from the very beginning of the programme. In fusion physics, we have gained a lot of scientific visibility by participating in and co-ordinating experiments and research projects in JET. The programme has produced a lot of excellent and internationally recognised research results. The future of fusion research in Finland will be very closely connected to international co-operation. From the good experiences gained from this programme, we are looking forward to contributing to a technology-driven international programme, which should lead to an energy source that is both economically and socially acceptable. Many questions, such as quality of life, progress, security, and well being are linked to the theme of energy and environment and thus, have a direct impact on the issue of fusion energy. The National Technology Agency of Finland, Tekes, would like to express its sincere thanks to all the individuals, enterprises and institutes who have contributed to the programme. This gratitude is extended also to the international scientific and industrial fusion community, with special thanks being given to the Head of the Tekes Research Unit, Dr. Seppo Karttunen from VTT, who has carried out the programme in such an outstanding way. Helsinki, November 19 th, 2002 National Technology Agency of Finland

Summary This report summarises the results of the FFusion 2 technology programme during the period between 1999 and 2002. FFusion 2 is a continuation of the previous FFUSION research programme that took place from 1993 to 1998. The FFusion 2 technology programme is fully integrated into the European Fusion Programme, i.e., Key Action Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion in the fifth Framework Programme, through the bilateral Contract of Association and the multilateral European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA). The Association Euratom-Tekes was established in 1995. At the moment, 21 Euratom Fusion Associations are working together on key action fusion. There are four research areas in the FFusion 2 technology programme: (1) fusion physics and plasma engineering, (2) vessel/in-vessel materials and components, (3) remote handling and inspection systems, and (4) system studies. The FFusion 2 team consists of research groups from the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, the Helsinki, Tampere and Lappeenranta Universities of Technology and the University of Helsinki. The FFusion 2 co-ordinating unit is VTT Processes. The industry is also involved in each of the research areas. Industrial activities related to the FFusion 2 programme are co-ordinated by Prizztech. A key element of the FFusion 2 programme is the close collaboration between VTT, the universities and the industry, which has resulted in dynamic and versatile research teams that are sufficiently large and flexible to tackle challenging research and development projects. The distribution of work between research institutes and industry has also been clear. The total expenditure of the FFusion 2 technology programme for 1999 2002 amounted to 12 million in research work at VTT and the universities with an additional 3 million for projects by the Finnish industry. The funding of the FFusion 2 programme was mainly provided by Tekes (38%), Euratom (30%) and the participating institutes and industry (30%). The FFusion 2 research teams have played an active role in the EFDA JET and Technology Workprogrammes. Work on theoretical and computational fusion physics at VTT and the Helsinki University of Technology has been very productive and on a high scientific level. The main emphasis has been on participating in the JET Workprogramme and Task Forces, including fusion technology. Several JET experiments have been coordinated by the Association Tekes and the scientific contribution to the tokamak database has been important and visible. A remarkable arsenal of simulation codes have been developed, which has secured us a firm position in the European Fusion Programme. The principal topics have been radio-frequency heating, transport barriers, edge plasma phenomena and plasma-wall interactions. A set of tungsten-coated tiles was installed in the divertor region of JET. The coating was prepared by Diarc Technology and it survived well the high heat and particle flux tests at the JET neutral beam test bed. Collaboration with other Associations on the same topics has been active, too. In fusion technology, the focus has been on the vacuum vessel and in-vessel materials, components and remote handling systems. Research on joining techniques and multimetal first-wall components, including the manufacturing and characterisations of potential materials and joints, has been carried out in collaboration with VTT, Metso Powdermet and Outokumpu Poricopper. After extensive irradiation, high heat flux testing, and characterisation, a high strength copper alloy, CuCrZr, was selected as the ITER copper to be mainly used as a heat sink in the first wall structure. Further mechanical testing of copper under neutron irradiation started in collaboration with SCK-CEN and Risø with a VTT-designed radiation rig installed in the BR-2 research reactor. Hot isostatic pressing

(HIP) is the most promising joining method for the first wall components with cooling tubes. Small and medium-size mock-ups have been manufactured, tested and characterised, proving the good quality of joints. Development of superconducting niobium-titanium and niobium-tin wires for the ITER magnets is carried out mainly by Outokumpu Poricopper. A full-scale optomechanical prototype of the in-vessel viewing system has been completed and tested showing its feasibility for ITER vessel viewing. It is a very successful example of a joint project with complementary expertise from VTT Institutes (mechanics and optics), Helsinki University of Technology (imaging system) and Fortum (system design and prototype). Water-hydraulic maintenance tools and manipulators have been developed and prototyped by the Tampere University of Technology in collaboration with Hytar and Adwatec. The hardware has successfully been tested at the divertor refurbishment platform in Brasimone demonstrating the feasibility of water-hydraulic systems in the fusion reactor environment. A virtual design and operation of various systems can reveal problems and weak points in the design, providing substantial savings in the development phase as was the case in the design task of the intersector welding and cutting robot carried out at the Lappeenranta University of Technology. In addition, the Association Euratom-Tekes participated in the European ITER site studies and safety analysis for conceptual power plant and contributed to the socio-economic programme in close collaboration with the other Associations. The FFusion 2 team has prepared and contributed to over 160 articles in scientific journals. A fair number of university degrees have been completed during the programme period: nine Doctorates, two Licentiates and twelve Masters. Industrial activities related to the FFusion 2 technology programme and joint projects with the Finnish industry and the FFusion 2 programme on materials, multimetal components and superconductors have been a key element in establishing the Satakunta Centre of Expertise on materials technology. In 2001, the Association Tekes hosted two international workshops dealing with plasma-edge and first-wall issues. In September 2002, the 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology (SOFT) was held in Helsinki, bringing together over 450 participants. The symposium was organised by VTT, Fortum and Prizztech. All three conferences received a lot of positive feedback from their participants. The decision on building ITER may take place in the near future. The Finnish industry sees the construction of ITER as a major opportunity and is ready to provide the technology and expertise for the project. The subsequent know-how and technology transfer gained from participating in ITER construction will strengthen the industry and make it more competitive in future technology markets. The new Fusion technology programme commencing in 2003 will continue to foster co-operation with the industry to support it in technology development and in the challenge of building the ITER.

Contents Foreword Summary 1 FFusion 2 Technology Programme...1 1.1 Background...1 1.2 European Fusion Research Programme Key-Action Controlled Fusion and ITER... 2 1.3 FFusion 2 Programme Objectives...4 1.4 FFusion 2 Research Areas...4 1.5 Participating Institutes and Companies...6 1.5.1 National Technology Agency of Finland (Tekes)... 6 1.5.2 Finnish Fusion Research Unit....6 1.5.3 Industrial Companies....7 1.6 National Steering Committee....7 1.7 FFusion 2 Programme Funding...7 1.8 International Collaboration...9 1.8.1 Association Euratom-Tekes...9 1.8.2 Participation in the Committees of the EU Fusion Programme....9 1.9 European and Other International Collaboration...10 1.10 Public Information...11 2 Fusion Physics and Plasma Engineering....13 2.1 Radio-Frequency Heating of Tokamak Plasmas...13 2.1.1 Ion Cyclotron Heating Experiments in JET...14 2.1.2 Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Lower Hybrid and Ion Bernstein Waves...17 2.1.3 Gyrotron Development for ITER...21 2.1.4 ICRF Antenna Design for ITER...23 2.2 Transport and MHD in Conventional Tokamak Scenarios....24 2.2.1 Edge Transport Physics in Tokamaks...25 2.2.2 Edge MHD and Divertor Loading...32 2.3 Advanced Tokamak Scenarios and Alternative Reactor Concepts.. 37 2.3.1 Empirical ITB Formation Threshold Condition on JET....38 2.3.2 Impact of Different Heating and Current Drive Methods on the Early q-profile Evolution in JET...39 2.3.3 Core Current Hole with LHCD Preheating in JET...41 2.3.4 ITB Generation in Low-Current Tokamaks...42 2.3.5 Toroidal Ripple as the Trigger to Improved Core Confinement...43 2.3.6 Wall Stabilisation of External Kinks in ASDEX Upgrade...44 2.3.7 Transport Studies in Wendelstein-line Stellarators...44

3 Fusion Reactor Materials Research...47 3.1 Vessel/In-Vessel Materials and Joints....47 3.1.1 Fabrication of HIPed FW Panel...47 3.1.2 Characterisation of FW Mock-Ups...49 3.1.3 In-Situ Testing of Irradiated Materials...50 3.2 High Power Nd:YAG Laser Welding of Vacuum Vessel Sectors of ITER...53 3.2.1 Introduction...53 3.2.2 Experimental....53 3.2.3 Results and Discussion...54 3.2.4 Conclusions...56 3.3 Development of High Precision Intersector Weld/Cut Robot...56 3.4 Plasma Facing Materials and Tritium Retention....59 3.4.1 Hydrogen Retention in Plasma Facing Materials and Flakes Formation....59 3.4.2 Molecular Dynamic Simulation of Plasma-Surface Interactions....64 3.4.3 Erosion, Deposition and Material Transport at JET.... 66 Introduction...66 3.5 Fusion Neutronics...71 3.5.1 Background...71 3.5.2 ITER Neutronics...71 3.5.3 Work on Conceptual Power Plant Study...72 4 Remote Handling and Viewing...75 4.1 Development of Waterhydraulic Tools and Manipulators for ITER Divertor Maintenance...75 4.1.1 Introduction...75 4.1.2 Multi Link Joint...75 4.1.3 Tools for the Divertor Cassette Refurbishment....77 4.1.4 Water Hydraulic Actuators for ITER Maintenance Devices.. 80 4.1.5 In-Vessel Dexterous Manipulator (Maestro manipulator)... 81 4.1.6 Virtual Prototyping of Cassette Multifunctional Mover (CMM). 85 4.2 In-Vessel Viewing System for ITER...89 4.2.1 Introduction...89 4.2.2 Re-installation of the IVVS Prototype...89 4.2.3 Imaging...91 4.2.4 Radiation Resistance of Optical Fibres...92 4.2.5 Conclusions...93 5 Fusion Technology System Studies... 95 5.1 Socio-Economic Studies....95 5.1.1 Introduction...95 5.1.2 Waste Disposal...95 5.1.3 Impacts of the Future Environment...97 5.1.4 Conclusions...98 5.2 ITER Site Studies...98 5.3 Conceptual Power Plant Studies Safety Assessment... 100 5.4 Remote Participation...101

Annex A FFusion 2 Projects and EFDA Tasks...103 Annex B Participating Institutes, Companies and Research Personnel 1999 2002...107 Annex C Seminars and Meetings....117 Annex D Doctoral, Licentiate and Graduate Theses.... 119 Annex E Publications and Reports 1999 2002...121 1 Fusion Physics and Plasma Engineering...121 1.1 Publications in Scientific Journals Fusion Plasma Physics. 121 1.2 Conference Articles Fusion Plasma Physics... 128 1.3 Research Reports Fusion Plasma Physics... 140 2 Fusion Technology Materials... 140 2.1 Publications in Scientific Journals Fusion Materials... 140 2.2 Conference Articles Fusion Materials... 142 2.3 Research Reports Fusion Materials... 145 3 Fusion Technology Remote Handling and Viewing.... 147 4 Fusion Technology System Studies... 149 5 General Articles and Other Publications...150 6 Patents....151 Tekes Technology Programme Reports... 152

1 FFusion 2 Technology Programme 1.1 Background Fusion energy research has a clear, long-term goal of developing commercially and environmentally viable fusion power plants as an important part of a sustainable energy combination in the future. The next step in this development work is ITER International Tokamak Experimental Reactor, which will open the way ( iter in Latin) for the future by demonstrating the scientific and technical feasibility of fusion energy production. Harnessing fusion energy is one of the most challenging missions of mankind, so global collaboration, such as ITER, is the best approach to meeting this challenge. In Europe, fusion research is a fully integrated and co-ordinated programme that makes good use of the resources in the most efficient manner. Joint experiments such as JET Joint European Torus have made Europe the leader in fusion research around the world. Since 1999, the European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA) and the Contracts of Association are the main tools for implementing the Euratom Fusion Programme. EFDA covers both JET and technology activities. The Association Euratom-Tekes was established on March 13, 1995. Tekes became the 14 th Euratom Association in the EU Fusion Programme. At the moment, there are 21 Euratom Fusion Associations from the European Union, Switzerland and the newly associated countries. The FFusion 2 technology programme, from 1999 to 2002, was a continuation of the previous FFusion energy research programme. The national programme structure has been very useful in organising the national activities and bringing together smaller research groups to form more competitive units for the European Fusion Programme. This has clearly strengthened the role of Finnish fusion research in the international fusion community. The national programme period corresponds to the Framework Programme cycle of four years, which helps in adapting to new trends and priorities, rules and funding schemes. The main objective of the FFusion 2 technology programme is to carry out high-quality technology research and promote collaboration in R&D work with the industry to make preparations for building ITER. The research activities are focused on a few important topics in fusion plasma physics, reactor in-vessel materials and components as well as remote handling maintenance systems. The emphasis in the fusion physics research has been on the joint experimental work at the JET Facility, the most powerful fusion experiment in the world. This has provided challenging tasks and opportunities for our young scientists and engineers to work in a fully international environment and produce the most relevant data for ITER. Compared with the previous FFusion programme period, the research is now better organised and the responsibilities at the European programme level have considerably increased. The Task Force activities in JET and ASDEX Upgrade have made our work much more productive and visible. The focus of physics research is shifting towards edge plasma physics and engineering, which evolved from the merging of plasma physics and surface physics groups. The industry is involved in diagnostics development as well as in plasma facing materials and coatings for the present experiments and ITER. Fusion technology activities are focused on the vacuum vessel and in-vessel materials, joining methods and multimetal components. Manufacturing processes are developed in the industry; research institutes are responsible for materials testing and the characterisation of joints and components. Water-hydraulic tools and manipulators for remote maintenance operations, welding robots and in-vessel viewing system are the third focus area of the FFusion 2 technology programme, in which virtual design plays a key role. 1

The industry plays a major role in building ITER, although it needs support from fusion technology experts in design, testing and quality control. The accompanying research programme will tackle the remaining physics and R&D questions, prepare the experimental programme and train personnel for ITER. The FFusion 2 technology programme, one-third physics and two-thirds technology, is well balanced to meet the future demand of fusion expertise for ITER and the accompanying research programme. 1.2 European Fusion Research Programme Key-Action Controlled Fusion and ITER The EU Fusion Programme (Key Action Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion in the 5th Framework Programme) is a fully integrated programme that includes all magnetic fusion research carried out in the Member States, Switzerland and in the newly associated states of Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. The Community funding for the 5th Framework Programme (FP5) is 788 million. The total financing, including national funding, has been approximately 450 million per annum during FP5 (1999 2002). The main elements of the European Fusion Programme are the Association programmes that are defined by the bilateral Contracts of Association (CoA) with Euratom and the multilateral European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA), which covers fusion technology activities and the exploitations of the JET Facilities. JET is still the largest fusion research installation in the world, holding the world record fusion power of 16 megawatts. The JET Joint Undertaking ended in December 1999. Since the beginning of 2000, JET Facilities have been exploited by the research teams from the Associations and the Euratom Association UKAEA is responsible for operating the JET machine. JET research activities and operation are implemented by the multilateral EFDA and JET Implementing Agreement (JIA) and by the JET Operating Contract (JOC) between UKAEA and Euratom. European participation in the scientific work on JET is co-ordinated by the EFDA Close Support Unit (CSU) in Culham. EU Commission Research DG 21 Associations including Tekes EFDA = European Fusion Development Agreement JET = Joint European Torus Technology Programme ITER Technology Long Term Technology Figure 1. Organisation of the European Fusion Programme, which consists of the integrated programmes in the Euratom Associations and the EFDA JET and EFDA Technology activities. 2

Figure 2. JET Plasma chamber showing the limiters on the inner wall and the divertor structure on the bottom. Radio-frequency heating antennas are on the outer wall. The EFDA Technology Programme is co-ordinated by the EFDA CSU in Garching. The emphasis of the technology work programme is in the next step (ITER) activities to support ITER design. The main areas are physics integration, vessel/in-vessel materials and components, magnet structure and integration as well as ITER site preparation. Other EFDA technology fields are long-term materials research, tritium breeding, safety and environmental issues, system studies, including socio-economic research, and conceptual power plant studies. A significant proportion of European fusion research is carried out in national laboratories under the Contract of Associations.. There are several medium-size and small tokamaks and plasma devices in the associated laboratories. The latest are the new stellarator JT-II at CIEMAT in Spain and the spherical tokamak MAST at UKAEA, which started operation in the late 1990s. In addition, several upgrades of existing devices have taken place; for example, the enhancements of the power handling capacity of Tore Supra to extend the discharge to several minutes; the dynamic ergodic divertor in TEXTOR; and the more versatile heating systems in ASDEX Upgrade. A large superconducting stellarator device, Wendelstein 7-X, is under construction at Greifswald, Germany. The final design of ITER was completed in July 2001. In addition to design, seven big demonstration projects were also successfully completed. The overall objective of ITER is to demonstrate the scientific and technical feasibility of fusion as an energy source. The fusion power reaches 400 500 megawatts with a power amplification of Q >10 in the standard scenario and Q > 5 in the steady-state mode with non-inductive current drive. New technologies and manufacturing methods have had to be developed during the ITER engineering design activities by the different industries and the research sector; for example, superconductors, multimetal first-wall components, various remote handling techniques, plasma heating systems and diagnostics methods. The most important achievement was the demonstration of Niobium-Tin superconductor technology by the manufacturing of a central solenoid (Japan and USA) and a toroidal model 3

short-term objectives of the FFusion 2 Programme are: to carry out high-quality scientific and technological research in collaboration with other European Fusion Associations for the European Fusion Programme and ITER to promote collaboration between the research institutes, universities and Finnish industry in the R&D work for ITER design, and making preparations for its construction to benefit from the technology transfer and spin-offs from a large international research programme, and use the knowledge gained for other technology applications. Figure 3. ITER International Tokamak Experimental Reactor is a global project for demonstrating the scientific and technical feasibility of magnetic fusion. Active participation in the Euratom Fusion Programme and ITER Engineering Design Activities has provided the Finnish science and technology community and the participating hi-tech companies with challenging opportunities and projects. coil (EU). Both magnets exceeded their design parameters. Regarding the recent progress in tokamak physics, the ignition (Q > 30) is not excluded. The direct construction cost of ITER, including spares and R&D during construction, is approximately 3 900 million. Negotiations on the ITER Legal Entity (ILE), site, cost sharing, procurement specifications and implementing agreement started in 2001 and they should be complete by mid 2003. After that, the resulting agreement will be forwarded to the political decision makers of the ITER partners. Four sites for ITER have been proposed: Cadarache in France, Vandellòs in Spain, Clarington in Canada and Rokkasho in Japan. 1.3 FFusion 2 Programme Objectives The FFusion 2 technology programme is fully integrated into the European Fusion Programme, which has set a long-term goal of the joint creation of safe, environmentally sound prototype reactors, which should result in the construction of economically viable power stations. The national 1.4 FFusion 2 Research Areas The FFusion 2 technology programme is divided into two major areas: 1) fusion physics & plasma engineering and 2) fusion technology. The physics programme is carried out at the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), and the University of Helsinki (UH). The research areas in fusion plasma physics are: particle and energy transport and MHD phenomena fusion plasma engineering on radio-frequency heating and plasma diagnostics plasma-wall interactions and surface studies of plasma facing materials. Since 2000, the emphasis in fusion plasma physics has been on participating in the S/T Order and Notification work of the EFDA JET Workprogramme. The contribution of the Association Euratom- Tekes consists of the scientific co-ordination of radio-frequency heating experiments, preparation, modelling and data analysis of experiments under the following Task Forces: H (heating), S1 and S2 (confinement and advanced scenarios), M (MHD), E (exhaust), T (transport), and FT (fusion technol- 4

ogy). Work has been carried out both on the JET site and by remote participation from VTT and HUT with an access to the JET computers and database. IPP Garching and Greifswald (Germany), CEA Cadarache (France), ENEA Frascati (Italy), CRPP Lausanne (Switzerland) and IPP-CZ Prague (Czech Republic) constitute the other collaboration programs for physics. The ITER tasks, dealing with the R&D and design of radio-frequency systems, have been partly performed under the physics programme or by the EFDA Technology Tasks and Contracts. These activities include optimisation of the ion cyclotron heating antenna, analysis of fast electrons and hot spots in the lower hybrid launcher as well as the design of the coaxial gyrotron for ITER. In addition, neutronics calculations and a nuclear analysis for various heating systems have been carried out. The technology programme of the Association Euratom-Tekes has been carried out at VTT, HUT, the Tampere University of Technology (TUT) and the Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT), in close collaboration with the Finnish industry. The technology research covers the following three fields: ITER vessel/in-vessel materials and components Superconducting wire development System studies. The focus is on the vessel/in-vessel area in which the major activities are in the first-wall materials and multimetal components, joining techniques such as HIP and beam welding, characterisation of materials and joints, plasma facing materials, coatings including tritium issues and remote handling and viewing systems. Superconductor development mainly consists of industrial activity by Outokumpu Poricopper Oy. System studies include socio-economic research on the external costs of fusion, safety studies for conceptual power plant studies and European ITER site studies. The respective volumes of the FFusion 2 research projects and industrial projects in the main research areas are given in Table 1. The summary of the EFDA Technology Tasks and Contracts in 1999 2002 is given in Annex 1. The industry is involved in all Association technology tasks related to vessel/in-vessel materials and Table 1. Funding of the main research areas of the FFusion 2 technology programme in 1999 2002. The detailed EFDA Technology Task summary is given in Appendix 1. Research Area Projects 1999 (k ) 2000 (k ) 2001 (k ) 2002 (k ) Total 99-02 (k ) FFusion 2 Coordination HAL 93 125 123 145 486 Fusion Physics FUS, PLA 679 854 1 078 1 009 3 620 Plasma Facing Components ION, ANA 261 308 256 688 1 513 In-Vessel Materials MAT 489 410 518 580 1 997 Welding / Robots WED, IWR 115 155 212 640 1 122 Remote Maintenance HYD 621 624 531 470 2 246 In-Vessel Viewing IVV 360 130 118 608 System Studies SERF, EIS 37 126 170 196 529 Industrial Projects 1 133 660 693 628 3 114 Total (keuro) 3 788 3 392 3 699 4 356 15 235 5

remote handling systems. In addition, there have been several industrial ITER design tasks through the European Fusion Engineering and Technology (EFET) Consortium. The underlying technology in reactor in-vessel materials includes the further development of fracture resistance test methods and verification of specimen size effects, measuring techniques for characterising surface film properties of metals in coolant water environments and the development of non-destructive examination techniques applicable to the inspection of primary wall modules. Collaboration with the EFDA Close Support Units in Garching and Culham, Associations CEA (France), Association ENEA Brasimone (Italy), FZK Karlsruhe (Germany), Risø (Denmark), SCK-CEN (Belgium), VR (Sweden) and CRPP Lausanne (Switzerland) has played an essential role in the fusion technology activities of the FFusion 2 Programme. 1.5 Participating Institutes and Companies 1.5.1 National Technology Agency of Finland (Tekes) The National Technology Agency, Finland (Tekes) is the main funding authority and co-ordinator for technological research and development activities in Finland. The fusion research co-ordinators in Tekes have been Technology Director Seppo Hannus (1999), Technology Manager Reijo Munther and Senior Technical Adviser Juha Linden. 1.5.2 Finnish Fusion Research Unit Research activities in the FFusion 2 technology programme are carried out in several VTT research institutes and universities. The co-ordinating unit is VTT Processes and the programme manager of the FFusion 2 is Seppo Karttunen, acting as Head of Research Unit of the Association Euratom-Tekes. The Finnish Fusion Research Unit consists of the following research groups from the institutes and universities, which have been participating in the fusion research that occurred in 1999 2002: VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland: VTT Processes 1 (FFusion 2 co-ordination, fusion plasma physics, plasma-wall interactions, neutronics) VTT Industrial Systems 2 (materials, remote handling) VTT Electronics (remote handling) Helsinki University of Technology (HUT): Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics (fusion plasma physics, diagnostics) Laboratory of Automation Technology (remote handling) University of Helsinki (UH): Accelerator Laboratory (plasma-wall interactions) Tampere University of Technology (TUT): Institute of Hydraulics and Automation (remote handling) Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT): Laboratory of Machine Automation (remote handling) 1 VTT Energy and VTT Chemical Technology were combined into a new unit, VTT Processes, starting in 2002. 2 VTT Automation and VTT Manufacturing Technology were combined into a new unit VTT Industrial Systems, starting in 2002. 6

1.5.3 Industrial Companies Industrial activities related to the FFusion 2 programme are co-ordinated by Prizztech Oy. Three industrial groups are qualified for ITER activities and they are participating in the European Fusion Programme (Key Action Fusion ): 1. The Finnish Remote Handling Group consisting of Advatec Oy, Fortum Power and Heat Oy, Hytar Oy, PI-Rauma Oy, Platom Oy, Plustech Oy, Rocla Oy and Tehdasmallit Oy. (Technology: 11. Qualification of Standards and Tools) 2. The Finnish Blanket Group consisting of Aker Mäntyluoto Oy, Diarc Technology Oy, Fortum Power and Heat Oy, High Speed Tech Oy, Metso Engineering Oy, Metso Powdermet Oy, Outokumpu Poricopper, Patria Finavitec Oy and PI-Rauma Oy. (Technologies: 5. Plasma Facing Component Mock-Ups, 6. Vacuum Vessel, Shield and Tritium Breeding Blanket Segment Mock- Ups) 3. Outokumpu Poricopper Oy / Superconductors. (Technology: 7. Strand) Fortum is a partner in the European Fusion Engineering and Technology (EFET) Consortium. The EFET partners are: Ansaldo Richerche (Italy), Belgatom (Belgium), Fortum (Finland), Framatome ANP GmbH (Germany), Framatome ANP SAS (France), IBERTEF (Spain) and NNC (UK). 1.6 National Steering Committee The national steering committee of the FFusion 2 technology programme prepares the Finnish fusion research strategy, advises in the planning of fusion research and promotes collaboration with the Finnish industry. The members of the FFusion 2 Steering Committee are Chairman Rainer Salomaa, Helsinki University of Technology Members Iiro Andersson, Prizztech Oy Eeva Ikonen, Finnish Academy (2000 2001) Juhani Keinonen, University of Helsinki Lenni Laakso, Outokumpu Poricopper Oy (1999) Juha Linden, Tekes (2002) Reijo Munther, Tekes Lasse Mattila, VTT Processes (1999) Olli Naukkarinen, Outokumpu Poricopper Oy (2000 2002) Pertti Pale, EFDA CSU Culham / Prizztech Oy Pentti Pulkkinen, Finnish Academy (2001 2002) Rauno Rintamaa, VTT Industrial Systems Rolf Rosenberg, VTT Processes (2000-2002) Arto Timperi, Plustech Oy Harri Tuomisto, Fortum Nuclear Services Secretary Jukka Heikkinen, VTT Processes FFusion 2 programme manager Seppo Karttunen, VTT Processes There have been 13 FFusion 2 Steering Committee meetings in the programme period between 1999 and 2002. 1.7 FFusion 2 Programme Funding The FFusion 2 technology programme/activities of the Association Euratom-Tekes is financed by Euratom and by the national institutions of Tekes, the Finnish Academy of Sciences, the participating institutes (VTT, HUT, TUT, LUT and UH) and the industry. Figure 4 shows the yearly funding of the FFusion 2 technology programme from 1999 to 2002. The distribution of the total funding between the different organisations during the four-year period 1999 2002 is shown in Figure 5. The total funding of the FFusion 2 research activities for 1999 2002 is approximately 12.1 million. The total volume of the industrial activities related to the FFusion 2 programme is about 3.1 million for the same period. Thus, the overall expenditure in 1999 2002 is about 15.2 million. 7

4 3 Technology Contracts Technology Tasks 2 Underlying Technology Physics and JET Technology 1 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 Figure 4. Yearly funding by research fields (in millions of ) of the Association Euratom- Tekes in 1999 2002. Association Euratom Tekes Funding 1999-2002 Association Euratom Tekes Research Volumes 1999-2002 Industry 9 % Academy 2 % Euratom 29 % Universities 13 % VTT 9 % Tekes 38 % Figure 5. Distribution of the funding of the FFusion 2 technology programme and the related industrial R&D projects between the different organisations for the period 1999 2002. The total value of the funding is approximately 15.2 million. LUT 4 % UH 7 % Industry 21 % TUT 14 % HUT 16 % VTT 38 % Figure 6. Research volumes of the participating institutions, VTT, the universities and the industry in 1999 2002. The total amount of expenditures for the period 1999 2002 is approximately 15.2 million. The relative volume of the research and development work in the participating institutions can be seen in Figure 6. VTT accounts for about 38% of the research volume, the universities 41%, and the industry 21%. 8

1.8 International Collaboration 1.8.1 Association Euratom-Tekes The FFusion 2 technology programme is fully integrated into the European Fusion Programme. The Association Euratom-Tekes was established when the Contract of Association between Euratom and Tekes was signed in Helsinki, on March 13, 1995. The present Contract of Association extends to the end of 2003. Finland, represented by Tekes, was a member of the JET Joint Undertaking from May 7, 1996 until the end of 1999. From the beginning of 2000, JET activities have been conducted under the multilateral EFDA and JIA Agreements. The Association Tekes is the responsible organisation and partner in those agreements. Other contracts signed by the Association Euratom-Tekes include the multilateral Staff Mobility Agreement. The FFusion 2 technology programme covers all research activities of the Fusion Research Unit of the Association Euratom-Tekes. Association Steering Committee The activities of the Finnish Association Euratom- Tekes are steered by the Association Steering Committee. It supervises the execution of the Contract of Association, adopts the details of the programme, ensures the progress of the research activities and steers them towards the programme objectives. The Association Steering Committee also appoints the Head of Research Unit on the proposal of Tekes. The members of the Association Steering Committee are: Umberto Finzi, EU Commission, Research DG (Chairman in 1999, 2000) Hardo Bruhns, EU Commission, Research DG (Chairman in 2002) Johannes Spoor, EU Commission, Research DG Reijo Munther, Tekes, (Chairman in 2001) Mikko Kara, VTT (1999) Markku Auer, VTT (2000-2002) Harri Tuomisto, Fortum Nuclear Services Jukka Heikkinen, VTT (secretary) Seppo Karttunen, VTT (Head of Research Unit) The Association Steering Committee has had 4 meetings during the period 1999 2002. The Steering Committee accepts annual accounts, yearly budgets and research programme, and the annual reports of the Research Unit. 1.8.2 Participation in the Committees of the EU Fusion Programme The Finnish representatives on the various Committees of the EU Fusion Programme are given below. Consultative Committee for the Euratom Specific Research and Training Programme in the Field of Nuclear Energy Fusion (CCE-FU): Seppo Karttunen, VTT Reijo Munther, Tekes JET Council (JC): Seppo Karttunen, VTT Reijo Munther, Tekes JET Executive Committee (JEC): Reijo Munther, Tekes Rainer Salomaa, HUT Fusion Physics Committee (FPC): Seppo Karttunen, VTT Rainer Salomaa, HUT Fusion Industry Committee (CFI): Juho Mäkinen, Outokumpu Oyj EFDA Steering Committee (EFDA SC): Seppo Karttunen, VTT Reijo Munther, Tekes EFDA JET Sub-Committee (EFDA JS): Rainer Salomaa, HUT EFDA Technology Sub-Committee (EFDA TS): Rauno Rintamaa, VTT EFDA Public Information Committee (EFDA CPI): Seppo Karttunen, VTT (CPI Chairman) The EFDA Committee structure was streamlined in 2002 by combining EFDA JS and EFDA TS, and very recently also the FPC, into a new EFDA Science and Technology Advisory Committee (STAC) and establishing the Administration and Financing Advisory Committee (AFAC). The Finnish members are Rauno Rintamaa (VTT) and Rainer Salo- 9

maa (HUT) in STAC and Juha Linden (Tekes) in AFAC. In the 5th Framework Programme, independent external advisory committees (EAG) were nominated for all key actions to advice the Commission. EAG members are not directly involved in the research activities related to the key action. The Finnish members of the fusion EAG were Heikki Kalli (1999-2001) and Pekka Pirilä (2002). Seppo Karttunen and Reijo Munther are members of the IEA Fusion Power Co-ordinating Committee. The following fusion committees and expert groups have Finnish representatives: Jukka Heikkinen is a member of the Co-ordinating Committee for Fast Wave Heating (CCFW). Seppo Karttunen is a member of the Co-ordinating Committee for Lower Hybrid Heating and Current Drive (CCLH). R. Salomaa is a member of the European Fusion Information Network (EFIN). Seppo Tähtinen is a Materials Liaison Officer in the European Blanket Project Olgierd Dumbrajs is a member of the international experts commission on Electron Cyclotron Wave Systems. Olgierd Dumbrajs, Jukka Heikkinen, Seppo Karttunen, Jari Likonen and Rainer Salomaa participated in various Ad-Hoc-Groups to evaluate e.g., JET enhanced performance activities, Tore Supra CIMES project and cost share actions in the newly associated countries. 1.9 European and Other International Collaboration In plasma physics and plasma-wall interactions, the Association Euratom-Tekes participates in the EFDA JET and ASDEX Upgrade work programmes. Other physics collaboration related to radio-frequency heating and current drive takes place mainly with Tore Supra at CEA Cadarache and FTU at ENEA Frascati. ITER gyrotron development work is carried out in collaboration with the Associations FZK Karlsruhe and CRPP Lausanne. Stellarator activities include the Wendelstein AS-7 experiments at Garching and the Wendelstein 7-X diagnostics development at Greifswald. In fusion technology, there are joint research projects with the Associations Risø and SCK-CEN in Belgium dealing with the in-situ materials testing under neutron irradiation. Collaboration with ENEA Frascati and Brasimone includes the in-vessel viewing system and divertor refurbishment platform. Water-hydraulic manipulators and welding robots have been developed with CEA. The EFDA CSU in Garching co-ordinates the European collaboration in fusion technology tasks and work for ITER. The staff mobility scheme of the EU Fusion Programme has offered excellent opportunities for the exchange of scientists and engineers in Europe. There have been 18 staff mobility visits of 1 to 6 months in 1999 2002. Longer visits of over one year have been made to JET, NET Team and IPP through other arrangements. In addition, several shorter bilateral visits have taken place since 1993. The longer visits to the EFDA Close Support Units in Culham and Garching and UKAEA JET Operators Team were: Pertti Pale at EFDA CSU Culham, 1999 2002 Herkko Plit at EFDA CSU Garching, 2000 2002 Ben Karlemo at EFDA CSU Garching, 2001 2003 Mervi Mantsinen at UKAEA JOC, 2000 2002 Tuomas Tala at UKAEA JOC, 2000 2001 Johnny Lönnroth at UKAEA JOC, 2002 2004 Marko Santala at UKAEA JOC, 2002 2004. Some collaboration with non-eu countries has also taken place, e.g., with the Ioffe Institute in St. Petersburg (fusion theory, Globus tokamak), the Institute for Applied Physics in Nizhny Novgorod (gyrotrons), with DIII-D in San Diego on radio-frequency heating and edge plasmas and with the University of California at Berkeley on Particle-in-Cell codes. Annual fusion symposiums between HUT and the Ioffe Institute have been organised. 10

Two international workshops and a large fusion technology conference were held in Finland: the 8 th International Workshop on Plasma Edge Phenomena, Espoo, 10 12 September 2001, the 9 th th European Fusion Physics Workshop, Saariselkä, 11 13 December 2001 and the 22 nd Symposium on Fusion Technology (SOFT) Helsinki, 9 13 September 2002. 1.10 Public Information The revised Fusion Expo premiered at the Helsinki University of Technology in September and October 1999. The opening took place September 10 th and was followed by a Fusion Seminar. Visitors to the Fusion Expo included professors, students, several high school groups and the general public. In addition, some special events were organised. The Expo attracted a great deal of interest in media and the highlights were an interview and a program on a nationwide television channel. The Finnish version of the Fusion Expo CD and the Expo Booklet were widely distributed to high schools and research institutes. The Association Tekes produced a video film on Finnish fusion research, mainly to be used in the future on the Association Wall in Fusion Expo. The Symposium on Fusion Technology (SOFT), Helsinki, 9 13 September 2002 attracted a lot of publicity in Finland. SOFT and recent developments in fusion research were referred in the nation wide and local newspapers as well as on the nationwide television channels including the main evening news. Other public information actions were: The FFusion 2 brochures on the research activities of the Tekes Association, Euratom and ITER development were published in Finnish and English in 2001 and a FinnFusion brochure Fusion and Industry was published by Prizztech in 2002. A lecture series in fusion technology and plasma physics at the Helsinki University of Technology in 1999 and 2001 and the Lappeenranta University of Technology in 2000 and 2002 as well as a lecture in the Plasma Heating and Current Drive Course at the Culham Science Centre by Association Tekes staff. Two invited talks on fusion in a FACTE (Finnish Academies for Technology) Seminar. The seminar audience included executives from the industry and parliament members from all major political groups. An invited talk at the Energy 2000 Congress in Tampere. The congress program, including fusion, attracted the local media. An ITER/CERN-Industry Seminar for industry executives and politicians was organised in 2000. The FFusion 2 Newsletter has appeared three times per annum during 1999 2002 and four Annual FFusion 2 Seminars with speakers invited from other Associations and EFDA CSUs. In addition, several general articles on fusion energy and research, interviews for newspapers and science programs in national radio channels plus Studia Generale Lectures and Seminars for a broader audience. EFDA Newsletters and the Fusion brochures by the Commission and EFDA have been widely distributed on various occasions. 11

2 Fusion Physics and Plasma Engineering VTT Processes S. Karttunen (Programme Manager), J. Heikkinen (Project Manager), T. Pättikangas, K. Rantamäki and T. Tala Helsinki University of Technology Advanced Energy Systems R. Salomaa (Project Manager), P. Aarnio, M. Airila, K. Alm-Lytz, T. Carlsson, O. Dumbrajs, L. Hämäläinen, V. Hynönen, S. Janhunen, T. Kiviniemi, J. Koponen, T. Kurki-Suonio, A. Kulvik, P. Kåll, A. Lampela, J. Lönnroth, M. Mantsinen, P. Nikkola, A. Ranta-aho, S. Saarelma, A. Salmi, K. Salminen, M. Santala, S. Sipilä, V. Tulkki and F. Tuomisto From 1999 to 2002, the work within fusion physics and plasma engineering was strongly focused on the modelling of experiments and design efforts at various European fusion facilities, e.g., JET in England, ASDEX Upgrade and Wendelstein 7-AS in Germany, and on the international ITER project. The main fields of research were radio-frequency heating and transport processes in tokamak and stellarator plasmas, in which the fusion and plasma engineering group has acquired a high level of expertise and knowledge. In comparison to the contents of the work for the previous four-year period (1995 1998), research is visibly more target-oriented and has wider responsibilities at the European programme level, including the Task Force participation in JET and ASDEX Upgrade. In addition, the shift of the research focus towards the edge plasma physics and engineering is evident. It was realised by merging the plasma physics and surface physics groups. About two-thirds of the scientists and students are with the edge plasma and wall-interaction physics. The ASCOT 5-D orbit-following edge-oriented particle code development efforts and the laboratory built for handling tritium and beryllium contaminated samples for wall material surface analysis form the backbone of the reactor edge-related research. Sustaining fusion energy production in a magnetically confined chamber requires the understanding of a complex interplay between the core (burn) and edge plasma regions as well as the wall-interaction. All this provides fusion technology with uncompromising conditions justifying the core physics research along with the edge research and co-ordination for technology. The group members have actively participated in various international committees and ad-hoc groups for co-ordinating and evaluating physics and engineering in their field, and have also been entrusted with several international review and referee duties. As high-lights in fusion plasma physics Association Euratom-Tekes organised both the 8 th International Workshop on Plasma Edge Theory in Fusion Devices in Espoo and the 9 th European Fusion Physics Workshop in Saariselkä, both in the Fall 2001. The Association also has the privilege of hosting the 10 th European Fusion Theory Conference in 2003. 2.1 Radio-Frequency Heating of Tokamak Plasmas Before the energy-producing fusion reactions can occur in a deuterium-tritium plasma, the plasma has to be heated to a very high temperature. In modern tokamaks, the external heating is provided by either neutral beam injection (NBI), or by radio-frequency (rf) waves. Fusion reactions produce alpha particles, which are the nuclei of He-4 atoms. These alphas have a kinetic energy of 3.5 MeV, which is collisionally transferred to plasma ions and electrons. Ignition is achieved if the alpha heating alone is able to sustain the temperature of the plasma fuel, and the auxiliary heating can be turned off. 13

In rf heating, wave frequencies ranging from 10 MHz to up to 200 GHz are applied. The three important rf heating technologies, ion cyclotron, lower hybrid, and electron cyclotron heating, in order of increasing frequency, are well developed. These differ in their related wave power generation, launching, propagation, and absorption mechanisms. While the basic heating mechanism for these schemes is well understood and proven in experiments for some time now, significant progress in this field has only been recently made in developing more efficient power sources, optimising the launching of the wave, and using the heating waves for plasma control and diagnostics. 2.1.1 Ion Cyclotron Heating Experiments in JET Ion cyclotron waves and neutral beam injection provide the main means for bulk plasma heating at JET. In a reactor, direct heating of the fuel ions can only be accomplished with ion cyclotron waves. In addition to heating and burn control, ion cyclotron waves have proven useful in MHD control. Ion cyclotron heating experiments have played an important role in the recent JET Campaigns. Alpha tail production with ion cyclotron resonance heating of 4 He beam ions in JET plasmas Experiments have been carried out for the first time on JET with the 3 rd harmonic ion cyclotron resonance heating of 4 He beam ions in order to produce a high-energy population of 4 He ions to simulate 3.5 MeV fusion-born alpha particles. The successful acceleration of 4 He beam ions to the MeV energy range was confirmed by measurements of gamma ray emission from the reaction 9 Be(α,nγ) 12 C and excitation of Alfvén eigenmodes, and was consistent with the observed heating of the background electrons and sawtooth stabilisation. Sawtooth stabilisation by fast 4 He ions was found to give rise to large amplitude sawteeth, which trigger magnetohydrodynamic instabilities called neo-classical tearing modes, which, in turn, degrade confinement (Figure 7). The largest high-energy populations of 4 He ions were obtained with the highest energy 4 He beams, as expected. In these conditions, fast 4 He ions provided up to 80 90% of the plasma heating. The scheme will be used in the forthcoming JET campaign with 4 He plasmas for dedicated alpha-particle studies. Figure 7. Sawtooth stabilisation by fast 4He ions gives rise to large-amplitude sawtooth crashes, which trigger long-lived magnetic perturbations (neo-classical tearing modes with the toroidal and poloidal mode numbers n=3, m=4 and n = 2, m = 3) and thereby decrease plasma performance. 14

Controlling the profile of ion-cyclotronresonant ions in JET with the wave-induced pinch effect Direct evidence for the wave-induced pinch of fast ions in the presence of asymmetric ICRF waves (co-current spectrum leading to an inward pinch and a counter-current spectrum to an outward pinch) was obtained. This was made possible by recent advances in the tomographic reconstruction of the gamma-ray emission from nuclear reactions between ICRF-accelerated high-energy ions and bulk ions. With waves launched predominantly in the co-current direction, a higher radial gradient of gamma-ray emission, and thus of fast ions, was obtained than with waves in the counter-current direction. This result, together with concurrent differences in Alfvén eigenmodes, sawtooth periods, electron temperatures and fast ion energies show that the ICRF-induced pinch can provide a tool to affect the radial fast ion profile and the plasma heating profile during ICRF. The ICRF-induced pinch is used to enhance the performance of discharges with internal transport barriers. When the waves propagate along the plasma current (inward pinch), the formation of an internal transport barrier has been found to be prompter and the neutron yield up to a factor of two higher than for propagation against the current. Observation of a new type of magnetohydrodynamic activity in low-density discharges with a high-power ICRH The question of sawtooth stabilisation at very high fast ion energy contents has been addressed with ion cyclotron resonance frequency heating and varying plasma density, controlled by deuterium gas puffs. When the plasma density decreases so it is below a certain threshold, the sawtooth frequency and the crash duration time increase by a factor of five. The experimental results appear to be consistent with the present theoretical picture of sawtooth and fishbone mode stability, exploring the domain with a very large fast ion population. First observation of p-t fusion in JET tritium plasma with ICRF heating of protons High-power ICRF heating of a hydrogen minority ion species in JET tritium plasmas has been found to generate a total neutron rate that is about 40% larger than the 14 MeV neutron rate originating from fusion reactions between bulk tritium ions and deuterium minority ions. The T(p,n) 3 He fusion reaction, caused by ICRF-accelerated protons, is identified as a source for producing the excess neutron emission. This reaction is endothermic and has a proton energy threshold of about 1 MeV and a peak cross section at about 3.0 MeV. Analysis of ion cyclotron heating and current drive at ω 2ω ch for sawtooth control in JET plasmas Ion cyclotron heating and current drive at ω 2ω ch in JET deuterium plasmas with a hydrogen concentration n H /(n D +n H ) in the range of 5 15% have been analysed, comparing results of numerical computer modelling with experiments. Secondharmonic hydrogen damping is found to be maximised by placing the resonance on the low-fieldside of the torus, which minimises the competing direct electron damping and parasitic high-harmonic D damping in the presence of D beams. The shape of the calculated current perturbation and the radial localisation of the heating power density have been found to be consistent with the experimentally observed evolution of the sawtooth period when the resonance layer moves near the q=1 surface. Development of ICRF mode conversion for localised bulk electron heating on JET ICRF mode conversion heating (using 3 He in D and 4 He plasmas) has been developed at JET for localised on-axis or off-axis sources of electron heating. By properly programming the 3 He gas flow, a steady-state, off-axis peaked power deposition on the electrons has been maintained throughout the ICRF heating phase (up to 5 s, limited by technical constraints). The parametric dependence of the location of the direct electron power deposition has been found to be consistent with theoretical expectations. The scheme has been used for rotation experiments without external momentum input and fast particle effects, for electron transport studies, etc. 15

Preparing ICRH in future JET campaigns: high-power ICRF heating scenarios in JET deuterium-tritium plasmas The installation of the new ITER-like ICRF launcher at JET is expected to increase the total coupled ICRF power by about a factor of two. The effects of the increased power on the performance of ICRF heating scenarios used in JET deuterium-tritium (DT) plasmas have been investigated and optimised using numerical computer modelling. This optimisation includes tailoring the profile and energy of ICRF-accelerated ions using multiple frequencies to maximise bulk ion heating and/or fusion reactivity. The ICRF heating experiments carried out during the 1997 JET DTE1 campaign, with up to 8 9 MW of ICRF power applied using a single frequency operation, serve as the starting point for this work. In general, multiple frequency schemes have been found to give improved (by up to 100%) ion heating and fusion reactivity as compared with a single resonance in the plasma centre. Deuterium minority heating with P ICRF = 15 MW was found to give the highest fusion reactivity, corresponding to Q=P fus /P ICRF 0.45 (Figure 8). The highest bulk ion heating fraction of 65% (P ci 10 MW) was obtained with 3 He minority heating using n He /n e = 6%. Figure 8. Contour plot of Q=P fus /P ICRF as a function of n D and n e for deuterium minority heating using the optimised multiple frequency scheme (solid lines) and a single frequency scheme (dotted). Phasing effects on coupled power and plasma edge Operating ICRF antennae with a monopole phasing is known to improve the coupling as the evanescent region in front of the antenna becomes more transparent for low parallel wave numbers excited. However, in contrast to the previous A1 antenna set at JET, the present A2 type antennae do not couple monopole power efficiently. Moreover, harmfully increased edge interaction has been observed with this phasing. With both A1 and A2 antennae, no access to H-mode was possible with monopole phasing. Thus, dipole (0π0π) antennae are routinely employed to heat the core plasma without perturbing the edge, whereas monopole (0000) antennae can be used to modify edge and scrape-off-layer (SOL) properties by driving edge convection. In monopole heating experiments (up to 8MW coupled power) with PION modelling of the measured NPA from the heated fast tail hydrogen ions, it was found that centre absorption reached almost 50% with the fundamental hydrogen minority heating in agreement with the single pass absorption prediction. No H-mode transition was observed. It was thus concluded that a high heating efficiency may be reached with monopole phasing whenever the single-pass absorption can be made strong for it. It has been suggested that the rf-driven convection can affect H-mode properties, such as the particle confinement time and the Edge Localised Mode (ELM) repetition rate, and reduce the divertor heat load by broadening the SOL. However, recent mixed-phasing (monopole-dipole) experiments at JET, showed undesirable antenna-plasma interactions for L-mode plasmas using A2 antennae. In particular, phasing the four antennae alternately in monopole and dipole around the torus produced a heavy interaction with a monopole antenna (see Figure 9). The strong interaction region was connected by the field lines to the adjacent dipole antenna. A similar interaction was not observed using either pure monopole or pure dipole phasing., nor was it observed with mixed phasing in an H-mode. 16

Figure 9. With 4 MW (0000) superimposed on 4 MW (0π0π), a severe interaction with the antenna structure (see CCD frame) was observed, with sputtering of high Z impurities (O,C,Ni). When the applied (instantaneous) potential difference V between the antennae is large, the net current flows to the antenna with a larger sheath potential. A sheath analysis performed in co-operation with the Lodestar Research Corporation, USA suggests that the observed interaction in L-mode is due to arcing induced by a large dc sheath potential difference and the resulting current flow, between antennae with mixed phasings. Combining the sheath and arcing physics, the following quantitative criterion, I s nec s A>I min, is obtained, where I min is the minimum current to sustain an arc (for typical materials 1 10 A), where A is the projection of the sheath interaction area normal to the magnetic field. Taking n e ~10 11 cm -3,T e ~50 ev, A~(100cm) 2 sin 3 o = 500 cm 2, one obtains the estimate I s =40A, which is the right order of magnitude to sustain an arc. If this is indeed the mechanism responsible for the observed interactions, the analysis suggests that the future mixed-phasing experiments may be successful in H-mode plasmas, which have a lower density near the antenna. Analysis of combined neutral beam injection and fast wave current drive on the DIII-D tokamak In experiments with a combined fast wave current drive (FWCD) and deuterium neutral beam injection on the DIII-D tokamak, an enhanced fusion reactivity and fast ion energy content have been observed in the presence of FWCD, with a concomitant low FWCD efficiency. High-harmonic hydrogen and deuterium cyclotron damping in these discharges have been investigated and found responsible for the observed low FWCD efficiency since a number of high-harmonic hydrogen and deuterium cyclotron resonance layers exist in the plasma. According to ICRF modelling with the PION code, high-harmonic damping of fast waves gives rise to enhanced fusion reactivity and fast ion energy content consistent with the experimental observations. 2.1.2 Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Lower Hybrid and Ion Bernstein Waves Lower hybrid (LH) waves in the frequency range 1 10 GHz are used to heat and drive the non-inductive current in tokamak plasmas. A non-inductive current drive is necessary for steady-state operation in tokamaks. LH waves are the most efficient method of driving off-axis current and thus modifying the current profile for improved plasma con- 17

finement. Ion Bernstein (IB) wave heating in the frequency range 20 400 MHz has been used in some high field tokamaks and may become important for heating spherical and compact tori. For both LH and IB, waveguide grills are used for wave excitation in the plasma. LH wave coupling Efficient coupling of lower hybrid waves to plasma is the key issue for the future use of LH power for heating and current drive. The coupling is usually modelled with the aid of linear wave equations. Recently, the particle-in-cell (PIC) method has been proposed and applied to these kinds of simulations. The electromagnetic PIC codes are developed well enough so that they can be used to study the coupling from a full-scale 32-waveguide grill to plasma. The advantage of the PIC method is that it also takes into account the non-linear and kinetic effects. With this new tool, it is also possible to study the coupling at very low densities, even below the cut-off density, and at steep gradients, where the usual approximations fail. Here, the coupling of the LH power is studied with the particle-in-cell code XOOPIC. The code is two-dimensional in configuration space and threedimensional in velocity space. It is fully electromagnetic, relativistic and allows parallel computing. Calculations have so far been made for both the Tore Supra and JET. In the simulations the waveguides are fed with a pure transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode, which is the principal mode in this geometry. Part of the wave power is always reflected back from the grill mouth. The reflection coefficients can be determined from the decrement in the Poynting flux averaged over a few wave periods in time. The Poynting fluxes are measured close to the wave source. For JET, the coupling simulations have been made for various plasma densities and linear density gradients. The reflection has a minimum of only 2.2% near the density of n e =7 10 17 m -3. The reflection increases strongly when the density approaches the cut-off density. In addition, above the optimum density, the reflection increases. Around the optimum density, the linear density gradient has only a weak effect on the coupling, at least when the density scale length is long enough, i.e., n/n >1 cm. Close to the cut-off density, the gradient reduces the reflection from the grill mouth remarkably. Figure 10. Toroidal electric field in the near field of the Tore Supra grill. The wall structure is denoted at the bottom of the figure. The edge density was n e =10 18 m -3 and the density gradient, n e =10 20 m -4. Most of the launched power is carried by the principal mode n =-1.9 propagating to the left. The second mode, n =5.8 propagating to the right, is also seen. 18

Reflection coeffient, R[%] 100 80 60 40 20 100 80 60 40 20 n 0 = 0 n 0 = 1.0 10 m n 0 = 1.6 10 m n 0 = 2.0 10 m n = 7.0 10 m 0 17 3 17 3 17 3 17 3 0 10 17 10 18 10 19-3 Edge density, n e [m ] 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 20-4 Density gradients, n, [10 m ] Figure 11. The average reflection coefficient, R c, for the JET LH grill: (a) R c versus homogeneous edge density and (b) R c versus the density gradient for the different edge densities. Parasitic absorption and fast particle generation One problem related to the LH coupling is the formation of strong asymmetric heat loads, which may limit high power operation. Such hot spots have been observed in several LH current drive experiments on components that are magnetically connected to the grill region. The hot spots, and the related impurity influx, are especially inconvenient in long-pulse discharges since they limit the power level of the grill. Experiments indicate that the hot spots are generated by fast electrons created in front of the grill and flowing along the magnetic field lines to the wall. A strong candidate for the formation of the fast electrons is the parasitic absorption of the short wave length modes of the LH power spectrum. The modes with a parallel refractive index of n = 25 have a low enough phase velocity that they are absorbed by electrons within a very narrow distance, a few mm, in front of the launcher. Due to the overlapping of the modes, the cold edge electrons T e ~ 25 ev can reach energies of up to 2 kev through stochastic acceleration in the electric field in front of the LH grill. The parasitic absorption has been studied with electrostatic particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations. In order to have a more realistic spectrum, the surface charge density used as the grill model in the PIC code XPDP2 was calculated from the output of the SWAN coupling code. Simulations have been made mainly for the Tore Supra, but JET and ITER have also been considered. The PIC simulations for the Tore Supra confirm the suggestions that the fast electrons could be created by parasitic absorption. The electrons were indeed accelerated to almost 2 kev. The absorption increases with the edge density, the edge temperature and the coupled power. The density dependence in the range n e =0.6 to 2 10 18 m -3 was weak. The absorption in this density range was about 0.7 0.8% causing heat loads of around 5 MW/m 2. The absorption becomes stronger as a function of the coupled power. For a density of n e =1 10 18 m -3, the absorption was 0.6% at the lowest simulated power density 26 MW/m 2 and slightly above 1% at the power density of 67 MW/m 2. The corresponding heat loads on the wall were 1.5 and 12 MW/m 2, which are in agreement with the experiments at Tore Supra. Assuming that the temperature does not affect the wave spectrum, a clear increase with the temperature was seen in the absorption. The absorption increases from 0.4% at T e =12.5 ev to 1.7% at T e =100 ev. At the same time, the heat load on the wall increased from 2 to 12 MW/m 2. Calculations made for the ITER LH launcher, confirmed the anticipation made based on the SWAN spectrum; the power content in the high-n part of the spectrum of the ITER grill is so low that no absorption was seen. 19

Parasitic absorption, I /I [%] abs in 2 1.5 1 0.5 T e = 12.5 T e = 25 ev T e = 50 ev T = 100 ev e 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 2 Coupled power density, I in [MW/m ] Figure 12. Parasitic absorption of LH power, I abs /I in, as a function of coupled power. The edge density was n e =10 18 m -3 and the density scale length in front of the grill was n e /n e =1 cm. The bullets denote the results obtained from the PIC simulations at different edge temperatures. The solid line denotes a fit based on the linear dependency of the absorbed power density on the coupled power and the broken line is a non-linear fit. Coupling of Ion Bernstein waves in FTU tokamak Ion Bernstein Waves (IBWs) may offer a viable method of heating ions and driving plasma rotation in fusion plasmas. Within the present experiments, the IBW is first launched from waveguides at the plasma edge as a slow plasma wave. In the socalled lower hybrid resonance region, the slow wave is mode-transformed into an Ion Bernstein Wave. In the IBW coupling problem, non-linear and kinetic effects are important. The particlein-cell (PIC) method takes them into account as the electric fields and the particle motion are solved self-consistently. This study extends the present PIC expertise, breaking new ground in the complex nonlinear IBW coupling problem, relevant to compact devices such as the Frascati Tokamak Upgrade (FTU). For computational efficiency, previous studies on IBW excitation have used simulation parameters significantly different from those in real experiments. Here, the real ion mass has, for the first time, been used in two-dimensional electrostatic PIC simulations of IBW excitation. The electrostatic approximation is justified since the IBW is essentially an electrostatic wave. Moreover, launching has been modelled in the frequency bands up to the fifth ion cyclotron harmonic frequency, i.e., in the frequency ranges actually used in experiments. The model used in the simulations has been built to resemble an FTU. The simulation results have been compared to linear theory and ray tracing. Successful excitation of the IBW has been demonstrated with the PIC method. In some cases, the excited wave slows down and temporarily propagates in the direction opposite to launching, only to continue forward again with an extremely low group velocity. This complicated dispersive behaviour that results in this anomalous propagation makes it computationally very time-consuming to use the PIC method. Excitation has been studied as a function of temperature and frequency; i.e., it has been determined how the dispersive behaviour varies in the parameter space. The simulations indicate that there is a temperature- and frequency-dependent critical level of coupled energy flux above which excitation fails. In this part of the work, a new technique based on first principles has been used to measure the coupled energy flux. The possible effects that cause the failure of excitation at high power intensity, such as ion quiver motion, stochastic heating, wave breaking and an increasing energy density of the wave, have been identified. A conclusion from this study of IBW excitation is that the PIC method still seems to, unfortunately, be too demanding for some IBW propagation scenarios. 20

2.1.3 Gyrotron Development for ITER Towards more efficient power sources The development of high-power high-frequency gyrotrons is strongly driven by the needs of fusion technology. Gyrotrons are superior to other rf sources in the frequency range relevant for electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) of about 170 GHz for ITER. To make an ECRH system cost-effective, the output power of a single gyrotron should be around 2 MW continuous power. Coaxial cavity gyrotrons have the potential to fulfil this requirement as has been experimentally demonstrated within the development program performed as an ITER task at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FZK). In agreement with the final goal of the task, the feasibility of manufacturing a 2 MW, continuouswave coaxial gyrotron operating at 170 GHz that could be used for electron cyclotron heating and current drive in ITER has been demonstrated and all the information necessary for the technical design and industrial manufacturing has been obtained. HUT has participated in this development. Most recently, the effect of microwave reflections on the operation of this gyrotron was studied theoretically. We also have extensively studied whether the attempts to increase output power can lead to undesired stochastic effects in the gyrotrons. The most significant loss in gyrotrons is the residual energy of the electron beam, which is deposited on the collector. The electrons can be decelerated before they hit the collector by setting it to a negative potential. This makes the electrons feed part of their energy back into the circuit and enhances efficiency. If the retarding voltage is too high, the least energetic electrons may be reflected back and seriously disturb the microwave generation in the resonator; therefore, it is important to know the residual energy distribution, which can be solved from gyrotron theory, whenever the electron trajectories are not chaotic. The electron trajectories in an idealised interaction cavity were studied analytically by applying the Hamiltonian method to the equation of motion. These calculations were supplemented by numerical studies of electron motion in a realistic gyrotron resonator geometry. It was found that the chaos-like motion of electrons is possible. In high-efficiency operation, which is relevant to fusion applications, very few electrons behave unpredictably. It is, therefore, possible to reliably operate depressed collectors. We have calculated the maximum applicable collector potential for the gyrotron designed for the W7-X stellarator and the coaxial gyrotron for ITER. The output power of a gyrotron can also be increased by operating at a higher current, but this may drive the gyrotron into chaotic operation. We have performed an extensive numerical analysis of the self-consistent, time-dependent theory describing the evolution of the electromagnetic field in the resonator. It was found that the gyrotron signal can indeed be stationary, periodic or chaotic. The type of signal depends on the operating parameters in a complicated manner, which is illustrated in Figure 13. It is seen that the reasonable operating regime (high-efficiency) is well inside the desired stationary oscillation region. We expect that microwave power reflecting back to the resonator may bring the non-stationary region closer to the highefficiency region and are currently extending this study to include such reflections. Due to Ohmic heating of the resonator walls, the size of the interaction cavity limits the microwave power, which can be obtained from the gyrotron. It is possible to increase the cavity size if a higher-order operating mode can be selected. To find out whether this is feasible, a new numerical method for solving the self-consistent, time-dependent gyrotron equations in two spatial dimensions was developed and implemented. It was found that there is a limit beyond which the operating modes are unstable, and that the present gyrotrons are already approaching this limit, which is shown by the numbers in bold in Figure 13. If the electron beam is displaced from its ideal position around the resonator axis, the limit is even lower. Hysteresis is the retardation of the effect when the forces acting upon a body are changed. In gyrotrons, the phenomenon that causes the amplitude of oscillations to lag behind the magnetic field and voltage, so that operating regions of modes for rising and falling magnetic field and voltage are not the same, is called hysteresis. Understanding hys- 21

0.3 chaos 0.1 0.3 0.15 0.1 <10 <10 <10 <10 0.1 automodulation 0.03 10 30 30 12 <10 0.03 I 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.01 10 12 15 18 22 40 45 46 0.0 0.01 stationary 0.003 0.0 22 30 45 40 42 0.003 no oscillations no oscillations 0.001-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.001 Figure 13. Operating parameter dependence of the gyrotron signal. teresis is important to mode competition, frequency tuning, voltage overshooting, and amplitude modulation of the signal. A general theory of hysteresis in gyrotrons has been presented and illustrated by numerical examples referring to two specific gyrotrons: the FZK coaxial gyrotron and the Fukui FU IV gyrotron in Japan. Frequency-tunable gyrotrons for MHD stability control Electron cyclotron (EC) wave absorption is presently considered to be a potential method for start-up assist, heating to fusion conditions, current drive (CD) and instability control in reactor scale tokamak plasmas. EC waves are particularly suitable for this purpose since they readily penetrate into high-density, high-temperature tokamak plasma, the physics of wave propagation and absorption is well understood, there is total absorption for all parameters foreseen in reactor tokamaks, no plasma edge control is required for wave coupling to the plasma from the launcher, and the absorption can be well localised. Other advantages are the very high power density, which translates to reduced problems with neutron shielding and improved port utilisation, and remote launching. For the important on-axis heating and CD applications in a reactor, high-power, steady-state microwave sources with variable high frequencies of 170 220 GHz and a steerable mirror system in front of the launcher to control the damping process in configuration and velocity space of the plasma have been considered. The steerable mirrors with actuators under the harsh plasma and radiation exposure in reactor conditions can significantly increase the failure rate of the EC wave launcher. The mirror system is important for the purpose to optimise the toroidal launch angle for the CD and may be used to radially position the off-axis power deposition profile with a fixed frequency and a magnetic field of the plasma by varying the poloidal launching angle. Here, however, the deposition profile can become broad and may 22

become inapplicable whenever highly localised absorption is considered necessary. A highly localised, off-axis power deposition may also require the use of a low frequency range (130 170 GHz), i.e., absorption on the low-field side. While beam-steering has been used to control the location of the ECRH power absorption in tokamaks, alternative or complementing techniques are worth investigating to improve the control of power deposition and to make the launcher system more resistant against the harsh environment of a reactor. Here, frequency tuning of ECRH power for reactor-scale tokamak plasma heating was investigated. Particular emphasis was put on the adjustment of the power deposition near the m/n=2 tearing mode resonance. The mode stabilisation was studied by combining the ECRH absorption and MHD stability models with the transport code calculations of the plasma evolution. According to the results, the positioning of the power deposition should be performed with a moderate speed of frequency tuning, 1 GHz/s, in a sufficient frequency range of ±5 GHz. This is found to be within the reach of present gyrotron technology. The inductance and the width of the power deposition set lower limits for the step duration and power as well as an upper limit for the frequency step, which is required in tuning for stabilisation. For further fine-tuning of the power deposition and current density profile, a fast frequency tuning by a properly programmed frequency sweep to the order of 10 ms can be effective. A review of available methods to tune the frequency of gyrotrons has been provided and their suitability for performing the MHD mode stabilisation has been analysed. 2.1.4 ICRF Antenna Design for ITER For ITER, a new type of ICRF antenna construction featuring high-power density, load-variation tolerance and broadband capability is under testing and planning. Although a number of basic and important questions can be solved already on the basis of transmission line theory and from measurements on a low power prototype, others require taking coupling to the plasma into account. The 3-D complexity of this problem calls for new and efficient numerical modelling techniques. The power handling and coupling of a poloidally and toroidally segmented ITER-like antenna array recessed behind the first wall are analysed numerically with a new three-dimensional code, ANTREC, in the ion cyclotron range of frequencies for tokamak reactor plasma conditions. The fields inside the segments are approximated in the model of rectangular waveguides enclosing the current straps (Figure 14) and are matched through the shield to the outgoing plasma waves in the plasma column. Including the surface impedance for a hot reactor-sized plasma with account of misalignment between the ambient magnetic field and the screen bar directions and finding the self-consistent current in the current straps allows one to investigate the input impedance, coupled power, and coupling between the segments. Reconstructing the field structure both inside the waveguides and in the plasma layer in front of the shield, the near field and the poloidal and toroidal spectra of the waves launched into the plasma are computed. At 55 MHz for a maximum 40 kv input voltage, an average RF power density in the range of 4 7 MW/m 2 appears feasible in dipole phasing for a poloidally and toroidally stacked 4 4 strap antenna with the current strap Faraday shield distance varying in the range of 1 4 cm and with a reactor-relevant, high-confinement (H-mode) edge density profile with a 12-cm separatrix Faraday shield distance. A maximum sheath driven heat flux of less than 1 MW/m 2 on the protection limiters is guaranteed only in dipole phasing with well aligned Faraday screen bars (misalignment angle less than about 4 degrees) for an RF power density of 7 MW/m 2 and electron density not higher than 10 17 m -3 at the limiter. It is found that, in monopole phasing, almost two times more power is radiated, and there is some enhancement of radiation for horizontal screen bar direction. For the dipole phasing with slanted bars, about 9.5 MW power is radiated from the antenna. For 1 ka input current amplitude, this implies 9.5 MW radiated power with an average radiation intensity of 4 MW/m 2 at the antenna mouth. In the case of 8 boxes with correspondingly longer straps to keep the total antenna frame area the same, and with otherwise the same parameters, al- 23

a) b) y s y X L z j x B β 13 9 5 L y j=1 j y s Z x z -α 14 10 6 2 15 11 7 3 L y s h 16 12 8 4 screen -w -a x=0 Figure 14. Model of a segmented antenna plasma system: a) poloidal cross-section, b) front face. most a total RF-radiated power of two times lower was found with the same maximum input voltage in the boxes than with the poloidally more densely stacked system studied above. This confirms the earlier design predictions for the effect of multisectioning the antenna. 2.2 Transport and MHD in Conventional Tokamak Scenarios The degraded plasma confinement is one of the main problems en route to a fusion reactor. This has led to both theoretical and experimental research of transport processes in the parameter range relevant for fusion energy production. As more and more of reactor-relevant issues have to be considered, the edge plasma transport phenomena, in particular, are becoming increasingly important. In the so-called Conventional Tokamak Scenario, the plasma current is driven inductively. This mode of operation is very robust, routinely produced in practically all major tokamaks and under a wide variety of conditions, and it has been chosen as the primary operation mode for ITER. It is also called the ELMy H-mode Scenario, because it operates in the H-mode (for High confinement) with Edge Localised Modes (ELMs) governing the physics of the edge of the plasma. The development work of the Monte Carlo -based charged particle simulation code ASCOT was originally motivated by issues related to RF-induced transport as well as to the loss of α-particles. During the first cooperation agreement between Tekes and ASDEX Upgrade in 1995, it was soon realized that, with proper modifications, ASCOT could be extended also to address problems related to transport and magnetohydronamics (MHD). After ambitious upgrades ASCOT is now routinely used to model experiments not only on ASDEX Upgrade, but also on JET, DIII-D and TEXTOR tokamaks, as well as on W7-AS and W7-X stellarators. Today, the ASDEX Upgrade co-operation agreements and participation in the JET campaigns form the backbone for our transport and MHD studies. Lately, the emphasis of our transport and MHD studies has shifted towards the edge and scrape-off 24

layer related problems, directly relevant for ITER. ASCOT has proven particularly useful for studies in the plasma edge region, where it has been successfully applied to problems such as ion orbit losses, confinement transitions, and divertor loads. For physical processes beyond the capabilities of ASCOT, such as modelling anomalous transport or ELM instabilities, special codes developed elsewhere are used. 2.2.1 Edge Transport Physics in Tokamaks In tokamak plasmas, the confinement is typically dominated by anomalous transport, which is much faster than the collisional (neoclassical) transport. However, within the regions of so-called transport barriers, transport can be reduced down to purely neoclassical levels. This leads to the improved confinement modes, such as the high confinement (H-) mode and the improved core confinement mode. An edge transport barrier (ETB) and an internal transport barrier (ITB) have many things in common, e.g., a steep pressure gradient accompanied by large gradients in radial electric field E r and reduction in fluctuation induced fluxes. The leading paradigm for the reduction of turbulent transport in transport barriers is based on sheared radial electric field. The E r shear can reduce transport either (i) by stabilising the linear modes, (ii) by reducing amplitudes or correlation lengths of turbulence, or (iii) by changing phases between the turbulent fluctuations. However, it is not yet understood how the radial electric field arises in the confinement transitions. Although the transport itself is anomalous, many authors claim that L H transition and bifurcation in E r can be explained by the neoclassical theory. Unfortunately, the validity and accuracy of the analytic expressions is yet limited, especially near the tokamak plasma edge. However, ASCOT includes all the effects arising from guiding-centre motion in a realistic tokamak geometry in the presence of Coulomb collisions, even the ion orbit losses. It is, therefore, an ideal tool for investigating the generation of a sheared radial electric field. Development of the ASCOT code The ASCOT code (Accelerated Simulation of Charged Particle Orbits in a Tokamak) is a guiding-centre orbit following code for studies of charged particle behaviour in tokamaks. It has been developed in collaboration between Helsinki University of Technology and VTT since the early 1990 s. In ASCOT, guiding-centre orbits of test particles are solved both inside and outside the separatrix in 5-dimensional phase space. Effects of particle collisions and RF waves are modelled with Monte Carlo operators derived from the respective Fokker-Planck terms. Simple analytic models are used for magnetic field ripple and MHD modes. Real tokamak background data can be imported from experimental databases. ASCOT runs in parallel computing environments using MPI (Message Passing Interface). During the period 1999 2002, ASCOT has also undergone some major modifications. It has been complemented with an energy and momentum conserving binary collision model. Large portions of the code have been modified to allow all test particles to be followed for a pre-defined time step at a time, after which the binary collisions are evaluated. Maybe the most significant upgrade is the model for kinetic evaluation of the ambipolar radial electric field, described in more detail in next section, which allows for steady-state simulations of tokamak plasmas. Another new feature is the capability to import the wall structure of a tokamak into ASCOT as a broken-line representation for use in divertor and wall loading simulations. With these added features, ASCOT has been successfully applied to studies of orbit-loss ion divertor loads in several tokamaks (JET, ASDEX Upgrade, ITER) using realistic geometry. A detailed simulation model for neutral particle analyzers (NPA) has been developed for ASCOT. The model allows simulating numerous NPA s with different specifications during one ASCOT run, facilitating CPU-efficient NPA parameter scans. The main parameters given to the NPA simulator are indicated in Figure 15. The new NPA simulation model has already been applied to study 25

NPA β horizontal neutralised particle α vertical banana orbit Figure 15. A schematic of the NPA simulation model in ASCOT. Figure 16. Atomic collisionality in JET divertor region as seen by ASCOT. The outer target has been artificially widened. 26

the possibilities of using NPA s to detect the onset of an L-H confinement transition, to search optimal NPA viewing angles, and to simulate NPA measurements of ion temperatures in the plasma. In 2001, ASCOT has been updated to utilize scrape-off layer (SOL) density and temperature data from experiment databases. Ion-ion, ion-electron and ion-neutral collisions in the SOL are modelled, facilitating even more detailed studies of divertor and wall loadings taking SOL physics into account. The atomic collisionality, which is the dominant SOL collisional process in the cases studied, is shown in Figure 16. Simulating radial electric field with ASCOT Understanding how the radial electric field is generated in the confinement transitions is essential for the reliable operation of future reactors. In ASCOT, the kinetic calculation of the radial electric field is based on the neoclassical radial current balance including also the ion orbit losses. The ion ensemble corresponding to the main plasma ions is initially distributed according to the assumed background density and temperature with Maxwellian energy distribution. Each ion is followed along its guiding-centre orbit determined by all the relevant drifts and momentum conserving binary collisions. Leaving out all ambipolar processes, such as ion flux due to electron collisions as well as anomalous transport, the electric field can be solved from the ion fluxes using the polarisation equation. The ions lost to the surrounding structures are re-initialised at the separatrix in a way that simulates the replacement of lost charge. The simulation is continued until the electric field balances the current components. This scheme provides a general way of finding the neoclassical equilibrium for arbitrary plasma cross-section, tokamak aspect ratio and background gradients, but neglects the turbulence physics. Validity of the analysis is not limited to some special collisionality regime, thin orbit approximation is not needed, and the effect of E r on ion orbits is correctly modelled also for high Mach numbers. The code has been benchmarked against the known neoclassical expressions for transport fluxes, parallel viscosity, and relaxation rate of poloidal rotation for poloidal Mach numbers extending well into the supersonic region. Simulation of edge E r has also been benchmarked against B2SOLPS5.0 fluid code, which solves for the radial electric field in realistic geometry but is limited to collisional regime. Using this method, the radial electric field and its shear ω E B have been evaluated for various tokamak experiments. In the simulations, parameters at the conditions of the onset of low to high (L H) transition and internal transport barriers (ITB) are used. The L H transition threshold was explored in ASDEX Upgrade and JET configurations, and the formation of an ITB has been investigated for the FT-2 and TFTR tokamaks, where an ITB is observed to occur without a net source of toroidal momentum. Biased edge probe experiments have been simulated for TEXTOR by including the electrode current and neutral charge exchange damping in the polarisation equation. Pedestal ion heat fluxes have been simulated over a wide range of collisionalities and, in good agreement with the revised analytic neoclassical theory, heat flux below standard neoclassical theory has been found in collisional regime when pedestal width is comparable to the orbit width. Parameter dependencies of L-H transition in JET, ASDEX Upgrade and TEXTOR Tokamaks It is not yet fully understood what the critical plasma parameters in triggering the L-H transition are. Figure 17 shows the dependence of the steadystate E r -profiles from the simulations of JET edge plasmas. The reference case corresponds to a deuterium plasma in L-H transition conditions. Only the temperature is found to have a clear effect on the profile. The ω E B shear increases approximately linearly as a function of temperature, if the gradient length is kept constant. The simulation also demonstrates that pure neoclassical effects can generate sufficiently high ω E B shear for strong turbulence suppression. The dominant source for 27

Figure 17. A scan of the radial electric field profile as a function of a) isotope, b) magnetic field, c) temperature, and d) density. Here BASE refers to the JET L-H transition conditions. In b) also the neoclassical ambipolar level (for zero parallel flow) from analytic theory is shown for the BASE case (dashed line). the shear is the ion orbit loss current that is a strong function of both the plasma temperature and the distance from the separatrix. The width of the highest shear region in the simulation is of the order of poloidal Larmor radius in agreement with some experimental results. In a series of ASCOT simulations, the plasma temperature, density, and toroidal magnetic field were varied over a wide parameter range of ASDEX Upgrade and JET data around the L-H transition conditions. In Figure 18 the shear values from the simulation are plotted as a function of pedestal temperature for each device (note the different scale of the vertical axis). For JET, three cases with different plasma current and pressure profile length are considered. Assuming that the L-H transition occurs when ω crit is exceeded, the results suggest that the critical shear should be lower in JET than in ASDEX Upgrade. This is consistent with both the experimental observations and theoretical models according to which ω crit decreases as a function of major radius, temperature gradient length, and the plasma current. No spontaneous bifurcation in E r was found in the simulations (even in the banana limit), but the field smoothly follows the changes in the plasma parameters. However, when simulating the electrode polarisation in TEXTOR configuration, we obtain a bifurcation in E r and make the first numerical observation for a soliton-structured E r. 28

ω AUG (10 s ) 5-1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 AUG JET 1 JET 2 JET 3 0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 T/T scaling 4 3 2 1 0 ωjet (10 s ) 5-1 potential, evaluated self-consistently from the particle motion. The electrons are treated either adiabatically, keeping a fixed electron distribution, or by following their orbits in drift-kinetic approximation. The code is able to simulate turbulent effects, such as ion temperature gradient modes and trapped electron modes, while at the same time consistently simulating the neoclassical electric field affecting these modes. The name of the code refers to the long term goal of simulating ELMs and edge dynamics self-consistently. Figure 18. The ω E B shearing rate at the edge as a function of temperature normalised to experimental scaling of L-H transition threshold temperature of each device. For both devices purely neoclassical effects can explain high enough shear for L H transition. Results indicate that the critical shear should be higher for ASDEX Upgrade than JET. Towards self-consistent simulation of confinement transitions Until now the analysis of confinement transition has been done neglecting the turbulence physics. This has been justified by the practice that the value of critical shear has been taken from turbulence theory and assuming that this value is reached due to neoclassical effects. It is, however, possible that the anomalous effects also contribute to the formation of E r. Turbulence simulations, on the other hand, usually exclude the neoclassical ambipolar field and rotation. Because the importance of neoclassical effects in E r -formation has now been demonstrated in the simulations, it is of great interest to simulate both the neoclassical and turbulent effects simultaneously. For this reason, ELMFIRE, a gyro-kinetic version of ASCOT, including a 3-D electrostatic potential solver that allows the concurrent solution of the neoclassical ambipolar electric field and 3-D electrostatic turbulent fields across the separatrix is under development. In ELMFIRE, the ions are advanced with a gyrophase-averaged electrostatic Neutral particle analyzers as diagnostic for edge E r Accurate measurements of E r are crucial for the understanding of transport barriers and improved confinement. In a tokamak with a discrete set of magnetic coils, secondary magnetic wells near the plasma surface are formed, and ions with very small parallel velocity are blocked in the wells. As a result of the gradient drift, these ripple-blocked ions escape the plasma very fast, in about 50 µs. A neutral particle analyzer (NPA) monitoring ripple-blocked ions should thus receive a negligible flux. However, with a large E r the corresponding E B-drift can compensate the gradient drift. If the E r profile is wide enough, it also connects the inner, well-confined ripple-trapping region to the loss region, resulting in a fast, convective filling of the latter. Consequently, the neutral particle fluxes can reach levels that are comparable to or even exceed the signal from nonblocked ions. Thus, with a careful choice of the viewing parameters, neutral particle analyzers (NPA) could be used to detect small changes in the edge radial electric field with a sub-millisecond (50-100 µs) resolution. ASCOT simulations for ASDEX Upgrade and DIII-D plasmas found that the optimized parameters depend fairly strongly on the magnetic configuration. As a rule of thumb, for a tokamak with fairly large ripple (like ASDEX Upgrade), the poloidal viewing angle α CX should be quite large and positive (upper hemisphere), while for tokamaks with small ripple the analyzer should view 29

i the plasma close to the equatorial plane. Also the effect of the up-down asymmetry has to be taken into account. Controlling the neutral density profile poses probably the greatest challenge for this diagnostic. We further propose that a major weakness of this diagnostic, i.e., the uncontrollable level and quality of the diagnostic particles, can be remedied by using a small-voltage diagnostic beam. Neutral particle analyzers as diagnostic for core and edge T i In reactor-size devices the central ion temperature (T i ) measurements are likely to be very challenging for diagnostics based on measuring spectral light from the core due to signal-to-noise problems. Because central T i is of primary importance for the fusion reactivity in a fusion reactor, new measurement techniques should be developed for ITER. It has been suggested that the central ion temperature can be determined from the neutral fluxes above the injection energy. Using ASCOT, the ion energy distribution above the neutral beam injection energy was investigated for the H-mode phase of the neutral beam heated ASDEX Upgrade discharge #11259. The shape of the fast ion distribution in velocity space was found to be reasonably well described by T eff (derived theoretically), yielding correct values for the plasma temperature, see Figure 19. The simulated neutral fluxes showed that the region of maximal signal strength for the line-integrated signal is fairly wide in radius. This is because the particle source peaks on-axis, while the neutral density peaks at the edge, leading to a radial spread in the neutralization probability. Consequently, the ion temperature values extracted from the NPA signal are up to 30% lower than the actual T i (0). The simulations suggest that the best possible localization of the temperature value is obtained using a fairly tangential line- of-sight, with horizontal viewing angle of β hor = 25 deg. This orientation minimizes the signal originating from outer radii because, for near-perpendicular NBI, the large pitch values relevant for tangential viewing in the energy range above the injection energy are generated mostly in centre of the plasma. Also, with tangential viewing, a long segment of the sightline lies close to the magnetic axis. Unfortunately, in ASDEX Upgrade such strongly tangential viewing is not possible, see Figure 20. 5 T (kev) 4 3 Ti from tail slopes at zero pitch T profile used in simulation i 2 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 Figure 19. T i -profile obtained from the tail slopes of the test particle distribution. The error bars are based on the high and low values of the electron temperature in the associated radial zone. 30

β hor = 25 deg β hor = 0 View from above β hor = 25 deg ASCOT-simulated NBI ASCOT-simulated NPA lines-of-sight R = 3.58 m line-of-sight pivot Figure 20. A Schematic picture of the neutral beam injection geometry together with the NPA line-of-sight geometry of ASDEX Upgrade as simulated by ASCOT. The injection angle with respect to the major radius is 15 deg. The horizontal viewing angle of NPA is varied from 25 to +25 degrees. The global confinement of a tokamak plasma is to a large extent dictated by the conditions at the plasma edge, a few-centimetre-wide region around the separatrix. The edge is also important for the efficient exhaust of impurities and helium ash, and it determines the lifetime of the vessel walls and divertor plates. Consequently, diagnosing and controlling the edge plasma is of prime importance. In the H-mode, the edge profiles pose a big challenge for diagnostics due to the steep gradient there. We have investigated the possibility of using the low-energy neutral particle analyzer (LENA)in ASDEX Upgrade to determine the edge T i (r) profile. The coupling of the plasma ions to the local neutrals via CX-reaction is particularly strong in the edge plasma where the temperature is reasonably low and the neutral density high. Consequently, the energy spectrum of the neutral fluxes measured by NPA contains the information of the ion temperature profile. Using ASCOT the perpendicular velocity (v ) distribution of the edge ions was simulated for an H-mode AUG discharge, and the local temperature was extracted assuming the distribution to be Maxwellian. The neutral fluxes due to the test ion f (v ) / v (a.u.) perp perp 1xe -16 1xe -17 1xe -18 1xe -19 1xe -20 1xe -21 1xe -22 1xe -23 1xe -24 1xe -25 a) b) ρ = 0.9575 ρ= 0.9675 ρ= 0.9775 ρ= 0.9875 ρ= 0.9975 0 2 x 10 10 4 x 10 10 6 x 10 10 8 x 10 10 2 2 2 perp v (m/s) 1 x 10 11 f (v ) / v (a.u.) perp perp 1,12535E-7 4,13994E-8 1,523E-8 5,6028E-9 2,06115E-9 7,58256E-10 2,78947E-10 1,02619E-10 3,77513E-11 ρ = 0.9575 ρ= 0.9675 ρ= 0.9775 ρ= 0.9875 ρ= 0.9975 1,38879E-11 0 2 x 10 10 4 x 10 10 6 x 10 10 8 x 10 10 1 x 10 11 2 2 2 v perp (m/s) Figure 21. The perpendicular velocity distribution obtained from the ASCOT simulation for five radial positions. The distribution is plotted on logarithmic scale, so the slope of the distribution directly gives the inverse of the local temperature. (a) For a modest temperature gradient, (b) for a steep gradient. 31

ensemble were also evaluated. It was found that in ASDEX Upgrade plasmas the edge ion temperature could be determined from the v -distribution at least for pedestal temperatures up to 1 kev and temperature gradient lengths down to 1 cm, see Figure 21a. For much steeper gradients, non- Maxwellian tail formation by the finite-orbit effect is likely to take place, Figure 21b. Future work includes taking into account the SOL contribution to the neutral fluxes. This will permit a quantitative comparison between measurements and simulations. 2.2.2 Edge MHD and Divertor Loading High power loads on divertor plates can cause unacceptable erosion and should therefore be avoided. In addition to the steady-state fluxes across the separatrix, in H-mode plasmas the transient Edge Localised Modes (ELMs) release plasma particles and energy from inside the separatrix into the Scrape-Off-Layer (SOL) in short bursts. From SOL energy is transported along field lines to the divertor plates. Since ELMs are fast (t<1ms), the high power load on targets during an ELM pose a threat to the reliable quasi steady state operation of a tokamak. Albeit detrimental to the divertor plates, ELMs can, however, help to control the plasma density and impurity accumulation. Therefore, the control of the ELM behaviour is of great importance for a tokamak reactor, such as ITER. Three different kinds of ELMs have been identified: Type I is an unacceptably large event, while type III degrades the overall confinement. The desirable Type II ELMs are, unfortunately, quite elusive. ELM modelling on ASDEX Upgrade In ASDEX Upgrade, the most common ELMs are type I or giant ELMs. The MHD stability of type I ELMy edge plasmas was analysed using GATO and IDBALL codes. The steep pressure gradient near the edge creates the so-called bootstrap current that is parallel to the magnetic field. It reduces the magnetic shear near the plasma edge. The reduced shear allows the plasma pressure to increase without being limited by the ballooning instability. This further increases the bootstrap current. When the bootstrap current has become sufficiently high, current driven peeling modes with low toroidal mode numbers are destabilised. The peeling instabilities can act as a trigger for type I ELMs. Type II ELMs with small energy have been observed in high density, highly shaped plasmas. The MHD stability analysis of the edge plasma revealed that the changes in plasma configuration had a significant effect on the edge peeling mode stability. The increased triangularity (δ) and edge safety factor (q 95 ) make the edge plasma more stable against the peeling modes. The mode also becomes narrower (Figure 22). The second x-point has the same effect on the instability. The high density with fixed pressure reduces the edge bootstrap current and further stabilises the peeling modes. All these stability changes can be used to explain the smaller energy of the type II ELMs. In plasmas with type I ELMs, the radial width of peeling mode is large and, thus, the instability removes plasma from a wide region. As shown in the stability analysis, in type II ELMy conditions the peeling mode becomes narrow and affects only the very edge plasma. Consequently, both the plasma loss during an ELM and the ELM energy are reduced. Particularly hazardous are very low frequency ELMs, because the size of the ELMs tends to increase with decreasing frequency. In low frequency ELMy H-modes, ELMs have been successfully triggered using small pellets. The stability analysis of pellet triggered ELMs revealed that the pressure gradient in the reference plasma (very low frequency ELMs and no pellets) is limited by the ballooning stability boundary. Because of the limited pressure gradient, the bootstrap current does not increase sufficiently to destabilise the peeling modes. With injected pellets the edge stability is similar to that of a high frequency intrinsic ELMy plasma. The magnetic shear decreases and plasma pressure is no longer limited by the ballooning modes. This leads to a rise in the bootstrap current and, eventually, to a peeling instability triggering an ELM. 32

Figure 22. Fourier analysis of the eigenfunctions of the radial displacement for the n=3 peeling mode for different q 95 -δ combinations. Each curve represents the eigenfunction of a single poloidal mode number. Low-q 95 = 4.3, high-q 95 = 5.0, low-δ = 0.15, high-δ = 0.45. Integrated predictive transport modelling of ELMy H-mode JET plasmas Conventionally, the plasma core, the edge transport barrier (ETB), and SOL are treated separately in predictive modelling because the physics is very different in these regions. However, both theory and experiments show that there is a strong link between these three regions of the plasma. Therefore, integrated modelling of the core, ETB and SOL is needed in order to obtain self-consistent results. Integrated predicted modelling of ELMy H-mode JET plasmas is performed using a suite of transport codes. Core modelling has been done with the one-dimensional core transport code JETTO, whose output is linked to the MHD equilibrium code HELENA and stability codes IDBALL and MISHKA. The edge transport code EDGE2D/ NIMBUS has been used for two-dimensional modelling of the scrape-off layer. Both core and edge have been modelled self-consistently using CO- CONUT. The coupled runs also give self-consistent boundary conditions for the JETTO runs on which MHD stability analysis have been performed. The results of the MHD stability analysis, on the other hand, have been used to set stability limits, e.g. an appropriate value for the critical pressure gradient, in modelling with COCONUT. In this way, there is a feedback loop between the transport codes and the MHD stability codes. The sensitive dependence of plasma performance on the edge parameters is very well demonstrated in experiments with external gas fuelling in type I ELMy H-mode plasma. The plasma easily accommodates modest gas puffing (Γ=3 10 22 s -1 in JET), 33

but higher levels of gas puffing can trigger a transition from type I to type III ELMs, with a dramatic increase in the ELM frequency followed by a deterioration of plasma confinement. Integrated predictive modelling of high edge density plasmas shows that the neutral influx through the separatrix into the core plasma is only a small fraction of the total neutral gas puff injected at the edge. The modelling also shows how external gas fuelling affects MHD stability via a sequence of causalities: The increasing edge density leads to higher collisionality at the edge, which lowers the bootstrap current. This results in higher magnetic shear, and the shear can push the plasma into the ideal ballooning unstable region. Figure 23 shows the results of the MHD stability analysis, how the operational point moves in an operational space defined by the pressure gradient and magnetic shear. For low values of magnetic shear, the plasma is kink unstable (limited by current-driven modes with low toroidal mode numbers). For large values of the pressure gradient, the system becomes unstable for intermediate-n ballooning instabilities. Finally, there is a region of ideal ballooning instability for high values of magnetic shear and pressure gradient. For increasing gas puffing, the kink instability becomes suppressed. The operational point first stays in the so-called second ballooning stability region. For an intermediate level of gas puffing, the very edge becomes ideal ballooning unstable due to increasing magnetic shear. Finally, strong levels of gas puffing increase magnetic shear so much that the whole ETB becomes ballooning unstable. The plasma cannot remain in the unstable domain, but ends up at the so-called first ballooning stability limit. Hence, strong gas puffing can trigger a transition from the second to the first ballooning stability. Modelling also shows that the decrease in the critical pressure gradient with the transition from second to first ballooning stability region results in a dramatic increase in the ELM frequency. This 10 ideal ballooning unstable type III ELMs s 5 first stability second stability type I ELMs peeling / finite n ballooning unstable 0 kink unstable 0 5 10 α Figure 23. The stability of the JET edge plasma in α-s (normalised pressure gradient magnetic shear) space. 34

i leads to the conclusion that the experimentally observed transition from type I to type III ELMs can be qualitatively explained as a transition from second to first ballooning stability. Also the experimentally observed mixed type I-II ELMy H-mode has been reproduced. This mode occurs with a moderate level of gas puffing, making the very edge unstable while the rest of ETB remains stable. Fast particle effects on MHD during quiescent H-mode in ASDEX Upgrade A new mode of high performance operation in which the potentially hazardous ELMs in H-mode are replaced by a more benign, continuous MHD activity in the plasma edge was recently found in DIII-D in ASDEX Upgrade (Quiescent H-mode). The edge MHD activity has been identified to consist of High Frequency Oscillations (HFO, at 350, 490 khz), the burst envelope of which corresponds to the Edge Harmonic Oscillations (EHO, at about 10 khz). The characteristic features of HFO suggest that it were a fast particle-driven instability. In an on-going work, ASCOT is used to simulate the fast ion dynamics in each discharge to determine the frequencies relevant for the MHD activity. The neutral beam ion orbits have been investigated to determine their radial extent, as well as the bounce and toroidal precession frequencies. Also the realistic fast ion distribution, including finite orbit effects, is determined from the simulations. Chaos in ELM dynamics Deterministically chaotic dynamical systems are, by definition, sensitive to initial conditions, and their behaviour is recurrent but non-periodic: a description, which the dynamics of ELMs matches. Evidence for deterministic chaos is carried by the so-called unstable periodic orbits (UPOs), solu- i T [ms] T [ms] Time [sec] Time [sec] Figure 24. Part of ELM time series and two UPOs, which in this case are fixed points, shown by the horizontal dashed lines. The UPOs are found by looking for the kind of exponential diverging shown by the curved dashed lines. 35

tions of the dynamical system that are both periodic and unstable. All chaotic systems have many UPOs, but they are hidden in the seemingly random behaviour. Whether ELMs are deterministically chaotic can be determined by searching for UPOs. If UPOs are found in statistically significant numbers, then ELM dynamics can be classified as chaotic, and information contained in the found UPOs can be further utilised by finding the dependencies between plasma parameters and the properties of UPOs, and therefore, of ELMs. This also brings along the possibility of controlling chaos, though it might be a remote one in the case of ELMs. On the other hand, if only few or no UPOs are found, then the ELM dynamics is proved essentially non chaotic in nature. The first part of the analysis is to detect ELMs from experimental time series. This has proven very difficult, because ELMs come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Various algorithms have already been used, and new ones are being developed. Accurate detection of all or at least most of the ELMs is essential to the search for UPOs. Once the ELMs are adequately detected, the ELM time series are searched for transient signals that indicate the existence of UPOs (see Figure 24). To this end, three independent methods have been studied and implemented. The use of many algorithms instead of just one enhances the reliability of the results. Since it is possible for randomly generated time series to exhibit indications of UPOs, statistical tests will be used to show whether the found UPOs are chance occurrences or real ones. The analysis will be carried out for data from the Wendelstein 7-AS stellarator and the ASDEX Upgrade tokamak. Divertor Heat Load Studies for ASDEX Upgrade and JET How to extend the lifetime of the divertor plates is a key question in the design and operation of ITER. A good understanding of the various mechanisms affecting the particle and heat load distribution on divertor targets is clearly important for the optimisation of divertor design and of the scrape-off layer (SOL) parameters. JET divertor load measurements using embedded thermocouples have indicated a large inner/outer target load asymmetry and a significant non-uniformity in the load to the outer target. A non-uniform load can lead to a premature need of replacing the targets. Furthermore, under H-mode conditions, the load appears to be dominated by the ion component. While the inner/outer target load asymmetry can be understood in terms of the conventional fluid picture, the sharp structures in the deposition profile as well as the ion dominance of the load can not be readily explained by the fluid approach. The ionic flow from the plasma bulk to the divertor plates in JET and ASDEX Upgrade configurations was evaluated using ASCOT. The importance of the gradient drift, the plasma edge collisionality, the atomic, molecular and ionic collisions in the SOL, and the radial electric field both inside and outside the separatrix were all studied individually. This was the first time a sharp kinetic peak in the deposition profile next to the separatrix is reproduced in simulations. Including a significant outward E r in the SOL also gives the proper in-out asymmetry favoring the outer target for the divertor loads. The unfavorable power dependence of the heat deposition profile, observed in JET, can be understood in terms of these simulation results. With increasing heating power, the temperature of the edge plasma increases. If ion orbit losses cause the sharp structure in the deposition profile, the higher temperature has three different effects on the width of the heat load peak: 1) the energy of the orbit loss ions increases thus heightening the kinetic peak; 2) the drift orbits widen radially with increasing temperature, which tends to broaden the deposition profile; 3) the collisionality reduces, which will enhance the magnitude of the peak relative to the background thus making it appear narrower. Also, the combined effect of the increased orbit width 36

q [MW/m ] 2 target 4 3 2 1 Inner target #50401 SOL E= 0 r D He He 2+ 1+ q [MW/m ] 2 target 4 3 2 1 Outer target #50401 SOL E= 0 r 0-5 0 5 10 15 20 Outer midplane R - R sep [mm] 0-5 0 5 10 15 20 Outer midplane R - R sep [mm] Figure 25. The effect of plasma ion species on the divertor load as simulated by ASCOT. The horizontal axis is mapped from the divertor targets along flux surfaces into [mm] measured along the outer midplane. and reduced collisionality is to facilitate the direct orbit losses of ions from further inside the plasma, where both the density and temperature are higher, and thus a significant increase in the kinetic component of the deposition profile is expected. Because the dependence of the orbit width on the temperature is weaker ( T i 1/2 ) than both that of the increase in energy ( T i ) and the dependence of the collisionality ( T i -3/2 ), apparent peaking of the deposition profile is expected as the net effect when the heating power is increased. Repeating the simulations for JET, ASDEX Upgrade and ITER with varying SOL collisionality, edge/sol radial electric field, edge plasma temperature and density, the SOL radial electric field was confirmed as a promising explanation for the experimentally observed narrow load peak at the outer target around the separatrix. Recently, ASCOT has also been applied to study the observed differences in divertor loads between deuterium and helium plasmas in JET. The simulations showed that the simple differences in collisionality and thermal velocity between these ion species may account for the observed differences in the divertor load profiles (see Figure 25). 2.3 Advanced Tokamak Scenarios and Alternative Reactor Concepts The main objectives of the Advanced Tokamak (AT) scenarios for ITER and, also, for an attractive tokamak reactor, are to increase the fusion power density, to improve confinement with Internal Transport Barriers (ITBs), and to render the tokamak compatible with continuous operation. All these effects can reduce the size of the tokamak and as a consequence, reduce the cost of the tokamak reactor significantly. In addition, the fusion performance in ITER may be significantly better than that presently predicted for ITER in the conventional tokamak scenarios. The main means to achieve these goals are to optimise the shape of the current profile (i.e., the safety factor or the q-profile, q ~ 1/current) and the pressure profile. In order to be able to optimise the current density and pressure profiles, understanding the plasma transport and the onset and evolution of the ITBs as well as how they are affected by the current density profile, is crucial. Other important issues in the studies of the advanced tokamak scenarios are the avoidance and mitigation of detrimental MHD instabilities and heat and particle exhaust. 37

The research of the advanced tokamak scenarios in Finland has been started during the FFusion 2 technology programme. The main topics are the barrier formation studies in JET, FT-2 (located in Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia) and TFTR (located in Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton, USA), predictive transport modelling of the advanced tokamak scenarios with ITBs in JET and the studies of the impacts of the current density profile on ITBs. The tools in these studies have been the JETTO predictive transport code coupled with different current drive and heating packages and the ASCOT code. A stellarator is the most promising alternative concept for magnetic confinement of plasmas. During the FFusion 2 programme, an extensive program of transient particle transport studies has been carried out on the W7-AS stellarator. In addition, a numerical method for solving coupled transport equations has been developed. 2.3.1 Empirical ITB Formation Threshold Condition on JET Internal transport barriers can improve the confinement by a factor of more than two, enable the continuous tokamak operation and make the plasma less susceptible to MHD instabilities. They can be seen in the plasma core as steepening of the pressure, temperature or the density profile. There are several known mechanisms that can suppress anomalous transport and cause an increase in pressure, temperature, density and their gradients in the core. However, at present the physical mechanism of the ITB formation has not yet been clearly identified. Consequently, there is an urgent need to understand the parameter dependence of the threshold for the ITB formation, the dynamics of the barrier and the collapse of the barrier. The E B flow shear ω (E and B are the electric and magnetic fields in the plasma) and the magnetic shear s (s r/q dq/dr, where r is the radial coordinate and q is the safety factor) have been determined from the JET experiments at the ITB transition. These values were used to construct an empirical ITB transition threshold condition in terms of the shear quantities E B and s. The values of E B and s at the time when the ITB is formed, and at the radius where the ITB is formed, are presented in Figure 26(a). The statistical error in the fit in Figure 26(a) reduces significantly, if instead of mere E B flow shear, a quantity ω /γ is used. This is illustrated in Figure 26(b). This also indicates the significant role of the Ion Temperature Gradient (ITG) turbulence in the ITB formation in JET since γ is the linear growth rate of the ITG type of plasma turbulence. The resulting linear empirical threshold condition for the onset of the ITB on JET can be written as ω/γ > 0.68s 0.095 (the line shown in Figure 26(b)). The empirical analysis encompassed ITB discharges over a wide plasma parameter range; the toroidal magnetic field varies between 1.8 4.0 T, the auxiliary heating power between 10 30 MW, and the diamagnetic energy between 3 12 MJ. The present empirical threshold condition for the ITB formation provides the first clear indication of the strong correlation of s and E B at the ITB transition. In Figure 26(b), two distinct regions in the s ω/γ space, separated by the line ω/γ > 0.68s 0.095, can be seen. Above the line, an ITB does not exist whereas below it, an ITB exists. The ITB is formed or collapsed, depending on the direction when the line is crossed. The same rule is valid for all discharges across the wide plasma parameter range given above. Furthermore, both H-mode and L- mode edge plasmas obey the same rule and, moreover, the three ITB back transitions included in the analysis also fit well in the same straight line. The physical interpretation of the ITB formation in the s ω/γ space could be the following one: the E B flow shear must be large enough to tear apart the turbulent eddies, thus suppressing the long wave length ITG turbulence (growth rate γ) while, at the same time, small magnetic shear s helps to disconnect the turbulent vortices (e.g. ballooning modes) initially linked together by toroidicity. In addition, with negative magnetic shear, ballooning modes enter the second stable region. Other possible reasons for why the small magnetic shear is favourable to yield an ITB at significantly smaller E B shearing rate are that the small or negative magnetic shear reduces the geodesic curvature drive of micro-instabilities, such as ion temperature gradient modes, trapped electron modes and high-n ballooning modes. 38

a) b) 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 Magnetic shear s 0.4 Magnetic shear s 0.4 0.2 0.2 0 0 0. 5 1. 0 1.3 ω E B (10 5 1 s ) 0 0 0. 2 0.4 ω γ E B / ITG JG00.315/5c Figure 26. (a) Magnetic shear and ω E B shearing rate at the ITB location and at the time when the ITB is formed for 16 JET discharges. (b) When ω E B is normalized with respect to γ, the scatter in the data is significantly reduced. 2.3.2 Impact of Different Heating and Current Drive Methods on the Early q-profile Evolution in JET As was shown in previous section above, a negative or small magnetic shear s, i.e. a reversed or flat q-profile, has been found to be one of the most crucial factors giving rise to the improved core confinement and the ITB formation in JET. In order to have the desired q-profile during the high power phase of a tokamak discharge, a successful preparation phase is required to create the appropriate target q-profile. Current profile evolution during the preheating phase has been calculated with JETTO transport code assuming neo-classical electrical conductivity. The following preheating methods were considered and compared: Ohmic, Lower Hybrid Current Drive (LHCD), on-axis and off-axis minority hydrogen Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ICRH), on-axis and off-axis Neutral Beam Injection (NBI) as well as Electron Cyclotron Current Drive (ECCD). The power deposition and current density profiles are calculated by separate codes, most of which are directly coupled to JETTO, thus allowing a self-consistent transport calculation. The results for the predictive JETTO transport calculations are presented in Figure 27. According to the modelling results, the preheating methods could be divided into three categories in terms of the created target q-profile. LHCD and ECCD form category 1 since they are the only methods that create deeply reversed target q-profiles in JET. 39

Figure 27. (a) Target q-profiles produced with different preheating methods at t=4.0 s and (b) at t=5.0 s. Category 1, LHCD (solid curve), ECCD (dashed curve); category 2, off-axis NBI (dash-dotted curve) and off-axis ICRH (dotted curve); category 3, on-axis NBI (short dashed curve), on-axis ICRH (long double dot-dashed curve) and Ohmic (short double dot-dashed curve). Category 2 consists of off-axis NBI and off-axis ICRF preheating which produce weakly reversed q-profiles with q min located inside R=3.4 m. On-axis NBI, on-axis ICRH and Ohmic preheating belong to category 3 as they create only monotonic target q-profiles. Experimental results on LHCD, ICRH and Ohmic preheating on JET have verified the predictive modelling results. One of the main conclusions in this study is that the external current driven by LHCD and ECCD, not the decreased current diffusion by the direct electron heating, is the most crucial factor in producing deeply reversed target q-profiles in the preheating phase. Also, the NBI driven current turns out to be very important in the off-axis NBI preheating scheme. Other important factors affecting the q-profile evolution in the preheating phase are the width of the power deposition profile and the start time of the preheating with respect to plasma initialisation. A narrow off-axis power deposition profile is able to slow down the Ohmic current diffusing from the plasma periphery to the centre much more efficiently than a wide one. Moreover, the earlier the preheating is started, the more the current diffusion is slowed down. Since ICRF preheating has wider power deposition profiles than ECRH and it also has an additional slowing down time of the fast ions colliding with the electrons ( 0.5 s in JET) that is missing in the ECRH scheme, it is understandable that ECRH preheating (even without any ECCD current) turns out to be a more efficient tool to modify the q-profile evolution in the preheating phase than ICRH. 40

2.3.3 Core Current Hole with LHCD Preheating in JET A zero (within measurement errors) current density in the core (r/a<0.2) of JET ITB plasmas with LHCD preheating has recently been observed. This was the first time ever in any tokamak when a so-called core current hole has been observed. Theoretically it has been predicted earlier that a region of zero or even negative current density in the core can exist. According to the theory, the total magnetic flux, and therefore the total current, in the core of highly conductive plasma cannot be rapidly modified due to the slow radial diffusion of the parallel electric field. When the external off-axis current drive turns on, regions of positive radial curvature on either side of the peak in off-axis power deposition transiently decrease the current density. With sufficient external current, this effect can locally drive the current density to zero or even negative. This situation can persist for many seconds in hot JET plasmas due to the long current diffusion time. The experimentally observed core current hole can be seen in a simulation of the evolution of the current density performed using JETTO. Measured values of the densities, temperatures, impurities, plasma current and magnetic field were used. The simulation was started at t =1.0s and the initial q-profile was taken from the equilibrium calculation. Figure 28 shows the simulated current density profiles at two times, during the LHCD prelude at t = 3.0 s, and immediately afterwards, at t = 4.0 s. The region of zero current density in the plasma core region (r/a < 0.2) at t = 3.0 s created in response to the strong off-axis LHCD is clearly visible. At t = 4.0 s J (R) (MA/m 2 ) 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 J J BS J NB J LH t = 3.0s -0.5 J OH J (R) (MA/m 2 ) 0.5 0 J NB J BS J LH J t = 4.0s -0.5 J OH 3.2 3. 4 3. 6 3.8 Radius (m) JG01.42/1c Figure 28. JETTO simulation of J(R) during the LHCD preheating phase (J NB =0) at t=3.0s and immediately after (J LH =0) at t=4.0s. The contributions to the total current due to LHCD J LH, Ohmic current J OH, bootstrap current J BS and beam-driven current J NB are shown. The region of the core current hole is clearly visible at t=3.0s. 41

the region of zero current begins to fill in after the LHCD turns off, leaving a small region of zero current density similar to that deduced from the motional-stark effect measurements. Shrinking of the region of zero current is significantly enhanced by the on-axis current driven by the neutral beams present at t = 4.0 s but not at t = 3.0 s. The modelling results are qualitatively consistent with the motional- Stark effect measurements. It is to be found out whether this is a useful tokamak operation scenario, for example, in ITER. However, from the physics points of view this scenario is rich of interesting new features, such as the validity of the neo-classical theory and the equilibrium calculation without any poloidal flux. E (kv/m) r 0-10 -20-30 -40 2.3.4 ITB Generation in Low-Current Tokamaks In low current tokamaks, in the absence of radial electric E r, the widths of the drift orbits are large and the direct orbit losses can extend deep into the plasma. Furthermore, in such plasmas, already a modest radial electric field can produce rotation with a poloidal Mach number (M p ) that exceeds unity. Using ASCOT, the formation of an ITB in such a tokamak has been investigated. The simulations were carried out for the FT-2 tokamak, which possesses several very interesting features: the very low plasma current of 22 ka allows very large orbit widths leading to large orbit losses. It also has a large toroidal field ripple, which further increases the likelihood of direct ion losses. Both of these mechanisms have been suggested to play a significant role in the formation of transport barriers: the former in the formation of an edge barrier in the L-H transition, and the latter in the formation of an internal transport barrier. Indeed, in FT-2 discharges with lower hybrid heating, both the edge and internal transport barriers have been experimentally inferred, the former with edge heating and the latter with central heating. The simulations were carried out for both central and off-axis lower hybrid heating. It was found that if, under these conditions, a steep density gradient is created in the plasma, the plasma responds by generating a strong electric field, see Figure 29. -50 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 r (cm) Figure 29. The radial electric field profile obtained from ASCOT simulations with central LH-heating. The neoclassical ambipolar field is indicated by the dotted curve. The steep density gradient combined with the wide drift orbits leads to the appearance of a large, negative field ( 30... 40 kv/m) in the region of the large density gradient. The E r -profile develops very rapidly from its initial value, and its growth is stopped when the associated poloidal Mach number becomes large enough to strongly squeeze the orbit widths, see Figure 30. The achieved field values far exceed the standard neoclassical ambipolar values, as well as values obtained from recent, more detailed extensions of the neoclassical model to high M p -regime. The generation appears to be a pure neoclassical effect, but a global solution over the entire plasma cross section is required to fully identify it. The neutral fluxes observed by neutral particle analyzers are also simulated to find out if the neutral spectra can be utilised to estimate the E r -values across the plasma cross section in FT-2 tokamak. 42

tokamak. In FT-2 both the ripple-loss region and the neutral density profile extend most of the plasma cross section. Therefore, the signal to the high-energy channels of the CX-detector is expected to originate from the plasma centre. The agreement between the experiment and simulation of the CX-chord profiles indicate that the central CX-signal might provide not only ion temperature measurements (E CX < 1000 ev), but also a means to detect changes in the central E r (E CX > 1200 ev). Figure 30. The banana orbit of a 500 ev proton with E r = 0 and E r = 10 kv/m. The radial electric field efficiently reduces the particle s radial excursions. The role of a steep density gradient as a generator of a transport barrier is supported by the observed pellet-induced L-H transitions at DIII-D, as well as by more recent results from JET. The simulations also found a discrepancy between the lower hybrid heating profile and the profile of the absorbed power. This is because only ions with high enough velocity can resonate with the lower hybrid wave, and thus the location of efficient power absorption depends on the instantaneous ion temperature profile. Furthermore, a high-energy tail was observed to build up for both central and off-axis heating. It is also of interest to note that, due to its very small poloidal magnetic field, even a modest radial electric field can provide sufficient poloidal rotation to transform the drift orbits so that their poloidal cross sections resembles a passing orbit and the orbit widths are efficiently squeezed. The neutral fluxes observed by neutral particle analyzers were also simulated to find out whether the neutral spectra can be utilized to estimate the E r -values across the plasma cross section in FT-2 ξ ξ In this study, E r exceeded the critical value in both confinement modes and, consequently, the neutral fluxes observed during the simulations were qualitatively very similar. However, it was found that the neutral spectrum at super-thermal energies could be used to diagnose not only the improved confinement but the efficiency of central ion heating as well. For the latter purpose it is probably not crucial to monitor strongly trapped ions, and it might be advantageous to tilt the detector also horizontally, so that the sightline would tangent the magnetic axis. This orientation maximizes the signal from the plasma centre. Also the radial distribution of the CX-signal was determined, and it was found that the signal from the central region (r = 0 2 cm) is sufficiently high for detection. 2.3.5 Toroidal Ripple as the Trigger to Improved Core Confinement It is known that a non-uniform E r associated with a sheared E B rotation arises in the presence of either (toroidal or poloidal) momentum input or strong pressure gradient. In neutral beam (NBI) heated discharges a toroidal momentum input is provided, and it strongly contributes to shearing the turbulence in the internal transport barriers. The spontaneous transition from L- to H-mode has been found to be accompanied by dramatic changes in radial electric field E r. Orbit losses have been shown to provide a mechanism for electric field generation at the plasma periphery, but normally they are an unlikely candidate for explaining the formation of an ITB. The lower hybrid heated FT-2 plasmas and the ERS (Enhanced Reversed Shear) discharges in TFTR exhibit ITBs in the absence of any external 43

momentum source, so that toroidal plasma rotation hardly can explain the quenching of the plasma turbulence and the appearance of the transport barrier. Within the framework of the standard neoclassical theory, an ambipolar E r is generated by the ion temperature and density gradients and the toroidal velocity, but the plasma profiles measured in the relevant TFTR and FT-2 discharges do not provide an E r with strong enough shear to suppress turbulence. However, the validity of the standard neoclassical theory is challenged in both TFTR and FT-2 discharges when an ITB is observed: the orbit widths can easily exceed the gradient lengths, and thus the emerging E r can significantly deviate from that predicted by assuming narrow orbits. Particle loss due to the toroidal magnetic field ripple has been suggested to drive the E r -field into a bifurcation in ERS discharges of TFTR. The Monte Carlo simulations of TFTR and FT-2 plasmas indicate that the ripple transport can not significantly contribute to the E B flow shear at ITB conditions. The fast ions have been proposed to enhance the ripple transport, but at least for FT-2 their contribution has not been found important. In TFTR, E r remains near the neoclassical estimate giving only a weak shear for the experimental ITB conditions, and thus the ERS transport barrier formation can not be explained by ripple losses. 2.3.6 Wall Stabilisation of External Kinks in ASDEX Upgrade In advanced tokamak scenarios, the β-value of plasma can be increased significantly higher than in conventional H-mode scenarios. β is the ratio of the kinetic and magnetic pressure and it is a key parameter in fusion performance as the fusion power is proportional to β 2. The ultimate β-limit of the plasma comes from the external n=1 kink mode. However, to some extent this mode can be stabilised using a conductive wall around the plasma thus allowing even higher β-values. The design of the wall has to be based on the MHD stability analysis results. Such an analysis was conducted for the planned ASDEX Upgrade wall. It was found that if the plasma is surrounded with a wall at 0.4 times the plasma minor radius from the plasma surface, β could be increased from 1.6% up to 5%. Of course, the actual wall can not surround the plasma entirely, but openings have to be left for the heating and diagnostic ports. Fortunately the stability analysis showed that the ports do not significantly reduce the stabilising effect of the wall. 2.3.7 Transport Studies in Wendelsteinline Stellarators A stellarator is an alternative toroidal device for magnetic confinement of plasmas. In stellarators the helical magnetic field is generated by complicated external coils, and therefore stellarators are inherently capable for continuous operation: the best confinement is achieved in current-free plasmas. However, many dissimilarities in transport properties of the plasma originate from these fundamental differences between tokamaks and stellarators. For this reason also stellarator transport is a lively branch of research. Gas modulation experiments in W7-AS An extensive program of transient particle transport studies was carried out on the W7-AS stellarator, in Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik (IPP), with the gas modulation method. The experiments resulted in a scaling expression for the diffusion coefficient. Transient inward convection was found in the edge plasma. The role of convection is minor in the core plasma, except at higher heating power, when an outward directed convective flux is observed. Radially peaked density profiles were found in discharges free of significant central density sources. Such density profiles are usually observed in tokamaks, but never before in W7-AS. Existence of an inward pinch was confirmed with two independent transient transport analysis methods. The density peaking is possible if the plasma is heated with extreme off-axis electron cyclotron heating, when the temperature gradient vanishes in the core plasma, and if the gas puffing level is relatively low. Numerical method for solving coupled transport equations The transport of plasma particles is coupled. This can be described with two-fluid transport dynamics, and the coupling effects are important in many 44

phenomena observed in tokamaks and stellarators. Therefore, a numerical code for solving the time-dependent coupled density-temperature transport equation was developed. The novelty of the code is that it fits the density-temperature transport equation to the actual experimental data. Cold pulse experiments in W7-AS Cold pulse experiments were carried out at W7- AS. The carbon impurity injection was observed to cause a density increase. The increase of the density is important in describing the propagation of the cold front after the impurity injection. Unlike in tokamaks, no core temperature rise was observed. Diagnostics studies in W7-AS and W7-X The main diagnostic tool for transient particle transport studies at W7-AS was a 10-channel microwave interferometer. A technique for reconstructing the electron density profiles from the multichannel interferometer data was developed and implemented. The interferometer and the reconstruction software provide high quality electron density measurements with high temporal and spatial resolution. The density reconstruction is based on regularization methods studied during the development work. The successful collaboration in the application and development of mathematical methods to interpret multichannel interferometry data is continued with the multichannel infrared laser interferometer proposed for the new stellarator W7-X, to be built in Greifswald. The new interferometer can continuously provide local electron density information after applying mathematical inversion procedures to the line integrated experimental data. It is therefore one of the most important diagnostics on W7-X. The spatial resolution obtained strongly depends on the staggering of the possible viewing chords. An agreement has been made between HUT and IPP to cooperate in the development of mathematical methods allowing for the optimization of the number and positions of the sightlines with respect to maximum resolution in density profile regions of interest. 45

3 Fusion Reactor Materials Research 3.1 Vessel/In-Vessel Materials and Joints VTT Industrial Systems R. Rintamaa (Research Manager), S. Tähtinen (Project Manager), P. Auerkari, U. Ehrnstén, L. Heikinheimo, H. Jeskanen, L-S. Johansson, P. Karjalainen- Roikonen, P. Kauppinen, P. Kemppainen, A.-M. Kosonen, P. Kuusinen, K. Lahdenperä, T. Laitinen, A. Laukkanen, P. Moilanen, T. Planman, M. Pyykkönen, K. Rahka, T. Saario, K. Saarinen, M. Sirén, P. Sirkiä, L. Taivalaho, A. Toivonen, M. Valo and K. Wallin Metso Powdermet Jari Liimatainen Outokumpu Poricopper L. Laakso, R. Liikamaa, O. Naukkarinen and J. Teuho The work on the vessel/in-vessel area have been focused on material characterisation, development of mechanical and fracture test methods, non-destructive examination and manufacturing processes that will come into use in such ITER components as the shield blanket, first wall and divertor. Material characterisation has concentrated on the fracture properties of the neutron-irradiated precipitation-hardened CuCrZr alloy and its HIP joints with stainless steel and titanium alloys. The studies on irradiated microstructure and the utilisation of miniaturised test specimens have been an important part in material characterisation. A major effort in test method development has been the mechanical characterisation of the copper-to-stainless steel joints and an implementation of the pneumatic in-core mechanical testing modules developed by VTT in the BR2 research reactor at Mol. Non-destructive examinations concentrated on ultrasonic methods applied to planar and tubular interfaces between different materials in small and full-scale prototypes of the ITER first wall and divertor components. The ultrasonic examination has been utilised both for quality assurance in manufacturing processes and for integrity assessments in thermal fatigue tests. Activity in manufacturing processes that concern the development of the industrial powder HIP method in the fabrication of the ITER primary first-wall panel has been carried out in collaboration with industry. 3.1.1 Fabrication of HIP ed FW Panel In order to demonstrate the applicability of the powder Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) method in the manufacturing of ITER components, a separate primary first-wall (PFW) panel has been fabricated by Metso Powdermet Oy. The PFW panel consists of a water-cooled copper alloy heat sink and a stainless steel structure covered with beryllium tiles. The copper alloy and stainless steel structures will be consolidated from powders and, in the final stage, beryllium tiles will be bonded to the top of the copper alloy layer. The dimensions of the PFW panel will be 900 mm long, 250 mm wide and 70 mm thick. The precipitation-hardened CuCrZr alloy has been considered for use as a heat sink material in the ITER divertor and first-wall components; the HIP method is one of the candidates as the manufacturing method for these components. However, the most recent experimental results have verified that the low strength of the CuCrZr alloy becomes a concern after the predicted manufacturing procedures. A modified HIP method with fast cooling from a HIP temperature followed by a precipitation heat treatment has been proposed in order to achieve the optimal strength of the CuCrZr alloy during manufacturing. In addition, the current design of the separate PFW panel with a CuCrZr heat sink and stainless steel cooling tubes at the interface between the stainless steel support structure creates new demands for the manufacturing process. 47

The industrial manufacturing of the full-scale ITER primary first wall (PFW) panel using the powder HIP method consists of several manufacturing stages. In the first stage, the stainless steel cooling tube gallery with inlet and outlet manifolds were welded together and mounted on the carbon steel support plate. The tube gallery was covered by the HIP canister, filled with stainless steel powder and evacuated prior to the HIP thermal cycle. The HIP thermal cycle was carried out at 1150 C for 4 hours at 100 MPa. After the HIP thermal cycle, the carbon steel support plate was machined away and chemically pickled to reveal the stainless steel structure with cooling tubes on the surface of the panel as shown in Figure 31. a) b) a) Figure 32. Manufacturing stages of the powder HIP ed full-scale primary first-wall panel a) the powder HIP ed CuCuZr heat sink layer on top of the powder HIP ed stainless steel structure after the second HIP quench cycle and machining, b) corresponding ultrasonic C- and B-scan images of Cu-to-stainless steel interface and Cu-tostainless steel tube interfaces, respectively. b) Figure 31. a) Stainless steel cooling tube gallery on top of the carbon steel support plate before powder filling and the HIP thermal cycle, b) powder HIP ed stainless steel structure after the HIP thermal cycle and the removal of the carbon steel support plate showing part of the cooling tube gallery on the stainless steel surface. In the second stage, the stainless steel structure was covered by the HIP canister, filled with CuCrZr alloy powder and evacuated prior to the second HIP thermal cycle. The second HIP thermal cycle was carried out at 1040 C for 2 hours at 104 MPa followed by direct quenching from 1040 to 400 C within 10 minutes in argon gas flow. The PFW panel after the second HIP cycle, together with the ultrasonic images showing the copper steel interface and cooling tube positions, is shown in Figure 32. It is noted that the ultrasonic examination revealed no defect indications on the Cu-to-stainless steel interface and the tolerances of ± 1mmonthe cooling tube pitch and positions were achieved. The direct quenching from the HIP temperature maintains the CuCrZr alloy in a supersaturated condition that allows the simultaneous perfor- 48

mance of precipitation-hardening heat treatment and subsequent third HIP thermal cycle needed to join the beryllium tiles to the CuCrZr alloy surface. The third stage, i.e., of beryllium joining is scheduled for the first quarter of 2003. 3.1.2 Characterisation of FW Mock-Ups A research and development programme has been implemented to provide input for the design and fabrication of the full-scale shield blanket and first-wall components. This programme involves, in particular, the fabrication and testing of both small and full-scale mock-ups of ITER primary first-wall modules. The main objectives are to compare the performance of armour materials e.g., mainly Be alloys and heat sink materials such as CuAl25, CuCrZr and powder CuCrZr alloys after the different manufacturing processes such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) and brazing. An important aspect is that the joint properties, Cu/316L(N) and particular Be/Cu, complement the results of the mechanical characterisation of these joints. The full, non-destructive examination of all the Be/Cu, Cu/Cu and Cu/SS joint interfaces have been carried out by ultrasonic methods before and after the thermal fatigue tests in order to check the performance of the mock-ups and to monitor possible crack propagation due to thermal fatigue tests. Typical small-scale primary first-wall mock-ups, together with ultrasonic C-scan images of the Cu surface and Cu/Cu interface, are shown in Figure 33 In the module PFW-5, which consists of CuAl25 and CuCrZr alloy mock-ups, no defect indication was observed on any of the examined interfaces after a thermal fatigue test at 0.75 MWm -2 for 30 000 cycles and after the subsequent high heat flux test at 2.5 MWm -2 for 1000 cycles. After a further high heat flux test at 4 MWm -2 for 558 cycles, shallow thermal fatigue cracks on the copper surface and several large cracks in the copper and also on the copper-to-copper interface of the mock-up with CuAl25 were observed. In the CuCrZr mock-up, shallow thermal fatigue cracks on the copper surface were also observed, although no defect indications were found on the copper-to-copper interface after a high heat flux test at 4 MWm -2 for 1000 cycles. Figure 33. Primary first-wall module PFW-5 with small-scale mock-ups DS-5Ka (CuAl25) and PHS-4K (CuCrZr) after a high heat flux test at ~4 MWm -2 for 1000 cycles and ultrasonic C-scan images of DS-5Ka showing long cracks crossing the copper surface (top) and delamination of the copper-to-copper interface (bottom). Until now, the results indicate that Cu/Cu and Cu/SS joints in small scale mock-ups exposed to a heat load of about 0.75 MWm -2, which is about 4 times the expected nominal heat load, survive the required number of 30 000 cycles without failure and are also able to withstand approximately 5 MWm -2, which corresponds to about 10 times the expected nominal peak heat load of the ITER primary first wall, for about 1000 cycles. It is also evident that the CuCrZr mock-ups show a higher margin against high heat loads than CuAl25 mock-ups 49

a) b) Figure 34. a) Full scale primary first wall panel manufactured by the Association Euratom-CEA using the solid HIP method and b) corresponding ultrasonic C-scan image of the Be/Cu interface. do. It should be noted that the mechanical and fracture properties of copper alloys and their HIP joints also indicate a better performance for CuCrZr when compared to the CuAl25 alloy. The full-scale ITER primary first-wall panel and the corresponding ultrasonic C-scan image of the beryllium-to-copper interface are shown in Figure 34. Several defect indications were found on the beryllium-to-copper interface. It should be noted that, due to a change in the acoustic properties of the beryllium and copper, a phase shift is observed at the defects. This means that the observed defect indication is defect-size dependent e.g., defects smaller or larger that the focusing point of the applied ultrasonic probe induce a low or high-intensity indication, respectively. 3.1.3 In-Situ Testing of Irradiated Materials In the past, it has been a common and wide spread practice to carry out post-irradiation testing in order to assess the effects of neutron irradiation on the mechanical properties of irradiated materials. A large number of such experiments have been carried out to determine the degradation of mechanical properties as a function of irradiation dose and temperature. These results are then used to evaluate the performance and lifetime of structural components in the dynamic loading conditions of a nuclear or thermonuclear reactor. The utilization of the post-irradiation results in this evaluation implicitly assumes that the kinetics, as well as the level of damage accumulation in the specimens irradiated in the unstressed condition, is the same as in the case of the structural components of a reactor. This assumption is clearly inappropriate and may lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the performance and the lifetime of a component. This is simply because all structural components are expected to experience both thermal and mechanical stresses. Thus, in order to avoid the risk of reaching a wrong conclusion regarding the lifetime of a component, it is essential to experimentally establish the effect of the applied stresses on the damage accumulation behaviour and the mechanical performance of materials irradiated with neutrons. It is highly unlikely that the production of the primary damage will be affected by the applied stress during irradiation. On the other hand, the subsequent process of dislocation decoration, which is responsible for radiation hardening, yield drop and plastic flow localization, will be substantially altered by the applied stress. In other words, in stressed specimens, the mobile dislocations may not get decorated at all or decoration, i.e. hardening, is likely to be very small. It is also quite possible that the lack of decoration of dislocations and reduction in the concentration of defect clusters in the stressed specimens may reduce the level of hardening and may even eliminate the problem of yield drop and plastic flow localisation with significant improvement in the uniform elongation. The effect of cyclic loading may be even more significant on the fatigue performance of materials under neutron loading. The mobile dislocation segments may sweep up and absorb the defect clusters produced by irradiation, thus reducing the magnitude of damage accumulation. It is quite possible that fatigue lifetime in in-situ cyclic loading experiments may be significantly different from those obtained during fatigue experiments on post-irradiated specimens. 50

The copper components in ITER are subject to thermal and mechanical loads (both static and cyclic) at the same time as being bombarded with neutron flux. At the present time, it is not known what kind of dynamic effect the applied stress will have on the damage accumulation and thus on the mechanical performance of the copper alloy. It has already been shown that copper alloys are sensitive to the dynamic interaction between fatigue and creep. These effects could significantly affect the component lifetime. These arguments have lead to the conclusion that the in-situ experiments in the neutron environment are not only interesting from the academic point of view, but are necessary from the technological point of view. In the first phase prior to initiating the in-situ irradiation experiments, a prototype uniaxial tensile-loading module has been designed and constructed. The primary objective was to construct the prototype-loading module based on proven technology for small-size copper and copper alloy tensile specimens by taking into account the design requirements set in the in-core testing at the BR-2 test reactor at SCK-CEN, Mol. The key design requirements for the uniaxial tensile module were the size of the load frame together with the pneumatic loading unit and the required high accuracy for displacement and load measurements. The first prototype module was based on the pneumatic servo-controlled fracture resistance measuring device developed at VTT, which was further modified for uniaxial tensile testing, Figure 35. The system allows for constant load performance, constant displacement and constant displacement rate testing and is based on a patented flowing valve system with Moog digital servo technology. The prototype uniaxial tensile-loading module was tested by connecting it together to the pneumatic servo-controlled pressure-adjusting loop and by performing tensile testing using different materials at room temperature. The test materials were the fusion-specific alloys Cu, CuCrZr, CuAl25 and the martensitic stainless steel Eurofer 97. The test type was a rising load test with constant strain rates of 1.9 10-4 s -1 and 1.12 10-3 s -1. Typical stress strain curves are presented in Figure Figure 35. The prototype uniaxial tensile-loading unit. 36. The maximum fluctuation in the displacement was < ±0.3 µm. The requirements set by the ASTM Standard Test Method for Determining J-R Curves E1152-87 were achieved; e.g., the increase in the displacement has to be linear during a constant displacement rate test and the fluctuation in the displacement can be a maximum ±3 µm for 0.3 mm of displacement and after that ±1% of the total displacement. According to the ESIS material testing standard, the load accuracy during the test should be ±1% from the measured value over the working range. In addition, these requirements were achieved in the tests performed for copper alloys and for ferrite stainless steel. In the case of pure copper, the load deviation was more than ±1% from the measured value because of the significantly lower load levels needed during the tests. 51

800 700 Eurofer 97 600 Stress [MPa] 500 400 300 200 Test environment: 23 C air Strain rate: 1.9*10-4 1/s CuAl25TL CuCrZrLT 100 Pure Cu 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Strain [%] Figure 36. Typical stress strain curves of Cu, CuCrZr, CuAl25 alloys and Eurofer97 at room temperature. Based on the test results of the first prototype uniaxial tensile-loading module, it was concluded that the module based on pneumatic servo-controlled technology is applicable for uniaxial in-core tensile testing in the BR2 test reactor. The strain-controlled tensile tests were run without any difficulty using a pressure tube of about 30 meters long between the control unit and the tensile-loading module for several days with various strain rates ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 s -1. In the second phase, the in-core uniaxial tensile loading module, together with the calibration device, were designed, constructed and tested. The primary goal of the second phase was to integrate the loading module into the instrumented irradiation rig and to provide all the information needed for reactor safety analysis. The first in-core tensile tests in the BR2 test reactor at the open dimple tube position were scheduled for the reactor cycle starting November 26 th 2002. The instrumented irradiation rig with two uniaxial tensile modules is shown in Figure 37. The irradiation rig and test specimens are in the reactor pool water at a temperature of about 50 C which increase do to gamma heating to about 90 C. The neutron flux will be around 3 10 13 ncm -2 s -1 (E>1 MeV) and the total irradiation dose during one reactor cycle will be about 0.1 dpa. Figure 37. The instrumented irradiation rig with two uniaxial loading modules. 52

3.2 High Power Nd:YAG Laser Welding of the Vacuum Vessel Sectors of ITER VTT Industrial Systems V. Kujanpää (Project Manager), T. Jokinen and M. Karhu 3.2.1 Introduction VTT Industrial Systems has carried out several EU-ITER tasks during the FFUSION 2 technology programme in which a suitable welding method has been considered for the manufacturing of vacuum vessels for fusion reactors. The tasks have mainly involved Nd:YAG laser welding and, although the walls of vacuum vessel are made from 60-mm stainless steel, it has shown great potential of being the joining method, albeit with some additions. One reason for using the Nd:YAG laser is the enormous size and weight of the vacuum vessel (Figure 6, in Chapter 1), which means that the vessel will be built on-site. This, together with the geometry of vessel, set the positional welding requirements for the processes used and the Nd:YAG laser seems to be usable because of the flexible transmit of laser light via optical fibre. In addition, the low total heat input, which is nominal for laser welding is an advantage when joining large austenitic stainless steel structures. Several Nd:YAG laser-welding experiments have been carried out during different tasks, concentrating on the use of filler wire and the arc welding method together with the laser by multipass technique and narrow gap configuration. The main highlights of these experiments are reported in this chapter. The usability of the process with filler wire in positional welding was also tested. Additionally, some tack welding experiments, as well as laser welding in a vacuum, were also demonstrated. 3.2.2 Experimental Welding experiments were done using a 3 kw Nd:YAG laser, the beam of which was transferred to the process via the optical fibre, Figure 38. One example set-up for the welding head and nozzle geometry of the filler wire feeder can be seen in Figure 38. Laser parameters, as well as the parameters affecting the filler wire feeding, varied systematically over a broad range in order to find the optimal values for the effective process. In hybrid tests (laser and arc welding in the same process), the torch of the GMAW was also placed on the laser welding head with the handling system allowing movements necessary for changing interaction parameters (Figure 39). The GMAW machine was an ordinary machine with a modified contact nozzle. The angle of the torch and the impingement point of the filler wire varied. The test pieces were as in filler wire experiments, but one or two root welds were made using only filler wire and a laser beam. Figure 38. Nd:YAG laser used in the experiments and one example of a set-up with filler wire during welding. 53

An important factor is how the filler wire is put to the joint according to the laser beam and joint configuration. Naturally, the melting capability of the laser in the focal point is at its maximum. But according to the small size of the focal point (diameter 0.6 mm) and according to the diameter of the filler wire, the more reliable way is to adjust the wire to 2 mm below the focal point (Figure 40), without dramatically loosing melting power. In addition, good results were achieved when the wire was deeper than 2 mm below the focal point, but then melting is not so effective. A critical thing in pointing the wire to the melt is that good results are not achieved when the wire is adjusted over the focal point. This will strongly affect the balance of the process and weld defects will occur together with poor penetration. Figure 39. Example of set-up for hybrid welding. The material used in the tests was either normal austenitic stainless steel AISI 304L or molybdenum-bearing austenitic steel AISI 316LN. The thickness of the test pieces through tasks varied from 7 to 35 mm. In multi-pass welding experiments, all grooves were milled to the shape of the partially grooved V with root surface. The different angles of the grooves were varied. 3.2.3 Results and Discussion In welding experiments, the main interest was in finding the parameters that effectively fill the joint; e.g., the minimal number of passes necessary to weld through the hole thickness to be welded. In the beginning of the filling experiments, and also from previous work, it was noticed that the amount of filler wire fed to the melt is not the only factor in making a good-quality penetration. The main thing is concerning the interaction between the filler wire and laser beam, of course together with the groove configuration. According to the criterion of the minimum number of passes needed to fill the groove, the angle of the groove should be as narrow as possible. But because of the focusing angle of the laser beam, the groove angle should be more than that. Another limiting factor is the amount of distortions. Because of the joint configuration, angular distortions will occur by bending towards the welding side. This will make the groove narrower after every pass. There is a need for the laser beam to reach the bottom of the joint together with filler wire, which is why the groove angle should be a few degrees wider than the focusing angle. In the experiments, with a focusing angle of about 6 and a plate thickness of 20 mm, a groove angle of 8 was the most suitable (Figure 41). This means that angular distortions were less than 2 degrees. In addition, good results were obtained with a groove angle of 10 degrees. In addition, 12-degree angles were tested, but the amount of filler wire to fill the groove was too much for the melting power of the laser with the welding speed used. The main interest in welding with a hybrid process for the narrow gap configuration was to see if it is possible to have the arc inside the groove. During the experiments, the effect of a hot spot of laser focal point for the guider of the arc to the bottom of the joint was noticeable. Nevertheless, there were some problems reaching the bottom of the joint. In addition, it was noticeable that when the arc was put to the process from the leading edge, a certain 54

Figure 40. Cross-section of the weld and its parameter set-up. Other parameters: Laser power 3 kw, welding speed 0.5 m/min, filler wire 6.5 m/min, angle 45 o. Figure 41. Cross-sections of the welds with a plate thickness of 20 mm and 5 passes. Parameters: Laser power 3 kw, welding speed 0.5 m/min, filler wire 4.5 6.0 m/min, groove angle 10, interaction point 2 mm, angle 45. 55

Figure 42. Cross-section of the hybrid weld with a thickness of 20 mm filled with 4 passes, and its set-up. Other parameters: Laser power 3 kw, welding speed 0.5 0.7 m/min and a filler wire feeding of 9.7 m/min. distance between the point of the arc and the laser beam should be maintained. This seems to be coming from the nature of the keyhole, which is disturbed if the arc is put directly on the focal point from the front. This was not observed, however, when the arc was put behind the focal point. To ensure the level of quality, it was noticeable that it is better to use the hybrid welding after two passes of laser welding with filler wire without an arc. 3.2.4 Conclusions In welding with laser and filler wire, the main problem is how to adjust the interaction between the filler wire and laser beam. The laser beam should melt the filler wire and surfaces of the groove properly in order to reach an acceptable quality level. This can be secured by pointing the filler wire at a spot under the focal point and by limiting the amount of filler wire so that the amount is smaller than the melting ability of the laser used. In hybrid welding, the important factor is how to be sure to reach the bottom of the narrow groove with an arc. During the experiments, it was noticed that the hot spot on the surface of the laser-beam weld guides the arc towards it, which greatly helps the lining of the GMAW torch. 3.3 Development of a High Precision Intersector Weld/Cut Robot Lappeenranta University of Technology Institute of Mechatronics and Virtual Engineering H. Handroos (Project Manager), J. Kovanen, H. Wu, J. Sopanen, K. Dufva and T. Saira Several Research and Development Programs related to the vacuum vessel assembly have been undertaken in recent years. Most of the work has focussed on combining the technologies required to assemble high thickness components. ITER sectors are very large-components with some complex geometrical features. Plasma physics and internal components assembly require more stringent tolerances than normally expected for the size of the structure involved. Overall, assembly tolerances are expected to be within 10 mm (± 5 mm) for the whole vacuum vessel. The main objective of this IWR (Intersector Weld/Cut Robot) project is to design and produce a robotic system, which carries several of the processes necessary to assemble or remove sectors of ITER s vacuum vessel. The sector is illustrated in Figure 43 (a). The robot will move along a track, following the surface of the shell as shown in Figure 43 (b). 56

a) b) Figure 43. (a) Sector of vacuum vessel (b) Operation principle of IWR. Table 1 shows the motion capability requirements of IWR. The loading capabilities are: Static force in all directions: 2 kn Dynamic force in all directions: 6 kn Robot and carriage should not weight more than 400 kg. The design and functional specification of the intersector weld/cut robot IWR were first defined by G.A.E.R (France) in 1999. By using these specifications and the latest design data, the dynamic simulation model of the IWR was built and the dynamic behaviour of the IWR was examined by employing ADAMS software in IMVE, LUT. The original construction shown in Figure 44 (a) was rejected because of serious in-workspace singularity problems. A new construction Figure 44 (b) was proposed and carefully analysed by means of a virtual prototype. The simulations showed promising static and dynamic properties of the proposed 5-DOF concept named PENTA-WH. Figure 45 shows the comparison between ram force transmission capability of PENTA-WH against that of the Stewart-platform, which is the most commonly used parallel robot construction. The forces are applied as expected as machining forces. In the original construction shown in Figure 44 (a), the force transmission capability is extremely poor because of the in-workspace singulari- Table 2. Motion requirements of IWR. X Axis Y Axis Z Axis Range Whole Seam 200 mm 300 mm Absolute Precision ± 0.5 mm ± 0.1 mm ± 0.1 mm Resolution 0.2 mm 0.02 mm 0.02 mm Speed (MAX) 6000 mm/min 6000 mm/min 6000 mm/min Acceleration (MAX) 500 mm/s 2 500 mm/s 2 500 mm/s 2 Repeatability ± 0.2 mm ± 0.02 mm ± 0.02 mm 57

a) b) Figure 44. (a) Original construction, (b) New construction of IWR (Penta-WH). ties. In the singularity points in the workspace, the robot is not able to produce any force against the work process even with the maximum actuator (ram) forces. From Figure 44, it can be concluded that the ram forces are slightly smaller in PENTA-WH than in the Stewart platform and the tip force is better shared with the rams. PENTA-WH also occupies less room than the Stewart platform does and the achievable workspace is larger. The development continued with the project Dynamic Test Rig for a Robot for Carrying Out Machining Tasks in ITER in 2002. In this project phase, the first physical prototype based on the PENTA-WH concept was designed, developed and manufactured (see Figure 45). The design was carried out in collaboration with Mekarita Ky, Mikkeli (Finland). Mekarita Ky also manufactured and assembled the test mock-up. The first mock-up includes the 5-DOF oil-hydraulic PENTA-WH robot and support frame (see Figure 46). PENTA- WH is based on a 3-DOF tripod and two orientation cylinders that provide singularity-free workspace, extremely high stiffness and force density. By using specific cylinder structures with in-built encoders, an accuracy of up to 4µm was achieved in cylinder positioning. The control system of the test rig was built on dspace-hardware by utilizing a) b) Figure 45. Ram forces of Penta-WH (a) and the Stewart platform (b) Matlab/Simulink software. The system was carefully tested and the controller calibrated until the end of 2002 by employing a 3-D laser precision 58

3.4 Plasma Facing Materials and Tritium Retention 3.4.1 Hydrogen Retention in Plasma Facing Materials and Flakes Formation University of Helsinki, Accelerator Laboratory Juhani Keinonen (Project Manager), Tommy Ahlgren, K. Heinola, W. Rydman, T. Sajavaara and E. Vainonen-Ahlgren VTT Processes S. Lehto and J. Likonen Diarc Technology J. Kolehmainen and S. Tervakangas Introduction Figure 46. Oil-hydraulic Penta-WH mock-up in IMVE, LUT measurement system. In addition, a loading test will be carried out by using two force servo axes. Virtual prototype analyses was also carried out to determine the most important sources of deflection in the robot structure. Improvements and deflection compensation methods are going to be proposed according to simulation results. The seamtracker and machining end-effector will be supplied by GAER (France) in early 2003. The laser welding tests with the robot will be carried out in collaboration with VTT Industrial Systems (Lappeenranta) in early 2003. Future work In 2003 2004, the oil-hydraulic test mock-up will be updated to a water-hydraulic one since no large quantities of oil are allowed in the ITER vacuum-vessel. In addition to this, a carriage and part of the linear track will be designed, manufactured and tested. Special attention will be paid to the stiffness and structural damping of the carriage structure. The final target of the project is to produce a final IWR for ITER. The requirements for the first-wall materials of ITER are demanding, e.g., good thermal properties, low erosion and low tritium retention are required for plasma-facing components. These facts limit the selection of materials to only a few possible candidates. The best candidates have proven to be tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo) and carbon (C). The disadvantage of using W and Mo is the excessive radiation loss caused if they end up in the plasma as ions. Another problem is the ion-induced blister formation on the surfaces. Carbon has the best thermal properties, but, during device operation, it accumulates hydrogen isotopes. However, carbon is the only choice for the divertor near the strike points because it can withstand high heat loads during ELMs and disruptions. The knowledge of how hydrogen behaves (diffusion, retention, recycling) in plasma-facing materials is important and a sufficient model, which explains this, is missing. If the behaviour is not well understood, no reliable control over fusion device operation is achieved. Another issue concerns safety. The total amount of radioactive tritium and its recycling at the ITER site must be known at all times so that preset safety limits are not exceeded. Carbon brings more questions into focus. In the fusion device environment, carbon tiles are eroded because of intensive ion bombardment and chemical erosion. Eroded carbon drifts to other parts of the fusion device, where it is deposited as amor- 59

phous carbon films. The uptake and release of deuterium and tritium from the films will significantly affect the recycling of D and T fuel as well as tritium retention in a fusion device. Therefore, an understanding of the processes, which involve trapping and retention of hydrogen isotopes in the films, is of crucial importance. In addition to this, the films also flake. Flaking means the loosening of small macroscopic pieces of carbon from the surface. Because hydrogen isotopes accumulate in carbon, the flakes contain tritium. The process of flaking is not well understood and needs further investigation. Development and testing of D(T) removal techniques To simulate the re-deposition conditions in the first-wall materials, amorphous carbon films and diamond-like carbon (DLC) films were deposited on silicon wafers by a plasma arc discharge method. The deposition process took place at temperatures between 60 and 400 C or in an atmosphere of different gases (e.g., hydrogen or deuterium) depending on the requirements. DLC samples with different silicon contents were grown using mixed cathodes. The original NS31 material and the coatings made of it, were also studied. NS31 material has been proposed to be a plasmafacing material. It consists of alternating layers of silicon and graphite that form visible stripes on the surface. The samples investigated, together with a description of the experiments, are presented in Table 3. Samples from set 3 were implanted with 80-keV 30 Si + ions to a dose of 10 16 ions cm -2 to investigate Si diffusion. Annealing of the samples of sets 1, 3 and 5 were performed in a quartz-tube furnace (pressure below 2 10-4 Pa) at temperatures from 800 to 1100 C. The annealing time varied from 30 minutes to 19 hours. After the annealing treatment of samples from set 3, the deuterium profiles were measured by a secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) and compared to initial profiles. It was assumed that silicon diffusion in amorphous carbon is concentrationindependent and the normal Fick s diffusion equation was applied. The diffusion coefficient for every temperature used was obtained by least squares fitting to experimental profiles. The results show Arrhenius behaviour with the following values obtained for the activation energy, E a, and the pre-ex- Table 3. Samples investigated. Set Sample Description 1 DLC + D Deposition in partial D pressure of 10-3 mbar. Study of the influence of Si concentration on the D retention. DLC(6 at.% Si) + D DLC(15 at.% Si) + D DLC(33 at.% Si) + D 2 DLC Deposition at 400 C. Study of the deposition condition on the film properties. DLC(6 at.% Si) DLC(15 at.% Si) DLC(33 at.% Si) 3 DLC Deposition in vacuum. Study of Si diffusion in implanted samples. 4 NS31 Original NS31 material. Study of the sample properties. 5 Si-C films NS31 material used as a cathode. 60

0.5 2 (54 kev, 1e16/cm ) D2 --> Ns31 (original) 0.4 Retained D 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 re-deposition film 600 700 800 900 1 000 1 100 Temperature ( C) Figure 47. Retained deuterium after 1 hour of isochronal annealings of the original NS31 material (set 4) and re-deposition films (set 5). ponential factor D 0 :E a = 1.6 ± 0.1 ev, D 0 = 1.9 10 4±1 nm 2 s -1. The influence of Si concentration on the annealing behaviour of deuterium in Si-doped carbon films was also studied. Diffusion measurements made for sample set 5 showed that deuterium loss is larger from these films than those of set 1. Retained deuterium after 1 hour isochronal annealings of the original NS31 material and re-deposition films (set 5) is shown in Figure 47. As can be seen, the loss is much faster from the original NS31 material than from the films made by using NS31 as a cathode. This is probably due to inhomogeneous Si concentration and grain boundary diffusion, where deuterium finds paths that have low diffusion barriers. The real retention situation in an actual fusion reactor could be between the two loss curves. More systematic studies were made to study the deuterium out-diffusion from CFC-materials. Samples from set 1 were used to investigate this topic. It was noticed that three main parameters affect the diffusion process, namely the ratio of trapping probabilities to de-trapping probabilities, the diffusion coefficient, and the density of traps. Microscopically, hydrogen atoms are assumed to be in two states in the CFC matrix: either as immobile, trapped hydrogen or as free mobile hydrogen (Figure 48). It turns out that, initially, when the hydrogen concentration is higher than or equal to the number of traps, the amount of free H is comparably large and thus, the total H mobility is large. Once the H concentration diminishes, the ratio of trapped H to free H increases, decreasing the number of mobile H atoms. The diffusion of H seems to stop. Figure 48. Schematic picture of hydrogen migration in Si-doped carbon. Trapped H atoms (blue balls) are either bonded with Si or C atoms. Free H atom (red ball) diffuses rapidly until it finds a dangling bond and re-traps. 61

10 3 Temperature ( C) 1 050 1 000 900 800. Diffusion coeffient (nm /s) 2 10 2 10 1 0 at. % Si 6 at. % Si 15 at. % Si. 33 at. % Si Ns31 film Graphite (B. Tsuchiya and K. Morita) 9.0 10.0 11.0-1 1/kT (ev ) Figure 49. Arrhenius plot for the diffusion coefficients of non-trapped deuterium. Shown are the natural logarithms of the diffusion coefficients vs. 1/kT. The lines are the fits to the experimental data. The activation energy for the diffusion of nontrapped D in silicon-free DLC is approximately 1.5 ev, which is depicted in Figure 49 along with the activation energies for the other cases. With an increasing Si concentration, the activation energy decreases to 0.6 ev for samples with 15 at. % of silicon and then starts to increase with the increasing Si concentration. If we consider the obtained activation energies as a function of silicon concentration, the obvious conclusion is that, at the Si concentration of about 10 at. %, the diffusivity of hydrogen has the highest value. Behaviour of hydrogen in tungsten films To study hydrogen behaviour in tungsten and molybdenum, deuterium co-deposited tungsten and molybdenum films on Si substrates were prepared by a plasma arc discharge method. Ion beam methods (TOF-ERDA, time-of-flight elastic recoil detection analysis, and SIMS) were used to characterise the films. This included the measurement of thickness and impurity concentrations. Thickness was found to vary between 250 and 300 nm. Major impurities remaining in the deposition processes were carbon (~ 1 at. %) and oxygen (~ 0.2 at. %). With SIMS, the deuterium concentration prior to annealing was observed to be constant throughout the film. Measured values were 1.1 at. % for the as-deposited sample and 0.8, 0.6, 0.5, 0.3, 0.2, and 0.0008 at. % after 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, and 500 C isochronal 1 h annealings, respectively. The surface peak of hydrogen was observed in some measurements. The decrease of deuterium concentration occurs throughout the film. This indicates that the diffusion of free D is fast and the desorption of D molecules from the surface relatively slow. No diffusion into the Si substrate was observed. The diffusion is trap-controlled, which was deduced from concentration and desorption profiles. After characterisation, the films were annealed for 1 h at 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, and 500 C in order to observe the diffusion. Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) was used to measure the amount of 62

released deuterium from the films annealed at 150, 200, and 250 C. A diffusion equation describing the movement of deuterium atom was numerically fitted to experimental data. The mean activation energy obtained from fittings is 0.43 ± 0.08 ev. Activation energy describes the height of the potential well, which the diffusing atom must pass in order to migrate. Similarly the trapping energy for deuterium was 1.1 ev (i.e., the potential well is deeper). Trapping describes a process where deuterium is tightly bonded to some defect, impurity atom, etc. The value of trapping energy is affected by carbon and oxygen impurities, which also act as trapping sites for deuterium. samples. Films, with thicknesses of 250 and 500 nm, were grown at three different temperatures, room temperature, 100 C and 300 C. The CH 4 partial pressures used were 0, 10-4, and 10-3 mbar. The amount of carbon sp 3 bonds in all the samples was measured by Raman spectroscopy. The notation sp 3 means that one s and three p valence electron orbitals of an atom hybridise into a single orbital. As a result of the hybridisation, carbon may form four strong covalent bonds. This is the same Deuterium release from the surface is an activated process too, with an activation energy of 1.3 ev. The value is quite high, which can be explained by considering the trapping and release of deuterium from dangling bonds of impurity atoms at the surface. The process of release needs two free deuterium atoms on the surface. First, atoms form a molecule and are then desorbed as D 2 (or HD) gas. The probability for single deuterium atom desorption is low. Possible trap species in the bulk are tungsten, carbon and oxygen atoms. The number of traps is about the same as the initial number of D atoms, which explains the quite fast diffusion at the initial annealing stage. In the beginning, a large fraction of D atoms detrap and diffuse. Later with the decreasing D concentration level, a smaller amount of D is free to migrate. Overall mobility is retarded. Deuterium retention in tungsten films is stronger than in molybdenum films, but after the annealing at 500 C, the amount of deuterium left in both films is only about 1% from the initial levels. The diffusion in Mo films occurs at significantly lower temperatures. Figure 50. Stress relief patterns seen with SEM on a-c:h film deposited on molybdenum at 300 C with a CH 4 partial pressure of 10-4 mbar. Flake formation of redeposited amorphous carbon films Amorphous carbon (a-c:h) films were deposited on tungsten and molybdenum films, which in turn were deposited earlier on Si. As a reference, a-c:h films were also deposited on stainless steel (SS) Figure 51. Flaking mechanism example: flaking starts from the ridges of the sinusoidal stress relief patterns. 63

bonding structure as diamond has. Graphite bonds are sp 2 hybridised. When the ratio between the sp 3 and sp 2 bonds increases, the film acquires more diamond-like properties. Raman measurements showed that the fraction of sp 3 bonds decreased with an increasing CH 4 partial pressure. Therefore, films have graphitic characteristics rather than diamond-like ones. Deposition conditions cause residual stresses to a-c:h films. In addition, the difference in thermal expansion coefficients can cause stress to the film. To understand the mechanical properties, the film surfaces were studied with an optical microscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). These measurements revealed the role of impinged CH 4. Deformation of the surface varied with the increasing CH 4 partial pressure. The stress relief patterns varied from markedly split (or totally flaked off) areas to small areas with sinusoidal-shaped wrinkles. The effect of temperature was found to be dominant. At a high deposition temperature (300 C), large surface deformations were found. The SEM image (Figure 50) shows the typical sinusoidal stress relief patterns seen on DLC films. Figure 51 shows an example of flaking mechanism. Low CH 4 partial pressures (vacuum or 10-4 mbar) caused significant peeling, e.g., almost 50% of the film was peeled away for 250 nm a-c:h film deposited on Mo at 300 C. Every vacuum-grown sample had large deformations with large stress relief patterns or whole layers of the film flaked off. In the a-c:h on stainless steel samples, the original surface roughness of the substrate was much larger than the thickness of the film. This means that no quantitative analysis could be made. Qualitatively, surface deformation (mainly splitting and dust production) was found to increase with the thickness and temperature and decrease with the increasing CH 4 partial pressure. No large deformation or buckling of the film was observed. 3.4.2 Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Plasma-Surface Interactions University of Helsinki, Accelerator Laboratory J. Keinonen (Project Manager), E. Salonen and K. Nordlund Several aspects of plasma-surface interactions in fusion reactors remain unclear, yet the understanding of these effects is essential for modelling transport of atoms and molecules in the fusion plasma and for developing better carbon-based divertor materials. To address these questions, we have initiated the use of molecular dynamics simulations to study the interaction between the fusion plasma and the reactor first wall. One of the major fundamental questions has been why significant erosion of hydrocarbon molecules occurs in fusion reactor divertors under conditions where the physical sputtering is well accepted to be zero. We studied this question using both empirical and quantum-mechanical force models. Both sets of simulations showed that the erosion of carbon due to low-energy (< 30 ev) hydrogen isotopes is due to a swift chemical sputtering mechanism. In this process, the covalent bond between two carbon atoms is broken by a hydrogen ion attacking the region between the carbon atoms. The swift bond-breaking mechanism explains the significant carbon erosion observed in experiments at hydrogen kinetic energies far too low to lead to physical sputtering. The mechanism also explains the experimentally observed H isotope effect, which is an important factor in the modelling of plasma-facing material erosion by D/T plasmas. Our studies on the swift chemical sputtering of silicon-doped carbon structures show reduced C erosion yields with increasing Si dopant concentration. The Si sputtering yields remained negligible throughout the Si concentration range considered (0 30 atomic %). Our results thus encourage the use of silicon as a dopant material in carbon-based divertor materials. 64

Figure 52. (upper part) Hydrocarbon sputtering from an a-c:h surface by an impinging H ion (circled). The yellow spheres represent C atoms and the red ones, H atoms. In the first frame (a), we see the ion approaching a CH 2 group at the surface. The initial velocity direction of the ion is designated with the arrow. The ion penetrates between two carbon atoms (b) (d), forces them apart and bonds to the carbon atom leaving the surface. The CH 3 group has a finite velocity away from the surface (e) and is sputtered (f). The graph below shows the potential energy of the system (with zero corresponding to the initial potential energy). (lower part) The letters (a) (f) in the graph refer to the snapshots in the upper part. The graph shows that the potential energy of the system is raised by about 4 5 ev during the bond-breaking process. 65

To understand codeposition and redeposition of hydrocarbon molecules drifting in the fusion reactor, we have examined the sticking mechanisms of small hydrocarbons on carbon surfaces. The simulations concentrated on chemisorption of CH 3 on unsaturated carbon sites (dangling bonds). The results for CH 3 sticking on single, isolated dangling bonds were in excellent agreement with the experiments. The simulations could explain the puzzling result that the CH 3 sticking cross section can be larger than the average area of a carbon surface site. The modelling also showed how different local atomic neighbourhoods of the unsaturated carbon sites can lead to different sticking cross sections, differing by up to two orders of magnitude. The results raise the question of whether the sticking of redeposited CH 3 can be described with a single value of the sticking probability for the different types of C:H surfaces, as is commonly done in larger-scale impurity transport modelling. We have also examined erosion of the metallic divertor materials by examining the self-sputtering of tungsten by small clusters. It is well established that energetic cluster bombardment can lead to enhanced sputtering yields in various materials, compared to the yields induced by single atoms. However, this effect has not yet been considered in plasma-facing material erosion studies. The simulations showed enhanced W sputtering yields at total cluster energies above 2 kev. It was further shown that the bombardment by small clusters reduces to single atom bombardment at impact energies below 2 kev. Hence, provided that the sheath potential is kept low enough, i.e., that there are no appreciable fractions of redeposited clusters with energies above 2 kev, the enhancement of plasmafacing material erosion due to cluster bombardment does not have to be considered. 3.4.3 Erosion, Deposition and Material Transport at JET VTT Processes J. Likonen (Project Manager), O. Antson, S. Lehto and T. Renvall University of Helsinki, Accelerator Laboratory J. Keinonen (Head of Laboratory), T. Ahlgren, W. Rydman, T. Sajavaara and E. Vainonen-Ahlgren Diarc Technology J. Kolehmainen and S. Tervakangas Introduction Experiments with the Mk I divertor at JET, in 1994 95, demonstrated that much of the carbon responsible for co-deposition in the divertor is sputtered from the walls of the main chamber, even though the primary plasma contact areas are in the divertor. Notably, using a divertor only comprised of Be tiles, the principal plasma impurity was generally carbon, and heavy deposition of carbon occurred on the Be tiles at the inner divertor. Deposition in JET divertor tiles has been observed to be asymmetric; i.e., heavy deposition occurs in the scrape-off layer (SOL) at the inner divertor whereas there is little deposition at the outer divertor. Heavy deposition at the inner divertor has led to flaking on the water-cooled louvres and, after the DTE1 tritium experiment at JET, it was observed that the majority of the retained tritium is in the flakes that have spallen from the louvres. The asymmetry in the deposition implies a drift in the SOL from outboard to inboard, as has been seen in JET using reciprocating probes. Prior to the 2001 shutdown at JET, an experiment was devised to provide specific information on material transport and the SOL flows observed at JET. 13 CH 4 and SiH 4 were injected into the plasma boundary in the last day of discharges, using one type of discharge only. 66

Surface analysis of JET tiles and sample handling A new laboratory facility was set up at VTT Processes for handling the first-wall components contaminated by tritium and beryllium. The laboratory is equipped with two glove boxes operated in negative pressure, local exhaust and a fume cupboard. The analytical instrumentation available for the characterisation work requires that the sample size be below 20 mm in diameter and samples need to be cut from the CFC tiles. A drilling method was developed for extracting samples from the region where the marker stripe on the tile is deposited. Six divertor tiles from the shutdown of JET in 2001 were delivered to VTT in February 2002 for erosion/deposition studies. The tiles had both mechanical markers for determination of large-scale erosion or deposition and poloidal stripes of a C+10 % B layer on a Re interlayer for smaller amounts of erosion/deposition. Samples were cut of the poloidal stripes on the tiles and analysed by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and ion beam techniques. These techniques were used to measure erosion/redeposition and transport of impurities, and to determine the hydrogen isotope (H, D) distributions, both in the depth and the poloidal direction. 13 C and 28 Si distributions in the poloidal direction were measured with SIMS and time-of-flight elastic recoil detection analysis (TOF-ERDA). Samples for SIMS and ion beam analyses were selected so that their poloidal position was close to the mechanical markers indicated in Figure 53. Erosion and deposition Coated divertor tiles exposed in JET for the 1999 2001 operations have been used to assess erosion/deposition. The surface composition of the deposits on the inner wall tiles is mainly carbon, beryllium, hydrogen, deuterium and oxygen according to TOF- ERD and SIMS analyses (Figures 54 55). The composition deeper in the deposits is quite different to that in the surface layer (Figure 55). The films underneath the surface layer are very rich in beryllium, and depleted in carbon. Layers rich in metals have also been found at the inner divertor wall previously at JET. Figure 53. The JET divertor tile set. Sampling spots for SIMS and TOF-ERD analysis are indicated with red arrows. 67

30 m2222 JET 1/1 53 MeV I 10+ 3 ( ρ = 2.0 g/cm ) 13 C 30 m2222 JET 3/4 53 MeV I 10+ 3 ( ρ = 2.0 g/cm ) 13 C 2 D 1 H 0 Be 2 D 1 H 0 Be Concentration (at. %) 20 10 Concentration (at. %) 20 10 Concentration (at. %) 0 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Depth (nm) m2222 JET 1/1 53 MeV I 10+ 3 ( ρ = 2.0 g/cm ) Ni N 11 B CI Re S Concentration (at. %) 0 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Depth (nm) m2222 JET 3/4 53 MeV I 10+ 3 ( ρ = 2.0 g/cm ) Ni N Re 0.2 0.2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Depth (nm) 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Depth (nm) Figure 54. TOF-ERDA depth profiles of sample 1/1 (left) and sample 3/4 (right). The change in the composition of the deposit may be related to a decrease in the temperature of the JET vessel walls from 320 Cto200 C in December 2000. This also reduced the average temperatures of the inner wall tiles 1 and 3. The model for erosion/deposition in JET when the vessel wall is at 320 C predicts that impurities in the SOL come at inner wall tiles, but the carbon is chemically re-eroded and transported to the shadowed regions of inner floor tile 4 and the inner louvre region, leaving a rich Be layer on inner wall tiles 1 and 3. However, the outer carbon-rich part of the film on these tiles may indicate that the chemical re-erosion was switched off by reducing the wall temperature of JET to 200 C in December 2000. The film on inner floor tile 4 contains mainly carbon. Some beryllium can be found in the part of the tile shadowed by the septum, but little where the tile is shadowed by tile 3. The deposit on the shadowed region (sample 4/10) contains large amounts of deuterium. The sample from the sloping part of 68

10 5 (a) 10 5 (b) 10 4 1 H 2H 10 4 Intensity (s ) -1 10 3 10 2 10 1 9 Be 11 B 12 C 13 C 58 Ni 185 Re 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Depth ( µ m) 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Depth ( µ m) Figure 55. SIMS depth profiles of samples 1/1 (a) and 3/4 (b). the tile (sample 4/8) has a very thick, powdery deposit containing mainly carbon and some hydrogen and deuterium, except at the surface. Samples from the part shadowed by the septum and the middle part of outer floor tile 6 have thick deposits of some micrometers containing mostly carbon. The deposit is rich with deuterium whereas the beryllium content is low. The sloping part (sample 6/7) has very thick, powdery deposits containing mainly carbon. The outer part (shadowed by outer wall tile 7) has clearly a thinner deposit containing mainly carbon and deuterium, and some beryllium. In some areas at the outer wall, there are no remaining signs of the rhenium and boron markers, suggesting several micrometres of erosion in these regions, whilst at some other points, reduced quantities of boron and rhenium relative to the composition prior to exposure were still present. Erosion of the coatings is seen at the outer divertor wall, and on all the inner main chamber wall and outer poloidal limiter tiles. The amount of deposition and erosion in the divertor was measured mechanically by micrometer and with SIMS. According to the micrometer measurements, the thickness of the deposit on the inner divertor wall increases towards the bottom, reaching a maximum of ~90 µm at the bottom of inner wall tile 3. There are even thicker powdery deposits (thickness > 200 µm) on the small section of the floor that can be accessed by the plasma, both at the inner and outer divertor legs. The thicknesses of the deposits obtained in SIMS measurements agree reasonably well with the micrometer measurements. There are, however, some differences between the micrometer and SIMS results, especially at the bottom of inner wall tile 3. One reason for this is that the slots drilled in the tiles used in micrometer measurements and the SIMS samples are in different toroidal locations. In addition, the SIMS samples are not exactly at the same poloidal location as the slots. On the other hand, the deposits are inhomogeneous, both in the toroidal and poloidal directions. Material transport in SOL Prior to the 2001 shutdown, an experiment was devised to provide specific information on material transport and SOL flows observed at JET. 13 CH 4 and SiH 4 were injected into the plasma boundary on the last day of discharges, using one type of discharge only. The purpose of the experiment was to determine how the 13 C and silicon are transported around the SOL, and where they are eventually deposited. 69

SIMS and TOF-ERD analyses show that 13 C from the puffing experiment is clearly deposited on the inner divertor wall tiles 1 and 3, but it is not found on the outer divertor and inner floor tile 4. Integrating the amounts of 13 C through the inner divertor wall tiles and extrapolating it to the entire inner divertor wall of JET (assuming uniform concentrations toroidally), gives 50% of the injected amount of 13 C. This estimate may be considered accurate to not better than a factor of 2. This confirms the drift of impurities from outboard to inboard, the 13 C injected from the top of the vessel is swept towards the inner divertor. The injection of a silicon-containing species was supposed to show whether material from the outer divertor is transported all the way round the SOL to the inner divertor. However, the amount of silicon injected as silane in a D 2 carrier gas for safety reasons was small, and SIMS and IBA measurements have shown that CFC material contains silicon as an impurity, at a concentration comparable to the amount redistributed by the plasma interaction. Thus no conclusions may be drawn on this specific point. Figure 56. Tungsten-coated JET divertor tiles. Tungsten coated JET tiles For the operational campaigns from 2002 to 2004, a set of JET divertor tiles was coated with poloidal tungsten stripes for erosion/deposition studies. This set of tiles was installed in the JET divertor during the JET shutdown in 2001. The tungsten stripes were deposited by the company DIARC Technology Inc., using the DIARC plasma method (Figure 56). A tungsten beam was created by plasma generators and masked tiles were exposed to it while being rotated in a rack. The deposition was carried out in a vacuum at room temperature. The thickness of the coating (3µm) was determined using profilometry and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS). The main impurities found in the coatings on a silicon monitor sample and a CFC trial sample were nickel and iron, which are components of the steel used in the deposition equipment. In both samples, 3.6 at-% of nickel and 0.13 at-% of iron were found by particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE). The quality of the coating prepared by the plasma deposition method has been tested in a Neutral Beam Test-bed at JET. The results were highly satisfactory and confirmed the good quality of the coatings. 70

3.5 Fusion Neutronics VTT Processes F. Wasastjerna (Project Manager) 3.5.1 Background Although plasma physics is the domain of physics most closely associated with fusion reactors, one cannot neglect neutronics, at least not for reactors based on tritium-deuterium fusion. For each fusion reaction, releasing 17.5 MeV, one neutron is produced. This means that a fusion reactor is a more prolific source of neutrons than a fission reactor of the same power, which produces approximately one neutron per 80 MeV. Moreover, in a fusion reactor, the neutrons carry 80% of the reaction energy, compared with about 2.5% for fission reactors. The neutrons from D-T fusion start at 14 MeV, so they are able to cause a greater variety of reactions than in a fission reactor. Thus, it is essential to calculate the reactions induced by fusion neutrons. The reactions should not only include the tritium production essential to providing the tritium required for the fusion process but a variety of other reactions. In particular, the neutrons deposit energy in the reactor materials, heating them with some energy multiplication caused by exothermic activation reactions. This is, in fact, the main mechanism of energy transfer from the plasma in a reactor utilising T-D fusion. It is essential to estimate how much heat is deposited where. In particular, the heat deposition in the cryogenic components, such as superconducting magnet coils, must be limited. Further, the neutrons activate materials, producing radioactive waste and complicating maintenance. They may also cause material damage, and helium production in structural materials may cause problems for welding. Calculating the reaction rates for all these reactions is necessary. In the period between 1998 and 2002, the Finnish work in this area consisted of two parts: shielding calculations for ITER FEAT and participation in the Power Plant Conceptual Study (PPCS) project. 3.5.2 ITER Neutronics The ITER work comprised shielding calculations for ion cyclotron resonance, lower hybrid and electron cyclotron resonance heating and current drive launchers, both in the equatorial ports and in the upper ports (the latter being only for the electron cyclotron launcher). The calculations were performed using MCNP4B and the FENDL-1 data library. The heating of the cryogenic components was found to be well below the maximum permissible value. The shutdown dose rate turned out to be more problematic. This is the dose rate caused by material activation, 10 6 seconds (about 11.5 days) after shutdown. The requirement for hands-on maintenance in the area around the outer ends of the ports makes it necessary to keep this dose rate below 100 µsv/h. To properly calculate the shutdown dose rate, the following must be done: first, a neutron transport calculation to find the neutron flux causing activation; second, a calculation of the activation; third, a calculation of the transport of gamma photons from the activated materials and of the dose rate produced by them. The calculation can be done by performing these steps separately, in what is called the rigorous two-step method (R2S), using two separate transport calculations, but it is also possible to combine the steps and use the so-called direct one-step method (D1S), in which the neutron and photon transport calculations are combined into a single n,p calculation in MCNP, using delayed gammas from activation instead of prompt gammas. This requires some minor modifications to MCNP, but such a modified version is available in Garching, and this was the method used. Actually, even the D1S method requires long calculation times, so in some cases, it was found necessary to resort to calculating only the fast neutron flux, above 1 MeV. This can be converted into a dose rate, using a conversion factor obtained from a full D1S calculation. Since this conversion factor tends to be about 1 to 1.5*10-5 (µsv/h)/(n/cm 2 s), depending on the geometry and the assumed irradiation scenario (power history), the fast flux should be somewhere below 10 7 n/cm 2 s. 71

Figure 57. 2-D geometric plot of ICRH launcher. The problem is that there is a gap between the launcher plugs and the ports, and, in order to ensure that the plugs can be replaced, this gap must be at least 2 cm thick, at least for most of its length. This is sufficient to cause substantial neutron streaming along this gap. In fact, if there were a straight gap all the way from the plasma to the flange at the rear end of the port, the shutdown dose rate would be far above the permitted value. Introducing a dogleg in the gap brings down the streaming to a more tolerable level, but even so, the activation caused by this streaming accounts for more than 90% of the shutdown dose rate. A second dogleg, to reduce the streaming further, would be desirable from a neutronics viewpoint but is apparently not feasible. Nonetheless, with proper design, the shutdown dose rate can be kept below the limit in those locations where personnel will have to work. The most problematic areas are inside the rear end of the launcher plug, where radiation from above, below and the sides causes high dose rates, and near the root of each port. 3.5.3 Work on Conceptual Power Plant Study PPCS is a project to study possible designs for fusion power plants. Four such designs were studied. Models A and B are based on limited extrapolations in physics and technology and focus on credibility, model C is intermediate and model D advanced in all respects. The Finnish contribution was to perform neutronics calculations for model C. This is a dual-coolant lithium-lead design. The breeding material, molten Pb-17Li (lead with 17 atomic-% lithium, enriched to 90% Li-6) is also used as a coolant. In addition, helium is also used for cooling. The structural material is Eurofer low-activation steel. SiC inserts are used as insula- 72

tion around the Pb-Li channels but not as structural material. The calculations were performed using a slightly modified version of MCNP4C, with special source subroutines obtained from Culham. These make it possible to model the fusion source more accurately than the normal MCNP source definition allows. The cross section data were mainly taken from FENDL-2, with some FENDL-1 and ENDF/ B-VI data where FENDL-2 data were not available. In the geometric model, there were no ports, but the blanket was modelled in fairly considerable detail. The plasma shape on which the model was based turned out to be incorrect: it had nearly zero triangularity, whereas the X-point triangularity should have been 0.7. This means that the overall shape of the reactor should have been substantially different, but the neutronics results are not likely to be seriously affected by this. They depend mainly on material thickness rather than on the shape of the plasma and reactor. The neutron wall loading may be the quantity most affected by the overall shape, and this was, in fact, recalculated for the correct shape. The divertor was not modelled properly, since the required information was not available. Instead, a lump of steel, bearing some resemblance to preliminary sketches of the divertor, was used. This should be sufficient for these calculations, since they did not cover quantities involving the divertor. The following global quantities were calculated: the tritium breeding ratio the neutron wall loading the nuclear heating (excluding the divertor). In addition, the following quantities were calculated inboard near the mid-plane (actually from 50 cm below to 50 cm above the mid-plane): The dose rate [Gy] to the epoxy at the front of the winding pack; The fast fluence (E>0.1 MeV)[cm -2 ] at the front of the winding pack; The displacement damage to copper [dpa] at the front of the winding pack; The nuclear heating [Wcm -3 ] at the front of the winding pack; The helium production [atomic fraction] at the rear of the cold shield. Most of the calculated quantities were found to have acceptable values, but the inboard mid-plane epoxy dose and copper displacement rate were excessive. Later, supplementary calculations were carried out, with the thickness of the cold shield increased by 10 cm and that of the inboard vacuum vessel by 5 cm, which resulted in an acceptable copper dpa rate and an epoxy dose slightly above the limit. Changing the composition of the hot shield, cold shield and vacuum vessel filling, using tungsten carbide as a shielding material, brought even the epoxy dose down to an acceptable level. In addition, the effects on the nuclear heating of the cold shield and on the tritium breeding ratio of mixing the Eurofer steel in the outer 15 cm of the hot shield with 40 volume percent ZrH 2 were studied. It was found that the heating of the cold shield was well below the desired limit of 2% of the total nuclear heating, and the tritium breeding ratio remained satisfactory. 73

74 Figure 58. PPCS Model C: The fast and total flux as functions of distance from the inboard first wall (linear distance scale, logarithmic flux scale). Bulk refers to the bulk shielding, gap to the gap between blanket modules, and side to the sides of the blanket modules. The gap terminates at the fifth vertical gridline (where the side values end); the gap values from there on refer to locations in line with the gap. Note the slow initial decline of the flux: Pb-17Li is a poor shielding material.

4 Remote Handling and Viewing Tampere University of Technology, Institute of Hydraulics and Automation Mikko Siuko (Project manager), J. Jortikka, R. Karjalainen, T. Kemppainen, H. Koivisto, P. Kunttu, J. Mattila, E. Mäkinen, M. Pitkäaho, J. Poutanen, H. Puhakka, A. Raneda, J. Tammisto, M. Toivo, J. Uusi-Heikkilä, M. Vilenius (Head of Laboratory) and T. Virvalo 4.1 Development of Water-hydraulic Tools and Manipulators for ITER Divertor Maintenance 4.1.1 Introduction TUT/IHA has worked for ITER since 1994 as a member of the team developing ITER divertor maintenance and component handling systems. IHA has participated in various projects on remotely handled divertor maintenance. IHA s special area is water hydraulics. IHA has designed, manufactured and delivered water-hydraulic maintenance tool prototypes to ENEA CRE Brasimone for further testing in a full-scale test environment. Work has been carried out in co-operation with NNC Ltd (UK) and ENEA CR Brasimone (Italy) under the supervisory control of the EFDA and ITER JCT. In Finland, work has been carried out in co-operation with HYTAR Oy, Plustech Oy, Adwatec Oy and Outokumpu Oy. In the ITER environment, water hydraulics provides several advantages over other power transmission techniques. Water-hydraulic components have a high power-to-size ratio and construction is simple and reliable for rotating and linear motions. Due to the high power-to-size and power-to-weight ratios, the mechanical structure of devices can be designed to be lighter. An important advantage is that, unlike oil, potential water drops do not contaminate the environment. Water is not activated or affected by the radiation of the environment. Due to these factors, water hydraulics can be considered for use in various applications in the ITER maintenance equipment. From 1999 to 2002, TUT/IHA has participated in several projects related to divertor maintenance. IHA has performed tests on the multi-link type joining method, developed tools for assembling and disassembling the divertor cassette elements joined with the multi-link method, modified the oil-hydraulic manipulator for water hydraulics and developed and analysed the Cassette Multifunctional Mover water-hydraulic cassette-manipulating system. 4.1.2 Multi-Link Joint Due to harsh operation conditions, the divertor cassettes have to be replaced. To minimise the amount of high-active waste generated during divertor maintenance, the divertor cassette body is designed to be re-usable and its plasma-facing components are replaceable. The divertor cassette refurbishment is carried out by remote-controlled equipment in Hot Cell. The plasma-facing components are connected to the cassette body by four multi-link joints, each of which is composed of four links. The links are connected to the target and the cassette by 100-mm long hollow pins. The pins are inserted into the pin-way formed by the aligned holes of the links and the target (or the cassette). Once the pins are inserted, they are expanded by pulling a mandrel through the hollow pin. Part of the expansion is elastic and part is plastic. When the mandrel is pulled out, there is still remaining expansion, therefore also remaining preloading between the pin and surrounding material. The process of pulling the mandrel through the pin is called swaging. 75

Figure 59. Right: Joint schematic figure. 1. target, 2. cassette, 3. target side pin, 4. link. Once the links (4) are inserted into the slots of 2, the pin can be inserted into the pin hole formed by 4 and 2 and expanded. Middle: Joint cross-section. Left: Joint cross-section. Multi-link joint characterization The joint was designed to be tight but still allow small thermal expansion, so the most important characteristic of the joining method to be studied was the joint torque indicating the level of achieved preloading. The joint torque should be lower for the pin-link contact than for the pin-cassette contact to ensure that the link is the joint wearing element, not the re-usable cassette. The joint torque indicates the surface pressure generated during the swaging process and depends on the following parameters: pin material (CuCrZr or AlBr) outer diameter of the pin (35.00 ±0.02 mm, not varied) inner hole diameter of the pin (17.5 ±0.01 mm, not varied) clearance between the pin and pin way (varied from 35.45 35.65 mm) material of the surrounding pin way (Nimonic 80A and AISI 316 L were used) diameter of the mandrel (18.4 18.9 mm). The surface pressure of the joint was defined by measuring the torque required to rotate the pin inside the surrounding pin way after swaging. The samples used were carefully measured before and after testing. Approximately 130 pins and 180 plates were tested. The following tests were carried out: Free pin tests Identical CuCrZr and ALBr pins were swaged with varying mandrel sizes. After swaging, the remaining expansion was measured to define the pin expansion properties as a function of the pin material and the mandrel size. Plate-pin tests Pins were swaged inside a set of plates that had a varying hole diameter. Varying mandrel sizes were used. The goal was to define the relation between the initial pin-plate clearance and the achieved joint preloading. As a final result, the clearances giving close to the desired preloading were found. The clearance variations smaller than the manufacturing tolerances gave about 50% change in the resulting preloading. Plate re-use tests Pins were expanded into plate holes and then removed (drilled out). Then another pin was swaged into the holes and removed, a total of four times, in order to study the plate re-usability. The result was that the plate holes expand about 0.1 mm during the first expansion, and 76

only a few hundreds of a millimetre with the next expansions. Despite the enlargened hole diameter, the measured torques (required to rotate the plate relative to the pin) remained almost at the same level as at the beginning. This suggests that the plates can sustain several pin expansions reasonably well. Single link joint tests Samples of the joint with one link were manufactured. The links and the housings were machined with the hole size defined from the previous tests. In addition, the mandrel size was defined from the previous tests. The goal of the tests was to define the joint behaviour under loading and articulation. Measured parameters: Joint sample geometry before and after tests Joint sample deformation during loading Joint sample articulation torque Four different loading and articulation circles were performed for the samples to study the different loading situations. As a result of quite complex measuring routines, it can be said that the samples could take static loading up to 80 kn, but when combined with simultaneous articulation, some loosening was found. In addition, the repeating (1000 times) articulation of an un-loaded joint caused galling. 4.1.3 Tools for the Divertor Cassette Refurbishment At the end of 1998, IHA started developing tools for multi-link joint assembly and disassembly. The divertor cassette refurbishment operations are planned to be performed in a hot cell with typical hot cell handling equipment. IHA s contribution was to design, manufacture and deliver tool prototypes for testing to DRP, ENEA CR Brasimone. In December 1999, the prototypes were delivered and the first tests performed. Tests showed that the system was operating as expected. The pin removal by drilling was causing some difficulties, which were overcome by adding cooling system to the machining tool. The operation of refurbishment tools is verified with typical hot cell handling devices that already exist at DRP. There is a bridge crane (payload 5000 kg), a heavy manipulator attached to the bridge of the crane (payload 100 kg), a manually operated light manipulator and a cassette transportation carriage. In addition, some tools made for testing the Shear key joining option are still valid such as the C hook for handling the target with the crane, and a remote-controlled bolting tool (ESD) for turning bolts, handled with the light manipulator. Figure 60. Single link test sample in loading and articulation test bench. 77

Each cassette refurbishment cycle includes cassette cleaning, plasma facing component removal, register surface measurement, fresh component assembly and measuring. When designing tools and operations for the target removal, the following considerations were noted: The target is released by removing the pins from the cassette side of the joint; The cassette body shall not be damaged during the target removal. Instead, the target, links and pins are discarded after removal; The tool and component handling is carried out with the DRP s existing RH equipment. The handling system capacity and controllability sets limitations and requirements on the tools, which have to have positioning features so they can be adequately positioned with the existing RH system. The pins and the pin holes have to be very accurately manufactured and have to remain intact during assembly in order to achieve the required torque. As many operations as possible will be made in the workshop to simplify and minimise RH operations. The target is assembled manually in the workshop and assembly to the cassette is made using RH equipment in the hot cell. During the tool design process, ENVISION (DENEB) software was used to verify the tool operation. 3D models of all the handling devices were made, and all the tools were designed with Pro-Engineer 3D CAD, from whence they were easily transported into the 3D model in ENVISION. It was, thus, possible to simulate all the operations and verify the tool compatibility with the handling devices and verify the planned operation cycle. Pin-mandrel assembly (PMA) The pin-mandrel assembly is a composition of mandrel, pull rod, lubricated pin, flange and interface seat, which are assembled in the workshop prior to introduction into the hot cell. It is handled by the light manipulator in order to maintain the sensitivity of the pin insertion operation. The pin-mandrel assembly provides a handling interface for the light manipulator and a pulling interface for the pin expansion tool. The components are presented in Figure 61. Pin expansion tool (EXPT) The pin expansion is done by pulling a mandrel through a pin with a pin expansion tool (EXPT). The mandrel s pulling force is generated by a water-hydraulic cylinder. The EXPT is handled with the heavy manipulator. The cylinder diameter is 100 mm and the stroke 150 mm. With a nominal pressure of 210 bar, the cylinder generates 135 kn of pulling force. Since operation requires high forces and an adequate force reserve, water hydraulics is used. The flange at the end of the U-shaped support connects to the pin-mandrel assembly and aligns the tool so that it is parallel with the pin. Inside the piston rod is an integrated position transducer indicating the expansion cylinder position. The position can be read on the display of the operator control panel. The EXPT interface for the pin assembly is a block with a T-shape groove, which meets the T-shape shaft end of the pin assembly, when the EXPT is lifted into place with the heavy manipulator. Proper placing is indicated by a microswitch. Figure 61. PMA (pin-mandrel assembly). 1) mandrel, 2) pull rod, 3) pin, 4) flange, 5) interface seat for the expansion tool. 78

Figure 62. Cross-section of the EXPT (connected to the pin-mandrel assembly). 1) Cylinder, 2) Position Transducer, 3) Piston, 4) Piston rod, 5) U-shaped support, 6) Interface between the mandrel pull rod and the tool. 7) Mandrel pull rod. 8) Mandrel. Right: Heavy manipulator handling the EXPT. Target aligning tool (TAT) The target-aligning tool (TAT) is used in both the target assembly and removal. During the target assembly, the TAT guides the target into place and locks it to the cassette so that all the pin ways are aligned and the pin-mandrel assemblies can be inserted. During the target removal, the TAT is used as an interface for the pin removal drill. The TAT also locks the target to the cassette and prevents the target from shifting during the drilling. The TAT (Target Aligning Tool) consists of a rigid body structure with chamfered edges that guide the target when placed by the crane and the light manipulator. Attached are four water-hydraulic operated positioning pins for aligning and locking the target accurately in respect to the cassette. Cylinder piston ends are tapered to find the register holes of the target and the cassette. In each of the cylinders, there is an integrated microswitch to indicate the piston position. TAT also has a three-point interface for the pin removal drill. When placing the target on the cassette, the TAT is locked to the target before introducing it to the cassette. TAT s chamfered edges take guidance from the cassette side ensuring that the links find the cassette slots. Clearance between the TAT and the cassette side is less than 0.5 mm so the target slides into place smoothly. Pin removal drill (PRD) Releasing the target is done by removing the pin. Drilling was found to be the most suitable commercial method for pin removal. The cassette body must not be damaged during the target removal, so the pins are not completely drilled off and a thin layer of material still remains after drilling. Removing the inner part of the pin reduces the surface pressure so the remaining part of the pin can be pushed out from the pin hole (Figure 62, right). Since the drilling has to be made accurately to leave a thin, even pin surface layer, a special machining tool is used (Figure 63). The tool is guided accurately by a glide bearing at the tip of the drill. The bearing tightly fits the pin centre hole. The drilling tool and machine attachment provide the required flexibility for the guiding effect of the tool tip bearing. The drill has one replaceable cutting edge and the drill diameter can be adjusted. Because of just one cutting edge, the drill makes a hole larger than the outer diameter of the drill, which makes drill removal easier. Instead of designing a new tool, an existing commercial drilling unit was used. The drilling unit DP14/D/12/*/2R/S150 (Drill Matic S.R.L, Italy) was selected. The drill unit spindle is driven by an electric motor and the drill feed is pneumatic. The drilling unit is equipped with an adjustable interface for the TAT and an interface that complies 79

Figure 63. Left: The counter bore drilling tool used for pin removal. Right: The principle of the pin removal. A) Pin shape before expansion. B) Drill size is marked with a dotted line. C) Pin inner part has been drilled, the part remaining can be collected from the hole. with the heavy manipulator. A potentiometer was also mounted on the drill unit in order to get information about the drill depth on the display of the operator control panel. 4.1.4 Water-Hydraulic Actuators for ITER Maintenance Devices Sophisticated water hydraulics is still a relatively new technology in the commercial sense and does not have the same variety of components available as there is for traditional oil hydraulics; therefore, water-hydraulic components needed to be developed and qualified to meet the requirements of the ITER remote-handling operations. The main contribution was from that actuator development work based on construction and testing. The goal here was to learn the critical characteristics of each actuator type with water to be able to construct actuators for any application later. Three actuator types, hydraulic pumps and a control valve were designed and manufactured. In addition, sealing materials and their properties were studied from the point of view of friction and leakage. Typically, water-hydraulic pumps are electrically driven, made for a relatively high volume. In most ITER applications, the motion is very slow, so the pump volume should also be low to avoid extra heating power. Very high forces can be achieved with low power if the velocity is low. In addition, in some cases, tool handling was easier if the hydraulic pump was integrated to the tool itself and hoses from the power unit to the tool were not required. IHA has developed small-size water-hydraulic pump units for portable applications. The prototype has been designed with easy size and flow scaling in mind. Piston stroke and piston diameter can be adjusted. The pump is driven by electric motor with an inverter. The pump has been tested as a 1cc 3 /r and 2 cc 3 /r version, with pressures up to 210 bar, with 1000 3000 rpm. The prototype shows good performance and efficiency in a compact size. Figure 64. Left: The pump assembled, without end cover. Right: The pump parts. 80

Figure 65. Left: The cylinder type rotary actuator. Right: The vane type rotary actuator. When the volume used fluctuates a lot, the centrifugal pumps can adopt to changes without problems. They are used to produce pressure instead of volume, like pumps normally used in hydraulics. However, centrifugal pumps are normally made for pressure lower than 60 bar. IHA is testing a prototype unit based on a high-speed electric motor and centrifugal pump designed for this case. The pump is an inverter controlled high-speed motor driving centrifugal pump up to 48 000 60 000 rpm, which provides pressures up to 210 bar. The theoretical max. flow is 40 l/min. Hydraulic rotary and linear actuators transform pressure and flow to force and motion. Rotary actuators are especially suitable for manipulator use, when they can be directly mounted to one joint without needing complicated transmissions and gears. TUT/IHA has been studying the properties of water-hydraulic vane actuators. Due to water s low viscosity, the key issues have been static and dynamic seals. In addition, bearings need special solutions. Some restrictions of the vane actuator, like movement less than one full turn, can be avoided by using a cylinder-type rotary actuator. In a cylinder-type rotary actuator, the rotary movement is produced with two or four cylinders and a gear rack. Such a unit has been designed and manufactured in the IHA laboratory. The test phase was just about to begin when this paper was written. The cylinder is the most basic hydraulic actuator that produces linear motion. Although the principle of the cylinder is very simple, the characteristics can be affected a lot by the design of the sealing. With the correct choice of sealing, the cylinder can be optimised for low friction servo use, or for low leak support use. TUT/IHA is testing the different sealing materials and shapes suitable for water-hydraulic use. Various seals have been tested and their friction recorded as a function of speed and pressure. IHA is studying seal characteristics with a cylinder test bench, which is composed of a water-hydraulic cylinder and an oil-hydraulic loading cylinder. There are weights sliding on guides between the two cylinders. The motion can be done either horizontally or vertically. The test bench is used to drive the water-hydraulic cylinder in various loading situations for testing cylinder sealings in various pressure levels. 4.1.5 In-Vessel Dexterous Manipulator (Maestro Manipulator) Introduction IHA/TUT has worked on the development of a water-hydraulic dexterous manipulator for ITER in cooperation with French CEA since 1999. The research activities carried out during 1999 consisted of studying the basic properties of a mock-up of the 81

third joint of the oil-hydraulic manipulator Maestro. Reference measurements were taken with oil; after that, several mechanical modifications were carried out on the mock-up to make it water-compatible and reference measurements were also carried out. The preliminary results of the measurements indicated that the joint behaviour with water was on par with that of oil. During 2000, more tests were carried out and more specific properties of the water-hydraulic joint were obtained: the natural frequency was higher with water than with oil, the water-hydraulic joint had a lower viscous friction, and the increase in internal leakage with water increased damping and positional error, which can be compensated for with a suitable controller. During 2001, a dynamic model of the Maestro arm was developed which included mechanical properties and dynamics of the water-hydraulic system. A complete model of the Maestro arm includes an environment model and a control system model, which should be provided by CEA. Possible uses for the complete model of the Maestro manipulator arm are: trajectory planning, operator training, controller tuning, online monitoring (by comparing the behaviour of the real Maestro arm with the simulation model, malfunctions can be found), etc. Partial validation of the model was carried out at IHA s facilities. The research work carried out during 2002 consisted in updating the simulation model and investigating the torque control properties of the mock-up joint. Description of Maestro joint The studied vane actuator has 270 degrees of travel and a maximum torque of 1098 Nm when the supply pressure is P S = 21 MPa. The actuator is made of Titanium, weighs 33.8 kg and the overall dimensions are 130 mm x 120 mm. The vane actuator is studied with tap water and is controlled using a water-compatible servovalve. The vane actuator is equipped with an encoder and an additional multiplying unit, obtaining a resolution of 125000 pulses/revolution. Torque is derived using two pressure sensors. In order to study the effect of different loads and environmental conditions, a boom and additional weights are attached to the actuator. The vane actuator is monitored and controlled using dspace hardware and software and Matlab / Simulink software. Optimisation of the Maestro non-linear water-hydraulic model The complete model of the Maestro manipulator arm that was built to study the feasibility of Maestro joint actuators for water-hydraulic use was used during the year 2002 to explore the possibilities of online condition monitoring. The underlying idea is that by comparing the behaviour of the real Maestro arm with the non-linear simulation model, malfunctions can be found or even detected before they happen. In order to do so, several optimisations in the hydraulic model of the complete 6 DOF water-hydraulic model had to be carried out: valve leakage and a pressure relief valve model were added, and the actuator leakage coefficient was made variable depending on the pressure difference between actuator chambers. The validation of the non-linear hydraulic and mechanical model has been made using just one joint (Figure 66). Since a water-hydraulic Maestro arm is not yet available, the hydraulic and mechanical model should be validated at first with the oil-hydraulic version of the Maestro arm at CEA. Since the hydraulic model built is fully parameterised, it is relatively fast to change the fluid-dependent parameters and have an oil-hydraulic model to validate. With the improved hydraulic model, together with the existing mechanical model and control algorithm, it is also possible to investigate the interaction with different environments (capacitive environment, effect of impact forces) allowing the control parameters to be fine-tuned to handle those interactions. 82

Figure 66. Validation of the non-linear and linear models with experimental measurements. Analysis of the vane actuator for torque control applications The theoretical analysis of the vane actuator for torque control applications uses a linear model (Figure 67) of the hydraulic drive that is verified against experimental tests (Figure 66). The linear model is used to study the effect of valve saturation on the torque bandwidth of the actuator under different environmental conditions. The model is also used to analyse the effect of using pressure transducers for torque feedback in the case of torque control with the boom end in a fixed location. The pressure values at the actuator chambers obtained with the pressure transducers are filtered using a first-order filter to reduce oscillations. This is necessary because pressure levels fluctuate remarkably in the pressure chambers. Figure 67. Linear closed-loop torque control system. 83

Bandwidth In pressure control applications, the performance limit comes from the dynamics of the valve and valve saturation. The valve saturation effect on the system performance is analysed by studying the torque bandwidth. The torque bandwidth is an indication of the physical limits of the system in the force/torque domain and depends only on hydraulic parameters and not on control parameters. Considering a linear saturation profile (with slope K lin ), the transfer function that relates the torque to the actuator T act and the maximum torque T max is: T T act max qklin = K ( 1+ Ws)( 1+ τ s) + qk ce with K ce and W being the leakage-related parameters. Using the numerical parameters for water hydraulics, the transfer function represented above has a bandwidth of 57 rad/s (9 Hz). In the oil case, the bandwidth is 48 rad/s (7.6 Hz). Figure 68 shows how the bandwidth changes with environments of different stiffness for oil and water. The actuator bandwidth is higher with water than with oil. The highest bandwidth is obtained for very stiff environments (K env =10 7 Nm/rad). lin Torque control with the boom end in a fixed location Considering the use of a proportional gain (K) as the controller (Gc) in the linear system depicted in Figure 67, the steady state torque error is: Kce e = qk K + K q ce Since the effective leakage coefficient is higher for water than for oil, the steady state error in the torque control is higher with water than with oil. If a proportional and integral controller is used to ensure stability, the integral gain K i has to be (after substituting numerical parameters) K i < 25.0 + 0.002/K. Considering a first order filter for the pressure transducers to reduce oscillations (with time constant τ = 0.1 s) results in a new condition for the integral gain K i :K i < 10.6 + 0.0007/K. Therefore, the integral gain K i is considerably reduced (by more than half) due to the use of a first-order filter for the pressure transducers. The experimental results of torque control (Figure 69) show the step response of the system to a reference torque. The steady state error between the ref- Figure 68. Actuator bandwidth as a function of environmental stiffness. 84

Figure 69. Response of the system when the reference torque changes from 300 to 0 Nm. erence torque and the measured torque (with force sensor) is 5 Nm for Figure 69. Although the controller is able to accurately achieve the reference value using the torque feedback obtained with the pressure sensors, the achieved torque may differ from the real torque applied up to the value of the static friction force (Fs = 28 Nm). Therefore, the accuracy of the system for torque control is limited by the static friction torque. 4.1.6 Virtual Prototyping of Cassette Multifunctional Mover (CMM) Introduction The aim of the project is to build a virtual prototype of the CMM in order to analyse the feasibility of water hydraulics and the mechanical structure of the CMM to successfully carry out the task of transporting the cassette from/to the vacuum vessel (VV) through the service port. The cost and lack of a broad selection of water-hydraulic components makes it difficult to build and test complex water-hydraulic systems. The use of virtual prototyping for the development of waterhydraulic tools can be used to address this problem. IHA/TUT has worked on the development of a virtual prototype of the Cassette Multifunctional Mover (CMM) together with IMVE/LUT (Institute of Mechatronics and Virtual Engineering, Lappeenranta University of Technology) since 2001. The research activities carried out during 2001 involved the modelling of the mechanical flexibility of the Cassette and CMM and the modelling and simulation of the dynamics of the water-hydraulic system. During 2002, the flexible mechanical model and the water-hydraulic dynamic model were optimised and simulation results were obtained for the combined flexible mechanical model and water-hydraulic dynamics pointing out the suitability of water hydraulics and the mechanical structure of CMM and the cassette for carrying out the transportation of cassettes. In addition, during 2002, IHA built a water-hydraulic test bench to be able to provide the water-hydraulic simulation model with several experimentally found parameters. With the test bench, it is also possible to simulate several loading conditions of the water-hydraulic cylinders of the CMM. 85

Description of CMM The CMM (Figure 70) is a multi-degree-of-freedom system with hydraulic and electro-mechanical actuators, designed for the removal and installation of the standard cassettes through the service port. The hydraulic system consists of two pairs of water-hydraulic cylinders with their corresponding servovalves, allowing the cassette to be tilted and lifted. The transportation of the cassette by the CMM along the service port will cause oscillations of the cassette due to compliance of the hydraulic fluid trapped in the lifting and tilting cylinders and due to the mechanical flexibilities of the cassette and other parts of the mover. Since the clearance between the cassette and the service port floor and ceiling is about 20 mm and collision is to be avoided, it is necessary to study which design parameters of the CMM and the hydraulic system affect the oscillatory behaviour of the cassette in order to minimize the vibrations and be able to successfully perform the task. This is carried out by building a 3D virtual prototype of the CMM and the cassette that includes the dynamic behaviour due to hydraulic and mechanical flexibilities. Virtual prototype of the CMM The dynamic characteristics of the complete system are studied by building a non-linear hydraulic model of the water-hydraulic cylinders and valves and a mechanical model including FE description of the cassette and the flexible parts of the mover. The hydraulic circuit is modelled using Matlab and Simulink software and contains models of the servovalves and water-hydraulic cylinders. The servovalve model used takes into account turbulent and laminar flow. The water-hydraulic cylinder model includes a dynamic-friction model and internal leakage flow between cylinder chambers. In 2002, the water-hydraulic model described above was updated with friction and leakage-related parameters found experimentally (Figure 71), and a new internal valve leakage model was included in order to simulate the dynamics of the water-hydraulic system more accurately. The flexibility of the mechanism is modelled using the FE description of the cassette (Figure 72) and CMM components in ANSYS. The FE models are then integrated in ADAMS in order to add constraints and boundary conditions to the flexible mechanical system. Figure 70. Description of the system: (1) CMM body, (2) lifting cylinder, (3) tilting cylinder, (4) service port, (5) rails for longitudinal motion, (6) interface CMM to cassette, (7) reactor vessel, (8) cassette and (9) plasma facing components. 86

Figure 71. Identified friction parameters. Simulation results Figure 72. FE description of cassette. The complete model of the system is built in Simulink using ADAMS/Controls to integrate the dynamic characteristics of the mechanical system with the hydraulic circuit model. By means of this simulator, the total dynamic behaviour can be studied. 1.6 Oscillations of cassette in the vertical plane 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.576 1.57 Position [m] 1.2 1.1 1.565 1.56 1 1.555 0.9 0.8 0 5 10 15 Time [s] Figure 73. Oscillation of the cassette in the vertical plane when maximum input signal is given to the water-hydraulic cylinders. 87

The simulation results are displayed using 3D models of the components, which allow the interactions between the different components to be visualised in a graphical way. In addition, typical 2D plots showing the behaviour of different parameters can be obtained. In Figure 73 the effect of giving maximum step input for 5 seconds to the servovalves of the lifting and tilting cylinders simultaneously is visible. The amplitude of the oscillations in the vertical plane is about 10 mm. The simulation results show that when the cylinders are actuated simultaneously with a maximum input signal, the oscillations are within the specifications (the clearance is 20 mm). Hydraulic test bench A water-hydraulic test bench (Figure 74) consisting of a water-hydraulic cylinder and a loading cylinder (oil-hydraulic) was built during 2002 to experimentally determine several parameters for the hydraulic simulation model and to analyse the behaviour of a water-hydraulic cylinder under loading conditions similar to the ones affecting the lifting and tilting cylinders of the CMM. The water-hydraulic model and hydraulic simulation were validated using a hardware-in-the-loop approach. The validation consists of having a real water-hydraulic cylinder being affected by external forces generated by an oil-hydraulic cylinder, where the external forces have been obtained from the complete hydraulic and mechanical simulation model. In tests currently being carried out, the complete simulation model is executed giving full control signal to the servovalve of the lifting cylinder and keeping the servovalve of the tilting cylinder in zero position. Dynamic reaction forces due to the motion of the lifting cylinder are applied to the tilting cylinder and recorded. The recorded dynamic reaction forces are used as a force reference signal for the force-controlled oil-hydraulic cylinder while the valve of the water-hydraulic cylinder of the test bench is kept in zero position, as in the simulation model. Preliminary results indicate that the behaviour of the water-hydraulic cylinder of the test bench is similar to the one obtained through the use of the simulation model. Measurements concerning friction and leakage parameters were carried out (Figure 71) and used to update the water-hydraulic simulation model. In addition, valve measurements were performed to add the effect of internal valve leakage to the overall system. Figure 74. Water-hydraulic test bench. 88

4.2 In-Vessel Viewing System for ITER VTT Automation H. Ahola (Project Manager) and H. Berg VTT Electronics V. Heikkinen, M. Aikio, M. Borenius, A. Haapalainen, K. Keränen, A-J. Mattila, V-P. Putila and T. Seppänen HUT Automation Laboratory A. Halme (Head of Laboratory), P. Jakubik, M. Savela, J. Sievilä and J. Suomela Fortum Power and Heat J. Heimsch and J. Linden 4.2.1 Introduction Frequent inspections of the interior of the ITER Tokamak vacuum vessel will be required to check for damage caused by plasma operations. The environmental conditions inside the vessel are extreme: an ultra-high vacuum (10-7 Pa), a high level of radiation (3 x 10 4 Gy/h), a moderate temperature (about 200 C) and a high magnetic field (about 5 T). Therefore, any conventional viewing system cannot be applied and several alternative methods have been investigated. The In-Vessel Viewing System (IVVS), which has been studied by the Finnish team, is based on line-scanning technology where linear arrays of optical fibres send images from a distance to sensors (CCD elements) located outside the hostile environment. A powerful pulsed laser provides illumination. IVVS only has a few moving parts as image selection and focusing are both done through off-line computer analysis. This also implies that basic image data (pixels) can be rapidly obtained, which minimizes the dwelling time within the vacuum chamber for the view probe. Development work has concentrated on the system prototype that was designed during the first FFUSION programme in 1996 1998. The prototype demonstrates the feasibility of this concept and the operation of the key components, which include fibre arrays and their coupling optics, a laser illumination system, control software/hardware and imaging software. The first version of the prototype was built and tested in the Fortum Technology Centre in Viikki. It was designed as a full-scale (14-m in height) probe similar to those to be used in the early version of ITER. A probe of this size was rendered obsolete during the redesign phase of ITER; therefore, the second version of the prototype was greatly reduced in size while maintaining the original imaging capabilities. It was installed in the Automation Laboratory of the Helsinki University of Technology to provide a convenient platform for further development work within this area. 4.2.2 Re-installation of the IVVS Prototype General layout and mechanics The original prototype located in the premises of Fortum Power and Heat in Viikki was designed according to the now-obsolete ITER specifications and dimensions. When the viewing tests were completed at the end of 1999, it was no longer practical to maintain this kind of set-up, and for any further tests, it was decided to move the prototype to a new location at the HUT Automation Laboratory in Otaniemi, Espoo. Before re-installation, the prototype was mechanically modified to allow horizontal operation, which will be required in the newly designed ITER. Because of space restrictions, the probe length was also reduced to 5 m. The mechanics of the new prototype are shown in Figure 75. Only those components essential to viewing have been included. These are: 1) the rotating optical bench, where the viewing and illumination optics are mounted; 2) a stepper motor for rotation; and 3) an encoder for the measurement of the rotation angle. In addition, a new support system has been designed and manufactured. The new location of the prototype will provide better access to the operators. The horizontal position is more representative than the vertical one was and requires considerably less space. The new imaging distance available is between 2 and 4.5 m. The optical system used in the old prototype is compatible with the new set-up, but still requires a considerable amount of modification. The com- 89

Figure 75. New prototype on the wall of the HUT process hall. puter system for probe control and viewing can be used without any major modifications. IVVS optics The testing of the Viikki prototype revealed that the most important deficiency in this configuration system was insufficient illumination, which reduced the imaging distance to 2 m and increased the imaging time for a single target to 10 30 minutes. The illumination was greatly enhanced by replacing the original parabolic mirror with a diffractive optics element (DOE), which produced a uniform illumination stripe. In the Viikki prototype, all optical surfaces also needed regular cleaning, which was impossible due to the large geometry. Therefore, the Otaniemi prototype was also designed to let those surfaces be easily accessed. The updated optical components are shown in Figure 76. Another objective in the optics development was to improve the performance by studying laser illumination using fibre optics, which may be required in the newly designed ITER with a complex insertion trajectory for viewing probes. Therefore, several fibre samples were tested using the existing illumination optics modified for fibre optic transfer. Unfortunately, all fibres tested were damaged during testing, and no sample could withstand the full laser power at the maximum pulse repetition rate. As a result, fibre optic illumination could not be installed in the Otaniemi prototype, and the original free-space transfer of laser beam was maintained. New coupling optics between the fibre array and the CCD camera were realized with two commercial lenses. The measured on-axis MTF (550 nm) at 50 cycles/mm was 0.4, which is almost double the resolution of the previous coupling optics. According to tests performed at VTT Electronics, these new optics increase signal levels for the CCD by 200 %. Figure 76. Illumination (down left) and imaging (middle) optics. The distance between these is about 20 cm. 90

4.2.3 Imaging Imaging procedure The imaging procedure in the Otaniemi prototype is basically the same as that of the Viikki prototype. The improved illumination enables the use of a faster probe rotation (imaging) with light targets. In spite of this, the 0.0077 deg/s speed was used in most tests, as earlier. In addition, multiple laser pulses (up to 20) were used to illuminate each vertical element of the image. The whole imaging system is shown schematically in Figure 77. Test charts The test charts printed on paper are not typical targets for the IVVS system, although they provide good information about the imaging resolution. The theoretical pixel resolution at a distance of approximately 2.5 m is from 0.5 to 1 mm. This means that a 1-mm wide bar should be visible in normal conditions, as verified by Figure 78. Figure 77. Operation of the IVVS prototype. 91

Figure 78. Image of the bar target at a distance of 2.5 m. Figure 81.ab Drill IVVS image and photo (note: the images are taken from different angles). Diffuse objects Diffuse objects do not produce any mirror reflections, which makes them attractive 3D targets. In Figure 79, a normal keyboard is shown and in Figures 80a and 80b, the head of a dummy. Both objects have more or less diffuse surfaces. Dummies are usually designed for photography and therefore the surface is optimised for to look good visually in flashlight illumination. Non-diffuse objects The imaging of non-diffuse objects suffers from illumination problems, with mirror reflections in particular. Even the high dynamics of the camera used (4096 levels) is not sufficient when dark and shiny surfaces exist in the same object. Figure 81 shows an electric drill with different types of surfaces. The matte, green body as well as the matte black chuck of the drill can be seen well, but the shiny side of the body gives a mirror reflection. In the matte parts of the object, the 3D details in the surface, such as the roughening pimples in the handle, can be seen better in the IVVS image than in the photo. Figure 79. A PC Keyboard Figure 80.ab The head of a dummy. Note that the IVVS image (left) and the photo (right) are taken from different angles in different places. 4.2.4 Radiation Resistance of Optical Fibres The basic idea of IVVS is the use of optical fibres for imaging as well as for illumination in environments where instruments cannot survive long periods of time. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that the radiation resistance of these fibres is verified. It is also a relevant item for the other viewing concepts developed for ITER since many of these use optical fibres. Not all fibre materials can withstand radiation; for these tests, fused silica was selected as the fibre core material because of its potential to survive in the ITER radiation environment. Testing was carried out in co-operation with the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre SCK-CEN (Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie/Centre d étude de l Energie Nucléaire) at Mol, Belgium. 92

This work was started already in 1999 but, due to the high workload of SCK-CEN, it could not be completed until June 2000. A special sample fibre bundle was purchased from Fiberguide Industries, USA. This bundle consisted of 14 individual fibres (Superguide G UV-VIS), with SMA connectors in both ends. The fibres have a pure fused silica core, a fluorine-doped (4 % of weight) cladding and a silicone primary coating. The core diameter of the fibres is 14.3 µm, the cladding diameter 20 µm, and the numerical aperture 0.22. The fibre bundle that had black polyethylene tubing was wound into a 50-cm coil. During irradiation, an average dose rate of 2.76 kgy/h was observed. The total irradiation time was 518 hours and the cumulated dose 1.4 MGy. By comparison, the total gamma dose in ITER is 8.5 MGy for the assumed lifetime of 20 years. Spectral measurements were made between 350 nm and 1,350 nm. An analysis of the results gave the radiation hardness of the fibres for MGy level doses in the near IR region (800 1,250 nm) only. Unfortunately, the ionising radiation affected the transmission characteristics of the reference fibres dramatically in the visible wavelength region. After the first few measurements, the radiation-induced losses exceeded the available optical budget. Even at a cumulated dose of only 500 Gy (about 10 minutes of irradiation) the power budget was reduced by more than 10 db for wavelengths below 600 nm. This prevented the quantification of losses at 532 nm almost as soon as irradiation had started. According to the analysis by SCK-CEN, the first irradiation experiment revealed the vulnerability of the tested fibre bundle in the visible spectrum. Possible diffusion and luminescence phenomena could explain the losses observed. Complementary irradiations could be carried out to further elucidate the underlying physical phenomena and to confirm these first results. One should then use lower dose rates, and radiation-hardened leading fibres for the in-situ measurements. Furthermore, ST or FC/PC type connectors should be used instead of SMA type connectors to minimise losses and interference in the spectral measurements. Because of the high workload at SCK-CEN, additional testing was not possible. 4.2.5 Conclusions Two versions of the IVVS prototype were finalised and tested during the FFUSION 2 programme. The feasibility of this viewing concept and the operation of the key components were verified in both cases. In particular, the following items have been studied successfully: Coupling of the optical fibre arrays to the imaging lens and to the CCD camera Pulsed laser illumination in free space using a diffractive optical element for beam dispersion Smooth probe rotation and an accurate measurement of angular position A computer system for probe control and imaging. Further investigation is still needed in the following fields: Laser illumination via optical fibre Radiation resistance of optical fibres. It should be noted that the illumination laser of the prototype is not powerful enough for operational use and the power requirements for any such candidate fibres are even higher than those in the tests performed. The Otaniemi prototype was tested by imaging different types of objects. The overall performance was clearly better than that of the Viikki prototype, and now there was sufficient illumination to image dark objects, too. With the existing prototype, it was possible to take line images with a line width of 0.01 deg and 1000 pixels/line. The resolution was better than 1 mm at a distance of 3 m. 93

5 Fusion Technology System Studies 5.1 Socio-Economic Studies VTT Processes R. Korhonen (Project Manager) 5.1.1 Introduction Environmental impact has an essential role when energy alternatives are discussed. Energy technologies that help in the mitigation of global warming need to be developed, in particular. In 2050, when fusion might be a possible energy production alternative, the need to restrict carbon dioxide emissions is likely to be greater than today. It is necessary to evaluate and compare the environmental impact of various alternatives and to develop methodologies to help in the choice of future energy production technologies. The study (Identification and comparative evaluation of environmental impacts of fusion and other possible future energy production technologies) has been performed in the framework of the Socio-Economic Research of Fusion (SERF2 and SERF3). One important aim of the SERF study has been the assessments of monetarised external impacts of the fusion fuel-cycle. Externalities of many other energy production alternatives have been performed, especially in the European ExternE projects. In SERF2, three 1000-MW fusion power plant designs (Model plants 1 3) were studied. In SERF 3, three new power plant designs (Model plants 4 6), assuming to produce 1500 MW during a lifetime of 35 years, were evaluated. The particular aim was to find designs that might have low external costs. Silicon carbide was assumed to be the new structural material in the SERF3 plant designs. Fusion power plants were assumed to be installed around 2050. The whole fuel cycle including occupational accidents, road accidents and impacts of emissions, etc. was studied. The study was divided into subtasks between partners (Ciemat Madrid, IPP Garching, NFR Studsvik, UKAEA Culham and CEA Cadarache and VTT). During the SERF studies, VTT has evaluated especially the long-term impacts of fusion waste and evaluated external costs of waste disposal. The impact of a future nuclear fusion economy on global warming and global ionising radiation has also been studied. Re-evaluation of the environmental impact due to C-14 emissions in the future environment has been started in SERF3. The work of VTT has included the development of models and methods for the estimation of global long-term impact of releases. Methodological work has been considered valuable as it gives the possibility to extend the evaluation to include various aspects. 5.1.2 Waste Disposal The use of nuclear fusion produces activated materials due to neutron bombardment in the first wall, blanket and shield, in particular. Waste disposal was considered for the inventories of the power plant designs 1 6. Simplified dynamic environmental models were developed for this purpose. Results were evaluated for the estimation of external costs (m /kwh) and for the further analysis of impacts. Different disposal alternatives were explored in the study. The objective was to study disposal in a rather general way. Barriers are indicated by the retention they give to radionuclides. Various retention cases were studied. Results indicated that external costs might be dominated by fusion waste due to the global impacts of C-14 emissions. In addition, in the case of water cooling, C-14 emissions might be important. Two or three possible alternatives for avoiding the relatively high costs due to C-14 exist. The first one is to decrease the amount of C-14 in waste. Silicon carbide is a low activation material and was as- 95

sumed to be used in the first wall and blanket structures in model plants 4 6. Stainless steel was assumed to be used as the shield material in plant designs. Bombardment of carbon by neutrons in SiC causes some activation into C-14. Nitrogen in steel (N-14) is transferred to C-14. Stainless steel in structural materials of a fusion plant contains some nitrogen (e.g., 500 ppm). In addition, oxygen can be activated to C-14, but as the isotope O-17 is not abundant in oxygen (only 0.004 per cent), this means that N easily dominates the activation to C-14. Silicon carbide is a low activation material and might be better from the point of view of externalities, but this material should still be studied further to find the optimal solution. Recycling or clearance of materials does not necessarily help as C-14 still exists and will later be released. The second alternative is an effective retention of C-14 in the repository, including the materials surrounding the waste. This can also be argued to be rather ineffective for long-living radionuclides, if this is performed only to decrease the integrated, long-term collective doses. When dose impacts are estimated on the basis of total released radionuclides, a retention of the order of only about 5 10 half-lives will drastically decrease the impacts. In the case of shorter retention periods, Dilute and Disperse can be rather effective. Due to transfer to the deep ocean, C-14 will gradually disappear from the range of man to a great extent. The third alternative was that long-term integration of C-14 global costs is not applied. The methodological questions are very important, when the importance of waste disposal in the external costs is estimated. It might be somewhat unfair if external costs regarding radioactive wastes (nuclear fission or fusion) are integrated for even 100000 years or more but some other components are studied only for hundred years or less, and even then are discounted. It is not easy to find any best estimate value for external costs of fusion waste disposal. Performed studies give that, if C-14 impacts are integrated over long time spans (100000 years), waste including C-14 about 0.4 PBq (Model 4) or more (model plants 5 and 6) has to be isolated for rather long time spans, more than 20000 years from the environment to have external costs 1 2 m /kwh or less. In Figure 82, the environmental impacts of the Model plant design 4, which has the lowest C-14 inventory, are presented. Global transfer of C-14 gives that about 3 TBq maximum might accumulate in the atmosphere in the release period case 0 10000 years. Annual collective doses are maximally about 3man Sv/a in that case. External costs TBq or mansv/a or /kwh 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 Release period 0-10000a TBq in the atmosphere or mansv/a Release period 20000-30000a TBq in the atmosphere or mansv/a /kwh Model 4 0 0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000 Year Figure 82. The estimated amounts of C-14 in the atmosphere (TBq) and the estimated collective dose rates (mansv/a) for the fusion power model plant 4 inventory. Release period cases 0 10000 years and 20000 30000 years. External costs (m /kwh) for the case 20000 300000 years are also given. 96

would be rather high for that case, on the order of fossil alternatives. The release period case 20000 30000 years would give external costs of about 2 m /kwh. If retended for periods of about 50000 years or more, the external costs will be very low. Large-scale fusion economy might have global impact via increased C-14 concentration levels, if water-cooled plants (Model plant 2) or early releases from fusion waste are considered. The global impact of a future fusion economy on global ionising radiation and global warming has been studied in SERF2. The operation of 1000 fusion power plants would not drastically decrease the CO 2 concentration level (decreased by about 10 ppm if fusion is used instead of fossil alternatives), but it is not easy to find any single measures which would help much more in the mitigation of climate change, e.g., large scale forestation would have about similar impact. 5.1.3 Impacts of the Future Environment In the future environment, carbon dioxide levels will ultimately increase. It seems evident that, in spite of the Kyoto Protocol and other later protocols, the CO 2 concentration level will close to double by 2100. The impact of C-14 has been re-evaluated to consider the impact of increased carbon dioxide concentrations on the C-14 transfer and impacts. This synergetic impact has been considered to be important to be studied, as concentration levels will, after stabilising, continue to be at a high level, which impacts the transfer of carbon. In addition, a comparison with CO 2 releases, which are dominant in the future fossil energy alternatives, is important. Some basic evaluations of the impact of the future increase of the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration levels on the estimation of the global impact of C-14 emissions have been performed. It seems that this has been seen to be of minor importance by UNSCEAR (2000) or other assessments, and it has not been considered in any scenarios such as the IPCC or other realistic alternatives. Simplified models were used in this study. The basic finding on the need to model impacts of carbon emissions taking into account the overall carbon release situation in a relevant way is illustrated. A methodology for considering the impact of increased atmospheric CO 2 concentration in the assessment of C-14 releases was presented in the study. In particular, the accumulation of C-14 in the atmosphere and the accumulation of collective dose commitments were studied. The models built have been rather simplified ones, which consider only the main flows of carbon. Values of parameters and the structure of modelling have not been considered in detail as the aim has been to study some of the main differences in the transfer and accumulation of anthropogenic CO 2 releases and C-14 releases and to reconsider the transfer of C-14 on the basis of these studies. On the basis of evaluations of the study, it seems evident that C-14 accumulation in the atmosphere will increase due to the increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. The Suess effect or fossil fuel effect is often estimated to cause reduction of the ratio of radiocarbon C-14 to stable carbon, but it will be rather temporary and the impact on collective doses will be rather small, in the long term. Especially evident will be the increase in the amounts of C-14 in the atmosphere. Studies give that the impact of the Suess effect seems to decrease and almost lose its importance in a few decades. The concept of Becquerel years in the atmosphere has been presented and it is used in the evaluation of C-14 transfer. It is analogous to the concept of tonne years in the atmosphere considered especially in the climate negotiations of forest sector and in the IPCC special report on land use, land use change and forestry LULUCF (IPCC 2000). The values of the quantity of Becquerel years in the atmosphere increase when CO 2 concentration increases. This means that the lifetime of C-14 in the atmosphere increases and, in the case of continuing emissions, it accumulates for longer time spans in the atmosphere. Impacts on the collective doses are smaller due to the diluting impact of increased CO 2 concentration. The diluting impact or Suess effect will in some decades decrease due to the increased lifetime and the total impact will be that 97

dose impact will decrease relatively little in the case of the triple concentration level compared to the preindustrial concentration, etc. The index for the collective dose commitment is analogous to the index AGWP, Absolute Global Warming Potential, and could therefore be named AGDP, Absolute Global Dose Potential. GWPs are generally used in climate gas emission calculations considered in climate negotiations. The analogy between AGDP and AGWP could be used in many ways, especially in the comparison of energy production alternatives. If global long-term impacts are evaluated, these indices can be used for the comparison of fossil, fission and fusion alternatives. The impact on man is, however, not very easy to estimate absolutely on the basis of AGWP. Estimates for caused death cases are also very much dependent on the CO 2 concentration level. If a linear dependence between health impacts cases and doses is assumed, health impacts can be easily estimated on the basis of AGDP. As evaluated in this study, AGDP values of releases are, especially in the long term, not very much dependent on the CO 2 concentration level. AGWP values are also dependent on the CO 2 concentration level: accumulation of CO 2 in the atmosphere will increase, but due to saturation, the radiative forcing will be smaller, when CO 2 concentrations increase. 5.1.4 Conclusions Studies have indicated that it is important to evaluate and illustrate the potential long-term impacts of releases due to electricity power production to be able to make justified decisions on fusion plant designs or on waste disposal. So far, it is not quite clear how long-term global small risks should be estimated and compared with other risks. The results of VTT for SERF3 will be reported in the final report SERF3 Externalities as was previously done with the SERF2 results. They have been presented as a part of the SERF externalities results in the SOFT Conference in Madrid 2000 and in Helsinki 2002 and also outside the fusion community e.g. in the Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems. 5.2 ITER Site Studies VTT Processes S. Vuori (Project Manager) and V. Suolanen Radiation protection principles accounted for in the design of the planned ITER facility follow the generic ICRP principles that have been included in The Revised Basic Safety Standards Directive, EURATOM 96/29. The directive requires that Member States shall ensure that all new classes or types of practice resulting in exposure to ionising radiation are justified in advance of being first adopted or first approved by their economic, social or other benefits in relation to the health detriment that they may cause. In addition each Member State shall ensure that: in the context of optimisation, all exposures shall be kept as low as reasonable achievable (ALARA), economic and social factors being taken into account; the sum of the doses from all relevant practices shall not exceed the dose limits laid down separately for exposed workers and members of the public. In connection with the FFusion 2 Technology Programme, VTT has contributed the research of the review work related to the siting analyses of the ITER facility, planned for Cadarache in France. Cadarache is considered to be one optional site for ITER. In the siting analyses, the research area for VTT was focused on the source term and on the management of effluents and releases of ITER, mainly in the normal operational mode of the facility. In the consideration of licensing ITER in Cadarache specific conditions, the design target for the effluent management in normal operation, maintenance and design basis accidents is that consequences should be, in any case, below the level for which any countermeasures or food restrictions are needed for the population at the site boundary. During the study, a systematic optimisation procedure was carried out on purpose to clarify whether the ITER facility and the performed analyses will fulfil the international radiation protection requirements. For the optimisation of effluents from ITER 98

operations, the ALARA process presume several steps: Design approaches were surveyed at other fusion-related facilities (tritium plants, fission reactors, TFTR and JET fusion facilities) with wide operating experience in control of releases. Analysis of these good practices and equipments used for effluent control in these facilities has benefited the design of the proposed effluent management of ITER. In addition, for normal operations, CANDU reactors have extensive experience in the control of tritium releases, and the ITER design utilises this experience in establishing design specifications for many components. Establishment of stringent project effluent guidelines that are sufficiently conservative to be acceptable by the most restrictive national regulations. Estimation of possible effluents. A systematic review of systems, activities and pathways (Figure 83) has been undertaken to estimate releases and to ensure that all release pathways are accounted for and the obtained estimates for releases are lower than the project guidelines. In the design, these release pathways are analysed to identify the main contributions and possibilities of design improvements for further reduction of the releases. The release reduction process is carried out in parallel with the general design evolution. The greatest uncertainties of ITER releases to the environment are related to the amounts of the releases of various components (activated dust, etc.) during maintenance activities. The ITER operation causes remarkable radiation and thermal-induced load to surfaces (so called PFC, plasma-facing components), which will bring about atomic and particulates emissions from surfaces and further redeposition phenomena. Despite the fact that ITER has a highly developed filtering system for effluents, a certain, very small fraction of particulates may be released into the environment. The health detriment of these releases is, however, considered to be of minor importance compared to the generally accepted risk levels (Figure 84). The fuel component of ITER tritium does not either cause any environmental risk in normal operation or in any possible incident and accident cases of ITER plant. The environmental consequences of tritium are, in general, not very sitespecific due to the mobile nature of tritium. The sensitivity of ITER releases was further scanned by certain scenarios of operational base case, elevated effluents and releases and by stringent effluents and release management cases. In these scenarios, the question related to permanence of materials and optional detritiation managements were considered. Tritium discharged with protium Gas fuelling Storage Isotope separation system Plasma Pellet injector Impurity processing system Tritium released Mechanical pumps Tritium released during maintenance Frontend Separator Permeator Figure 83. Release pathways. 99

6 Estimated ITER Releases vs Guidelines Releases as g/year 5 4 3 2 Release Estimate Guideline 1 0 Tritium as HTO in air Tritium as HT in air Activated dust Activated corrosion products Figure 84. Estimated ITER Releases and guidelines, release components for operation and maintenance. According to the siting analyses, the maximum individual dose in normal operation is, in any case, less than 10 microsv per year and the collective dose, about 0.25 mansv per year from tritium release. Thus, the nationally and internationally set dose limits are not exceeded and ITER operation can be considered as an environmentally safe option. 5.3 Conceptual Power Plant Studies Safety Assessment Helsinki University of Technology Advanced Energy Systems R. Salomaa (Project Manager), G. Zemulis and A. Ranta-aho Fortum Nuclear Services K. Salminen The feasibility of tokamak fusion reactor designs, and, in particular, their safety and environmental impacts, has been studied within the European Fusion Programme in several research projects (SEAFP and SEAL Studies). The Power Plant Conceptual Study (PPCS) was launched in 2000. Its main objectives are to assist in assessing the fusion energy status and in establishing coherence and priorities in the EU fusion programme. PPCS has proceeded to Stage III, which is expected to demonstrate 1) the credibility of the power plant designs, 2) the claims for the safety and environmental advantages and for the economic viability of fusion power, and 3) the robustness of the analyses and conclusions. In PPCS, two reactor options are being considered: Model A involving water cooling and a lithium-lead breeding blanket and Model B with helium cooling and a pebble bed blanket. HUT has carried out safety analyses of the Model A reactor concept (Subtask TRP-PPCS4). Two accident scenarios have been investigated: 1) loss of the heat sink (loss of condenser) and 2) loss of flow accident (LOFA) combined with a loss of coolant, which pressurises the vacuum vessel (in-vv LOCA). The simulations are needed for dimensioning the suppression pools and drain tanks which collect the tritiated steam and water in case of leaks. Furthermore, they provide estimates for radioactive releases from the containment and demonstrate whether passive heat removal from the core region is sufficient. 100

For the thermohydraulic analysis, we have applied APROS, which is a process simulation environment VTT developed in co-operation with Fortum Engineering, and which has been widely used in similar tasks in fission power plants. An APROS model for the Model A power plant has been constructed. In the PPCS4 accident scenarios, fusion burn is abruptly terminated to a disruption, but for studies of milder power transients, our time-dependent, zero-dimensional (fixed-profiles) particle and power balance code FRESCO has been added as an external module to APROS. A simplified model for the fuel cycle, including submodels for fuelling and wall conditioning systems, tritium storage, and detritiation systems, is being developed. The full-scale accident scenario simulations will be finished by the end of 2002. By now, our PPCS4 simulations have already revealed that the original pressuriser did not work properly and had to be modified. The observed rapid pressure rise connected with the deterioration of the strength of structural materials at high temperatures implied that conditions for the onset of leaks were not realistic. Earlier first wall breaking fortunately attenuates the thermal transient. Although, it seems highly probable that excessive radioactive releases do not occur, fast active plasma shutdown systems are vital to avoid considerable core damage. 5.4 Remote Participation Helsinki University of Technology Advanced Energy Systems S. Sipilä (Project Manager) The need for remote participation and teleconferencing within the international fusion community has increased in recent years. With the advances in Internet technology and available bandwidth, it has become possible to arrange remote meetings and even participation in experiments without the need to travel. Figure 85. A snapshot of a videoconference between the Helsinki University of Technology and IPP Garching during a compatibility test between H.323 and VRVS The free Internet-based teleconferencing system called VRVS has been adopted by most of the European Fusion Associations. Some Associations have opted for a commercial solution based on the H.323 standard, which can be meshed with the VRVS system. VRVS teleconferencing with video, audio, slide display and text-based chat is available to researchers at the Helsinki University of Technology and VTT. The accessories needed for VRVS teleconferencing consist of a web camera, a headset microphone and the VRVS software. These inexpensive accessories are installed on the personal computers of researchers as the need arises. Currently there are six systems installed at the Helsinki University of Technology and VTT. Remote data access and computer access have also been implemented at the major experiment sites to facilitate remote participation. Appropriately secured, full access to their computing facilities is available, and as an alternative, the free MDSplus software package for handling experimental data sets can be used to access data only. The approach favoured in the Finnish fusion community is to obtain full computer access to the experiment sites, as more data handling software is available there. 101

ANNEX A FFusion 2 Projects and EFDA Tasks The research areas in the FFusion 2 programme consists of the following projects: I Fusion Plasma Physics Fusion Plasma Engineering (FUS) Radio-Frequency Applications of Fusion Plasmas (PLA) II Fusion Reactor Vessel/In-Vessel Materials First Wall Materials, Multimetal Components and Joining Techniques (MAT) Development of Beam Welding of Large Vacuum Vessel Sectors (WELD) Plasma-Wall Interactions and Studies on Plasma Facing Components (ION) Surface Analysis of Plasma Facing Materials (ANA) Fusion Neutronics and Nuclear Analysis (NEU) Development of Superconducting Wires (Industry) III Remote Viewing and Handling Systems In-Vessel Viewing System (IVVS) Water Hydraulic Tools and Manipulators for Divertor Refurbishment (HYD) Virtual Design of Welding / Cutting Robot (IWR) IV System Studies Socio-Econimis Studies External Costs of Fusion (SERF) Conceptual Power Plant Studies (PPCS) European ITER Site Studies (EIS) Remote Participation Infrastructure (RPI) Table A1 gives a summary of FFusion 2 projects and their funding during the programme period 1999 2002. The total figure of the FFusion 2 research projects is about 12 million. Table A1. FFusion 2 project funding in 1999-2002. VTT Institutes are according to the present organisation. Project Code Institute 1999 2000 2001 2002 Total (k ) Coordination, Information HAL/KOO VTT PRO 121 129 119 188 557 Plasma Engineering FUS VTT PRO 278 304 318 342 1 242 RF Applications PLA HUT TF 386 455 573 648 2 062 JET Technology JET VTT PRO 223 200 423 First Wall Materials, Joints MAT VTT TUO 496 530 530 597 2 153 Plasma-Wall Interactions ION UH AL 149 205 246 277 877 Plasma Facing Materials ANA VTT PRO 59 85 97 327 568 Beam Welding WELD VTT TUO 151 50 86 287 Neutronics NEU VTT PRO 52 39 54 40 185 In Vessel Viewing IVV VTT, HUT 427 172 71 670 Water Hydraulic Tools HYD TUT IHA 598 473 426 481 1 978 Virtual Design W/C Robot IWR LUT MA 136 465 601 Socio Economis Studies SERF VTT PRO 67 67 50 67 251 Power Plant Studies PPCS HUT TF 72 72 ITER Site Studies EIS VTT PRO 75 60 135 Total (k ) 2 633 2 610 2 968 3 850 12 061 103

Table A2. EFDA Article 5.1a Technology Tasks by Association Euratom-Tekes in 1999-2002. The total volume and the value of the Preferential Support (PS) items are given in 1000. EFDA Reference Task Title Vol/PS k Institute Physics Integration ADV/SOR /ECDEV ICRF/ANT TW1-TP/R PINF ITER 170 GHz Advanced Gyrotron Development 165 HUT TF Support to ICRF Antenna and Vacuum Transmission Line Development 55 VTT PRO Development of Remote Participation Infrastructure 3,45 HUT TF Vessel/In-Vessel materials, joining, remote handling T213 Cu and Cu-Alloys Irradiation Testing 200/60 VTT TUO T217 Aqueous Corrosion of 316L SS and Cu Based Alloys 73 VTT TUO V61 Titanium Alloys Irradiation Testing 290/70 VTT TUO V63 Improved Materials and Joints Irradiation Testing 50/40 VTT TUO DV2 Development and Demonstration of NDE on Chosen Joints 50 VTT TUO T511/02 Stress Corrosion Cracking of HIPed Stainless Steel and SS/Cu Alloy Joints 100 VTT TUO T507-5&6: Qualification of As-Fabricated CuCrZr Base Alloy, including Irradiation Testing 200/110 VTT TUO Outokumpu T420-7 Fabrication of a First Wall Panel with Brazed Beryllium Armour 375/300 VTT TUO Metso MAN1 Optimasation and Testing of CuCrZr/SS Tube Joints 80 VTT TUO COP Irradiation Testing of as-fabricated CuCrZr Base Alloy Including Creep-Fatigue 160 VTT TUO Outokumpu TITAN Titanium Alloy Irradiation Testing 100 VTT TUO SITU In-Situ Investigation of the Mechanical Performance and 200/100 VTT TUO Lifetime of Copper in a Neutron Environment DV7a Tritium Permeability, Retention Wall conditioning and Cleaning UH, VTT, Diarc T438/2 Development and Testing of D(T) Removal Techniques 250 UH, VTT TUMO1 Erosion & Re-Deposition of W and Mo: Impact of O Impurity 75 UH, VTT, Diarc TU1 Neutron Effects on D/T Retention and D/T Diffusivity of W 150 UH, VTT TU2 /MO1 Erosion&Re-Deposition of W and Mo: Impact of O Impurity in H 75 UH, VTT CFC2 Experimental Investigation of Flakes Formation by Re-deposition of Carbon Eroded by H/D/T 145 UH, VTT Diarc TTMS-005 a/3 Rules for Design, Fabrication and Inspection 50 VTT TUO 104

Table A2. continues... EFDA Reference Task Title Vol/PS k Institute T301/T518 NA/LASER LWELD EBROOT ROBOT High Energy Beam Welding for Manufacture of Large Tokamak Containment Sectors Development of Narrow Access Laser Welding Tool with Deep Weld Penetration VV Intersector Joining Development of Adaptive Hybrid Hot Wire Multipass NdYAG Laser Welding Controlling Root Welding Made by Electron Beam with Adaptive System Dynamic Test Rig for Intersector Welding Robot (IWR) for VV Sector Field Joining 400 VTT TUO 150 VTT TUO 85 VTT TUO 100 VTT TUO 540/202 LUT MA Mekarita T329/DEXT Remote Handling Dextrous Operation 582/134 TUT IHA T308 Water Hydraulic DRP Tools for ITER 548/148 TUT IHA, Hytar, Adwatec, Plustech WH Water Hydraulics Development 800 TUT IHA MANIP In-Vessel Dextrous Manipulators 121 TUT IHA DRP Divertor Refurbishment Platform 372/26 TUT IHA IVV/T328 In-Vessel Viewing System 524/90 VTT, HUT Fortum System Studies PPCS4 Conceptual Power Plant Studies (PPCS) Safety Assessment 72 HUT, Fortum EFCA External Costs of Fusion 128 VTT PRO JET Technology JW2-FT-1.8 Characterisation of JET Wall Tiles and Plasma Facing Components with Surface Analytic Techniques 180/106 VTT, UH Diarc The most of the work carried out in the FFusion 2 projects consists of the Physics and EFDA Technology Tasks of the EU Fusion Programme. Table A2 summarises the EFDA Article 5.1a Technology Tasks carried out by the Association Euratom- Tekes during 1999 2002. Table A2 shows that the focus technology area of FFusion 2 programme has been vessel/in-vessel technology. Table A1 shows the Preferential Support (PS), which is awarded for capital investments, hot cell work and work dealing with tritium and beryllium contaminated material. The total value of preferential supported work is 1,486,000 during the four year period. Table A3 shows the EFDA Article 5.1b Contracts during 1999 2002. 105

Table A3. EFDA Article 5.1b Technology Contracts by Association Euratom-Tekes in 1999-2002. Contract No. Contract Title Value (k ) Institute NET/97-456 Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-Ups 132,60 VTT TUO NET/98-468 Mechanical Design of Laser in-vessel Viewing System 43,80 VTT TUO EFDA/00-531 ITER VHTP in Support of Nuclear Analysis 74,50 VTT PRO EFDA/00-545 Re-Assessment of the ITER ICRF Array Coupling and Heating Efficiency 44,70 VTT PRO EFDA/00-132 Virtual Prototyping of IWR Control Loop 119,20 LUT MA EFDA/00-567 Modelling of Erosion/Re-Deposition 134,10 UH AL EFDA/00-577 European ITER Site Study in Cadarache 74,50 VTT PRO EFDA/01-636 Nuclear Analysis for ITER Heating Ports 37,25 VTT PRO EFDA/01-602 Ultrasonic Testing of Primary First Wall Mock-Ups and Panels 149,0 VTT TUO EFDA/01-644 European ITER Site Study 2 Cadarache 2002 59,60 VTT PRO EFDA/02-659 JET EP: Diagnostics Enhancement Tritium Retention Studies 9,598 VTT PRO Industrial projects Outokumpu Poricopper Supercoducting Nb3Sn wire development Metso Powdermet First Wall mock-up fabrication by powder HIP method Fortum Nuclear Services EFET Tasks on ITER design, safety studies and costing Metorex Diagnostics development Mekarita Intersector weld/cut robot Adwatec and Hytar Water hydraulic tools and manipulators Prizztech Industry co-ordination, EFDA Close Support Unit staffing Diarc Technology DCL-, tungsten- and molybdenum coating of plasma facing components 106

ANNEX B Participating Institutes, Companies and Research Personnel 1999-2002 National Technology Agency of Finland (Tekes) Tekes Kyllikinportti 2 P.O. Box 69, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland tel. +358 105 2151; fax: +358 105 215903 FFusion 2 Contact Persons: Reijo Munther and Juha Linden Email: reijo.munther@tekes.fi, juha.linden@tekes.fi www.tekes.fi Research Institutes and Universities VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland VTT Processes Otakaari 3A, Espoo P.O. Box 1608, FIN-02044 VTT, Finland tel. +358 9 4561; fax: +358 9 456 5000 FFusion 2 Contact Person: Seppo Karttunen, Email: seppo.karttunen@vtt.fi www.vtt.fi Research Group: S. Vuori (Reseach Manager), S. Karttunen (FFusion 2 Programme Manager), J. Heikkinen, R. Korhonen, S. Lehto, J. Likonen, K. Rantamäki, T. Renvall, V. Suolanen, T. Tala and F. Wasastjerna VTT Industrial Systems Kemistintie 3, Espoo P.O. Box 1704, FIN-02044 VTT, Finland tel. +358 9 4561; fax: +358 9 456 7002 FFusion 2 Contact Persons: Rauno Rintamaa, Seppo Tähtinen Email: rauno.rintamaa@vtt.fi, seppo.tahtinen@vtt.fi www.vtt.fi Research Group: R. Rintamaa (Research Manager), P. Auerkari, H. Ahola, H. Berg, U. Ehrnstén, L. Heikinheimo, H. Jeskanen, L-S. Johansson, T. Jokinen, P. Karjalainen- Roikonen, P. Kauppinen, M. Karhu, P. Kemppainen, A.-M. Kosonen, V. Kujanpää, P. Kuusinen, K. Lahdenperä, T. Laitinen, A. Laukkanen, P. Moilanen, T. Planman, M. Pyykkönen, K. Rahka, T. Saario, K. Saarinen, M. Sirén, P. Sirkiä, L. Taivalaho, A. Toivonen, S. Tähtinen, M. Valo and K. Wallin 107

VTT Electronics Kaitoväylä 1 P.O. Box 1100, FIN-90571 Oulu, Finland tel. +358 8 551 2111; fax: +358 8 551 2320 FFusion 2 Contact Person: Veli Heikkinen Email: veli.heikkinen@vtt.fi www.vtt.fi Research Group: M. Aikio, H. Ailisto, A. Haapalainen, V. Heikkinen, M. Lindholm, J-T. Mäkinen and T. Seppänen Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) Helsinki University of Technology Advanced Energy Systems P. O. Box 2200, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland tel. +358 9 4511; fax: +358 9 451 3195 FFusion 2 Contact Person: Rainer Salomaa Email: rainer.salomaa@hut.fi www.hut.fi Research Group: R. Salomaa (Head of Laboratory), P. Aarnio, M. Airila, K. Alm, T. Carlsson, O. Dumbrajs, L. Hämäläinen, V. Hynönen, S. Janhunen, T. Kiviniemi, J. Koponen, T. Kurki-Suonio, A. Kulvik, P. Kåll, A. Lampela, J. Lönnroth, M. Mantsinen, P. Nikkola, A. Ranta-aho, S. Saarelma, A. Salmi, K. Salminen, M. Santala, S. Sipilä, V. Tulkki, F. Tuomisto and G. Zemulis Helsinki University of Technology Automation Technology P. O. Box 3000, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland tel. +358 9 4511; fax: +358 9 451 3308 FFusion 2 Contact Person: Aarne Halme Email: aarne.halme@hut.fi www.hut.fi Research Group: A. Halme (Head of Laboratory), P. Jakubik and J. Suomela Tampere University of Technology (TUT) Tampere University of Technology Institute of Hydraulics and Automation Korkeakoulunkatu 2 P.O. Box 589, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland tel. +358 3 3115 2188; fax: +358 3 3115 2240 FFusion 2 Contact Person: Mikko Siuko Email: mikko.siuko@tut.fi www.tut.fi Research Group: M. Vilenius (Head of Laboratory), J. Jortikka, T. Kemppainen, H. Koivisto, K. Koskinen, T. Koivula, P. Kunttu, M. Lamminpää, E. Luodemäki, J. Mattila, E. Mäkinen, M. Pitkäaho, J. Poutanen, H. Puhakka, A. Raneda, M. Siuko, J. Tammisto, M. Toivo, J. Uusi-Heikkilä, and T. Virvalo 108

University of Helsinki (UH) University of Helsinki Accelerator Laboratory P.O. Box 43, FIN-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland tel. +358 9 191 40005; fax: +358 9 191 40042 FFusion 2 Contact Person: Juhani Keinonen Email: juhani.keinonen@helsinki.fi www.helsinki.fi/english/ Research Group: J. Keinonen (Ion Beam Group Leader), T. Ahlgren, K. Heinola, A. Krasheninnikov, S. Maisala, K. Norlund, W. Rydman, T. Sajavaara, E. Salonen, P. Träskelin and E. Vainonen-Ahlgren Lappeenranta University of Technology (LUT) Lappeenranta University of Technology Institute of Mechatronics and Virtual Engineering Skinnarilankatu 34 P.O. Box 20, FIN-53851 Lappeenranta, Finland tel. + 358 5 621 11; fax: +358 5 621 2350 www.lut.fi FFusion 2 Contact Person: Heikki Handroos Email: heikki.handroos@lut.fi Research Group: H. Handroos (Head of Laboratory), K. Dufva, P. Hannukainen, J. Kovanen, T. Saira, J. Sopanen, J. Loman, H. Wu and Y. Liu 109

Industrial participation Three industrial groups are qualified for ITER EDA activities and they are participating in the European Fusion Programme (key action Fusion ): 1 The Finnish Remote Handling Group consisting of Advatec Oy, Fortum Power and Heat Oy, Hytar Oy, PI-Rauma Oy, Platom Oy, Plustech Oy, Rocla Oy and Tehdasmallit Oy. (Technology: 11. Qualification of Standards and Tools) 2 The Finnish Blanket Group consisting of Aker Mäntyluoto Oy, Diarc Technology Oy, Fortum Power and Heat Oy, High Speed Tech Oy, Metso Engineering Oy, Metso Powdermet Oy, Outokumpu Poricopper, Patria Finavitec Oy and PI-Rauma Oy. (Technologies: 5. Plasma Facing Component Mock-Ups, 6. Vacuum Vessel, Shield and Tritium Breeding Blanket Segment Mock-Ups) 3 Outokumpu Poricopper Oy / Superconductors. (Technology: 7. Strand) Company: Role: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: PrizzTech Oy Co-ordination of the industry participation in the Fusion Programme PrizzTech Oy Teknologiakeskus Pripoli Tiedepuisto 4, FIN-28600 Pori Tel. +358 2 627 1100; fax +358 2 627 1101 www.prizz.fi Iiro Andersson, iiro.andersson@prizz.fi Fortum Power and Heat Oy Nuclear Engineering Fortum Nuclear Services Oy Rajatorpantie 8, Vantaa P.O. Box 10, FIN-00048 Fortum, Finland Tel. + 358 10 4511; fax. +358 10 45 33 403 www.fortum.com Harri Tuomisto, harri.tuomisto@fortum.com Metso Powdermet Oy / Metso Engineering Oy Special stainless steels, powder metallurgy, component technology/ Engineering, design, production and installation Metso Powdermet Oy Lokomonkatu 3 P.O. Box 306, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland Tel. +358 20 484 120; fax +358 20 484 121 www.metsopowdermet.com Jari Liimatainen, jari.liimatainen@metso.com 110

Metso Works Oy Puunaulakatu 3 P.O. Box 96 FIN-28101 Pori, Finland www.metsoworks.com Reijo Sainio, reijo.sainio@metso.com Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Outokumpu Poricopper Oy Superconducting strands and copper products. Outokumpu Poricopper Oy Kuparitie P.O. Box 60, FIN-28101 Pori, Finland Tel. +358 2 626 6111; fax +358 2 626 5314 Rauno Liikamaa, rauno.liikamaa@outokumpu.com Olli Naukkarinen, olli.naukkarinen@outokumpu.com Juhani Teuho, juhani.teuho@outokumpu.com Adwatec Oy Remote handling, water hydraulics, actuators and drives Adwatec Oy Polunmäenkatu 39 H 9, FIN- 33720 Tampere, Finland Tel. +358 3 389 0860; fax. +358 3 389 0861 www.adwatec.com Arto Verronen, Arto.Verronen@adwatec.com Aspocomp Oy Electronics manufacturing, thick film technology, component mounting (SMT), and mounting of chips (COB) in mechanical and electrical micro systems (MEMS) and multi-chip modules (MCM), PWB (or also called PCB), sheet metal manufacturing and assembly. Aspocomp Oy Yrittäjäntie 13, FIN-01800 Klaukkala, Finland Tel. +358 9 878 01244; Fax. +358 9 878 01200 www.aspocomp.com Markku Palmu, Markku.palmu@aspocomp.com Corrotech Oy Clean rooms, sheet metal production, mechanical engineering and surface treatment Corrotech Oy Teollisuuskatu 8, FIN-95420 Tornio, Finland Contact Person: Mr Esko Hilden Mobile: +358-40 777 9441; Fax +358 16 446 462 Email: esko.hilden@corrotech.fi www.corrotech.fi Esko Hilden, esko.hilden@corrotech.fi 111

Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Delfoi (earlier Tehdasmallit Oy) Telerobotics, task level programming Delfoi Oy Tietäjäntie 14, FIN-02130 Espoo, Finland Tel. +358 9 4300 70; Fax. +358 9 4300 7277 www.delfoi.com Heikki Aalto, heikki.aalto@delfoi.com DIARC Technology Diamond like DLC and DLC(Si, D) doped carbon coatings plus other coatings with potential plasma facing material in thermonuclear fusion machines. Diarc Technology Olarinluoma 15, FIN-02200 Espoo, Finland Tel. +358 9 2517 6130; fax +358 9 2517 6140 www.diarc.fi Jukka Kolehmainen, jukka.kolehmainen@diarc.fi Ellego Powertec Oy Power electronics, transformers, power sources, rectifiers based on modern chopper and thyristor technology Ellego Powertec Oy P.O. Box 93, FIN-24101 Salo, Finland Tel: +358 2 737 250, Fax +358 2 737 2530 www.trafotek.fi Pasi Lauri, Pasi.lauri@ellego.fi High Speed Tech Oy Copper to stainless steel bonding by explosive welding High Speed Tech Oy Tekniikantie 4 D, FIN-02150 Espoo, Finland Fax.+358 9 455 5267 www.highspeedtech.fi Jaakko Säiläkivi, jaakko.sailakivi@highspeed.sci.fi Exel Oyj Composite profiless, glass-, carbon- or aramid-fibres combined with polyester, vinylester or epoxy resins, superconducting current leads isolation profiles Exel Oyj Kivara Factory Muovilaaksontie 2, FIN-82110 Heinävaara, Finland Tel. +358 13 73711, Fax. +358 13 7371500 www.exel.fi Matti Suominen, matti.suominen@exel.fi 112

Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Hytar Oy Remote handling, water hydraulics Hytar Oy Ilmailukatu 13, P.O. Box 534, FIN- 33101 Tampere, Finland Tel. +358 3 389 9340; fax +358 3 389 9341 Olli Pohls, vesihydrauliikka@hytar.inet.fi Kankaanpään Konepaja Oy Fabrication of Heavy Steel constructions by using a cold forming technology, cnc-machining and mechanized welding. Kankaanpään Konepaja Oy P.O. Box 56, FIN-38701 Kankaanpää, Finland Tel. +358 2 573 600; fax +358 2 572 3128 www.kkpaja.com Ari Numminen, ari.numminen@kkpaja.com Mansner Oy Hienomekaniikka Precision mechanics Mansner Oy Hienomekaniikka Yrittäjäntie 73, FIN-03620 Karkkila, Finland Tel. +358 9 2248 7323; Fax +358 9 2248 7341 www.mansner.com Sami Mansner sami.mansner@mansner.fi Marioff Corporation Oy Mist fire protection systems Marioff Corporation Oy P.O.Box 25, Hakamäenkuja 4, FIN-01511 Vantaa, Finland Tel. +358 (0)9 8708 5342; Fax. +358 (0)9 8708 5399 www.hi-fog.com Pekka Saari, pekka.saari@marioff.fi Mäntyluoto Works Oy (earlier Aker Mäntyluoto Oy) Fabrication of Heavy Steel constructions by using an effective modulus technology, pressure vessels and piping Mäntyluoto Works Oy Mäntyluoto, FIN-28880 Pori, Finland Tel. +358 2 528 2411; fax +358 2 528 2419 www.coflexipstenaoffshore.com Reijo Vuorinen, reijo.vuorinen@mantyluotoworks.com 113

Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Patria Finavitec Oy Electron beam welding. Finavitec Oy Engine Maintenance Linnavuorentie 2, P.O. Box 10, FIN- 37241 Linnavuori, Finland Tel. +358 3 341 7661; fax. +358 3 341 7660 www.patria.fi/finavitec Jukka Parkki, jukka.parkki@patria.fi PI-Rauma Oy Computer aided engineering with CATIA. PI-Rauma Oy Mäntyluoto, FIN-28880 Pori, Finland Tel. +358 2 528 2521; fax +358 2 528 2500 www.pi-rauma.fi Matti Mattila, matti.mattila@pi-rauma.com Platom Oy Remote handling, thermal cutting tools and radioactive waste handling. Platom Oy Vilhonkatu 1 P.O. Box 300, FIN- 50101 Mikkeli, Finland Tel. +358 15 32 12 066; fax. +358 15 369 270 www.platom.fi Kalevi Puukko, kalevi.puukko@platom.fi Plustech Oy Remote handling, teleoperation and walking platforms. Plustech Oy Lokomonkatu 15 P.O. Box 474 FIN 33101 Tampere, Finland Tel. +358 205 84 6801; fax +358 205 84 6849 www.plustech.fi Arto Timperi, arto.timperi@fi.timberjack.com Polartest Oy 3-party inspection, NDT, documentation and receiving inspection. Polartest Oy Laajaniityntie 3 P.O. Box 41, FIN-01620 Vantaa, Finland Tel. +358 9 878 020; Fax. +358 9 878 6653 www.polartest.fi Matti Andersson, matti.andersson@polartest.fi 114

Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: Rados Technology Oy Dosimetry, waste & contamination monitoring and environmental monitoring. RADOS Technology Oy Mustionkatu 2 P.O. Box 506, FIN-20101 Turku, Finland Tel. +358-2-4684 600; Fax +358-2-4684 601 www.rados.fi Timo Salomaa, Timo.Salomaa@rados.fi Rejlers Oy System and subsystem level design, FE modelling and analysis with ANSYS, studies and technical documentation, installation and maintenance instructions, 3D modelling and visualisation of machines and components. Rejlers Oy Tehdaskylänkatu 10, FIN-11710 Riihimäki, Finland Tel: +358 19 716 115; Fax. +358 19 751 133 www.rejlers.fi Jouni Vidqvist, jouni.vidqvist@rejlers.fi Rocla Oyj Heavy Automated guided vehicles Rocla Oyj P.O. Box 88, FIN- 04401 Järvenpää, Finland Tel +358 9 271 471, Fax +358 09 271 47 430 www.rocla.fi Pekka Joensuu, pekka.joensuu@rocla.com Selmic Oy Microelectronics design and manufacturing, packaging technologies and contract manufacturing services. Selmic Oy Vanha Porvoontie 229, FIN-01380 Vantaa, Finland Tel: +358 9 2706 3911; Fax +358 9 2705 2602 www.selmic.com Patrick Sederholm, Patrick.sederholm@selmic.com Solving Oy Equipment for heavy assembly and material handling based on air film technology for weights up to hundreds of tons. Solving Oy P.O. Box 98, FIN-68601 Pietarsaari, Finland Tel. +358 6 781 7500; Fax. +358 6 781 7510 www.solving.fi Bo-Goran Eriksson, Bo-goran.eriksson@solving.fi 115

Company: Technology: Contact: Company: Technology: Contact: TVO Nuclear Service Oy Nuclear Power technologies; service, maintenance, radiation protection and safety. TVO Nuclear Service Oy FIN-27160 Olkiluoto, Finland Tel. + 358 2 83 811; Fax. +358 2 8381 2109 www.tvo.fi Juha Pernu, juha.pernu@tvo.fi Veslatec Oy Micro cutting-laser welding-laser drilling-laser marking Veslatec Oy Strömbergin puistotie 4D, FIN-65320 Vaasa, Finland Tel +358 6 315 89 00; Fax +358 6 315 28 77 www.veslatec.com Olli Saarniaho, olli.saarniaho@veslatec.com 116

ANNEX C Seminars and Meeting The following Seminars and Meetings were organised / hosted by the FFusion 2 technology programme and Association Euratom-Tekes in 1999 2002. Fusion Expo, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, 9 September 31 October 1999 Fusion Expo Seminar, University of Technology, Espoo, 10 September 1999. Invited speakers: Hardo Bruhns, EU Commission and David Campbell, EFDA CSU Garching. FFusion 2 Technology Programme Opening Seminar, Technology Centre Pripoli, Pori, 1 st June 1999. Invited speaker: Ettore Salpietro, EFDA CSU Garching. EU Fusion Programme Evaluation Board Meeting Programmes of the Euratom Associations NFR, Sweden, Risö, Denmark and Tekes, Finland, VTT, 18 February 2000. FFusion 2 Technology Programme Annual Seminar 2000, Fortum, Vantaa, 30 May 2000. Big Science Technology Seminar, Fortum, Vantaa, 29 May 2000. Meeting on Non-Destructive Testing of Divertor Components at VTT Manufacturing Technology in November 2000, Dr. M. Merola (EFDA), Dr. V. Barabash (ITER JCT), Dr. C. Ibbott (ITER JCT), Dr. B. Schedler (Plansee AG), Dr. A. Zabernig (Plansee AG), Dr. F. Escourbiac (CEA), Dr. E. Visca (ENEA) and Dr. R. Giniyatulin (Efremov Inst.). 9th Finnish-Russian Symposium on Fusion Research Plasma Physics, December 14-15, 2000, Otaniemi FFusion 2 Technology Programme Annual Seminar 2001, m/s Silja Symphony, Helsinki-Stockholm, 28-29 May 2001. Invited speakers: Roberto Andreani, EFDA CSU Garching, Bachu Sing, Risö National Laboratory. 8th International Workshop on Plasma Edge Theory in Fusion Devices (PET), Espoo, Finland, 10-12 September 2001. Organised by Helsinki University of Technology (Chairman of the Local Organising Committee: Rainer Salomaa and Scientific Secretary Seppo Sipilä) and VTT Chemical Technology, about 65 participants. 9th European Fusion Physics Workshop (EFPW), Saariselkä, Finland, 10-12 December 2001. Hosted by Association Euratom-Tekes and organised by EU Commission, EFDA CSU Garching, VTT Chemical Technology (Chairman of the Local Organising Committee: Seppo Karttunen) and Helsinki University of Technology, about 90 participants. FFusion 2 Technology Programme Annual Seminar, TVO Olkiluoto and Pori, 4-5 June 2002. 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology (SOFT), Helsinki, 9-13 September 2002. Hosted by Association Euratom-Tekes and organised by VTT, Fortum and Prizztech (Chairman of the International Organising Committee: Harri Tuomisto, Chairman of the Local Organising Committee: Iiro Andersson and Scientific Secretary Seppo Tähtinen), Industrial Exhibition, about 450 participants. The opening addresses of 22nd SOFT were given by Sinikka Mönkäre, Minister of Trade and Industry, Erkki Leppävuori, Director General of VTT and Jyrki Juusela, Director General of Outokumpu. 117

ANNEX D Doctoral, Licentiate and Graduate Theses 1. Mervi Mantsinen, Development and Experimental Evaluation of Theoretical Models for Ion Cyclotron Resonance Frequency Heating of Tokamak Plasmas, Report TKK-F-A789, Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Espoo 1999, 53 pp. + app. (Doctorate Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology) 2. Elizaveta Vainonen-Ahlgren Release of hydrogen Isotopes from Carbon Based Fusion Reactor Materials, University of Helsinki Report Series in Physics HU-P-D86, University of Helsinki, 2000, 41 pp. +app., ISSN 0356-0961, ISBN 951-45-8941-6 (Doctorate Thesis at the University of Helsinki). 3. Juha Koponen, Transient Particle Transport Studies at the W7-AS Stellarator, Report TKK- F-A800, Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Espoo 2000, 48 pp. + app. (Doctorate Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 4. Timo Kiviniemi Numerical Simulation of Neoclassical Currents, Parallel Viscosity, and Radial Current Balance in Tokamak Plasmas, Report TKK-F-A807, Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Espoo 2001, 45 pp. + app., (Doctorate Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 5. E. Mäkinen, Control of a Water Hydraulic Servo System, Tampere University of Technology, Publications, Tampere 2001. 327, 94 pp. (Doctorate Thesis at the Tampere University of Technology) 6. Marko Santala, Nuclear Diagnostics in the Study of Relativistic Laser-Plasma Interactions, Helsinki University of Technology, Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics, Espoo 2001, 46 pp. + app. (Doctorate Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology) 7. Tuomas Tala, Transport barrier and current profile studies on the JET Tokamak, VTT Publications 467 Espoo 2002, 71 pp. + app. 95 p. (Doctorate Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 8. Emppu Salonen, Molecular dynamics studies of the chemical sputtering of carbon-based materials by hydrogen bombardment, Report Series in Physics HU-P-D97, University of Helsinki, 2002, 44 pp.+ app. (Doctorate Thesis at the University of Helsinki). 9. Karin Rantamäki, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of the near-field of a Lower Hybrid Grill, 2002, 88 pp. + app., Doctorate Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology submitted for excamination. 10. Veli Heikkinen, Fuusioreaktorin plasmakammion kuituoptinen tarkastuslaitteisto, ( Fibre optic in-vessel viewing system for a fusion reactor ), University of Oulu, Department of Electrical Engineering, Oulu 1999, 65 pp. + app. (Licentiate s Thesis, in Finnish) 11. Samuli Saarelma, The MHD Stability Analysis of Type I ELMs in ASDEX Upgrade Tokamak, Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Espoo 2000, 57 pp. (Licentiate s Thesis) 12. Kirsi Alm, An Electromagnetic Particle-in-Cell Model for a Lower Hybrid Launcher, Diploma Thesis, Master of Science, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo 1999, 117 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 13. T. Kemppainen, Master-Slave control of water hydraulic actuator, Diploma Thesis, Master of Science, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere 1999, 62 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Tampere University of Technology, in Finnish). 14. Markus Airila, Electron Energy Spectra in Gyrotrons with Depressed Collectors, Diploma Thesis, Master of Science, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo 2000, 66 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 15. M. Pitkäaho, Development of a Waterhydraulic Tool System, TUT/IHA, June 2000, 72 pp. (Mater s Thesis at the Tampere University of Technology. 119

16. Johnny-Stefan Lönnroth, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Lion Bernstein Wave Excitation, Diploma Thesis, Master of Science, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo 2001, 104 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 17. H. Puhakka, Suurnopeuskeskipakopumpun soveltuvuus vesihydrauliikkaan, TUT/IHA, Feb. 2002, 78 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Tampere University of Technology, in Finnish). 18. Walter Rydman Deuteriumin liikkuminen timanttikalvoissa, Graduate thesis, Department of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki, 2001, 54 pp. (Master s Thesis at the University of Helsinki, in Finnish) 19. Petra Träskelin, Surface chemistry of fusion reactor materials, University of Helsinki, 2002, 44 pp. (Master s Thesis at the University of Helsinki). 20. Jarmo Poutanen, Servo-ohjatun manipulaattorinivelen soveltuvuus vesihydraulikäyttöön, TUT/ IHA, Tampere, Finland, May 2002, 88 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Tampere University of Technology, in Finnish). 21. J. Jortikka, Servosolenoidiventtiilit vesihydrauliikassa, TUT/IHA, Tampere, Finland, May 2002, 74 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Tampere University of Technology, in Finnish). 22. Antti Salmi, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Lower Hybrid Wave Coupling near the Cut-off, Diploma Thesis, Master of Science, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo 2002, 58 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Helsinki University of Technology). 23. Kari, Dufva, In-Vessel Pentrator -käärmerobotin mallinnus ADAMS-ohjelmistolla, Diploma Thesis, Master of Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, 2002, 74 pp. (Master s Thesis at the Lappeenranta University of Technology, in Finnish) 120

ANNEX E Publications and reports 1999 2002 1 Fusion Physics and Plasma Engineering 1.1 Publications in Scientific Jour nals Fusion Plasma Physics 1. M.J. Mantsinen, L.-G. Eriksson, A. Gondhalekar and T. Hellsten, Evidence for regions of nearly suppressed velocity space diffusion caused by finite Larmor radius effects during ICRF heating, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 459-466. 2. M.J. Mantsinen, L.-G. Eriksson,V. Bhatnagar, G. Cottrell, A. Gondhalekar, C. Gormezano, R. König, P. Lomas, E. Righi, F. Rimini, G. Sips, D. Start, F.X. Söldner, D. Testa, B. Tubbing and K.-D. Zastrow, Analysis of Bulk Ion Heating with ICRH in JET High Performance Plasmas, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 41 (1999) 843-865. 3. K.M. Rantamäki, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, X. Litaudon, D. Moreau, P. Bibet and A. Ekedahl, Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Parasitic Absorption of Lower Hybrid Power in Edge Plasmas of Tokamaks, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 41 (1999) 1125-1133. 4. J.A. Heikkinen, T.J.J. Tala, T.J.H. Pättikangas, A.D. Piliya, A.N. Saveliev and S.J. Karttunen, Role of the Fast Waves in the Central Deposition of Lower Hybrid Power, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 41 (1999) 1231-1249. 5. O. Dumbrajs and J.P.T. Koponen, Generalized Gyrotron Theory with Inclusion of Electron Velocity and Energy Spreads, Physics of Plasmas 6 (1999) 2618-2621. 6. S.J. Karttunen, T.J.H. Pättikangas, R.R.E. Salomaa, M. Shoucri, I. Shkarofsky, P. Bertrand and A. Ghizzo, Vlasov Simulations of Spectral and Fast Electron Features in Lower Hybrid Current Drive, Physica Scripta 60 (1999) 356-364. 7. J.A. Heikkinen, S. Orivuori, S. Saarelma, L. Heikinheimo, and J. Linden, Thermal and Electrical Analysis of Alumina and Beryllia Dielectric Coax High-Power Windows under Irradiation, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation 6 (1999) 169-174. 8. O. Dumbrajs, J. Anderer, S. Illy, B. Piosczyk, M. Thumm and N.A. Zavolsky, Multifrequency Operation of a Gyrotron, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 27 (1999) 327-329. 9. T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, T. Kurki-Suonio and S.K. Sipilä, L-H Transport Barrier Formation: Self-Consistent Simulation and Comparison with Experiments on ASDEX Upgrade, Czechoslovak Journal of Physics, 49 S53 (1999) 81-92. 10. O. Dumbrajs and J.P.T. Koponen, Determination of the Transport Matrix on the Basis of Measured Space- and Time-dependent Eelectron Density and Temperature Profiles, Computer Modelling and New Technologies, Riga, 3 (1999) 7-14. 11. U. Stroth, T. Geist, J.P.T. Koponen, H.-J. Hartfuss, and P. Zeiler, Evidence for Inward Particle Convection in a Stellarator, Physical Review Letters 82 (1999) 928-931. 12. D.F.H. Start, J. Jacquinot, V. Bergeaud, V.P. Bhatnagar, S.W. Conroy, G.A. Cottrell, S. Clement, G. Ericsson, L.-G. Eriksson, A. Fasoli, V. Fuchs, A. Gondhalekar, C. Gormezano, G. Gorini, G. Grosshoeg, K. Guenther, P.J. Harbour, R.F. Heeter, L.D. Horton, A.C. Howman, H.J. Jäckel, O.N. Jarvis, J. Källne, C.N. Lashmore Davies, K.D. Lawson, C.G. Lowry, M.J. Mantsinen, F.B. Marcus, R.D. Monk, E. Righi, F.G. Rimini, G.J. Sadler, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, B. Schunke, S.E. Sharapov, A.C.C. Sips, M.F. Stamp, M. Tardocchi, P. van Belle, Bulk ion heating with ICRH in JET DT plasmas, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 321-336. 13. L.-G. Eriksson, M.J. Mantsinen, V.P. Bhatnagar, A. Gondhalekar, C. Gormezano, P.J. Harbour, T. Hellsten, J. Jacquinot, H.J. Jäckel, K. Lawson, C.G. Lowry, E. Righi, G.J. Sadler, B. Schunke, A.C.C. Sips, M.F. Stamp, D.F.H. Start, Theoretical analysis of ICRF heating in JET DT plasmas, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 337-352. 14. S.E. Sharapov, D. Borba, A. Fasoli, W. Kerner, L.-G. Eriksson, R.F. Heeter, G.T.A. Huysmans, M.J. Mantsinen, Stability of alpha particle driven Alfvén eigenmodes in high performance JET DT plasmas, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 373-388. 121

15. G.A. Cottrell, Yu.F. Baranov, D.V. Bartlett, C.D. Challis, A. Ekedahl, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, G.T.A. Huysmans, X. Litaudon, M.J. Mantsinen, D.P. O Brien, V.V. Parail, F. Rochard, G.J. Sadler, P. Schild, A.C.C. Sips, F.X. Söldner, D.F.H. Start, B.J.D. Tubbing, D.J. Ward, M.G. von Hellermann, W.P. Zwingmann, Ion cyclotron heating of JET DD and DT optimized shear plasmas, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 389-406. 16. L.D. Horton, R. Sartori, B. Balet, R. Budny, J.P. Christiansen, S. Clement, G.D. Conway, J.G. Cordey, G.M. Fishpool, J. Lingertat, C.G. Lowry, C.F. Maggi, M.J. Mantsinen, V. Riccardo, G. Saibene, P. Smeulders, R.J. Smith, K. Thomsen, M.G. von Hellermann, High-Fusion Power Steady-State Operation in JET DT Plasmas, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 993-1008. 17. F.G. Rimini, P. Andrews, B. Balet, J. Bull, N. Deliyanakis, H. de Esch, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, C. Gowers, H.Y. Guo, T.T.C. Jones, R. König, M. Lennholm, P.J. Lomas, A. Maas, M. Mantsinen, F.B. Marcus, M.F. Nave, V. Parail, D.F.H. Start, A. Taroni, D. Testa and P.R. Thomas, Combined Heating Experiments in ELM-free H-modes in JET, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 1591-1603. 18. M.L. Watkins and JET Team (including M. Mantsinen and T. Tala), Physics of high performance JET plasmas in DT, Nuclear Fusion, 39 (1999) 1227-1244. 19. ITER Physics Expert Group on Energetic Particles, Heating and Current Drive (including J.A. Heikkinen), ITER Physics Basis Editors, ITER EDA Naka Joint Work Site, ITER Physics Basis; Plasma Auxiliary Heating and Current Drive, Nuclear Fusion 39 (1999) 2495-2539. 20. V. Fuchs, Y. Demers, P. Jacquet, A. Cairns, A. Cote, C. Cote, N. Richard, P. Bibet, M. Goniche, X. Litaudon, J. Mailloux, D. Moreau, K.M. Rantamäki, V. Petrzilka, L. Krlin, Interaction of tokamak edge electrons with lower hybrid antenna electric field spectra, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 41 (1999) A495 - A505. 21. D. Testa, C.N. Lashmore-Davies, A. Gondhalekar, L.-G. Eriksson, M.J. Mantsinen and T.J. Martin, Measurement and Interpretation of Interaction of MeV Energy Protons with Lower Hybrid Waves in JET Plasmas, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 41 (1999) 507-524. 22. X. Litaudon, T. Aniel, Y. Baranov, D. Bartlett, A Bécoulet, C. Challis, G.D. Conway, G.A. Cottrell, A. Ekedahl, M. Erba, L. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, G.T. Hoang, G. Huysmans, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, M. Mantsinen, V. Parail, Y. Peysson, F. Rochard, P. Schild, A. Sips, F.X. Söldner, B. Tubbing, I. Voitsekhovitch, D. Ward, W. Zwingmann, Electron and Ion Internal Transport Barriers in Tore Supra and JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 41 (1999) A733-A746. 23. L.-G. Eriksson, M.J. Mantsinen, T. Hellsten and J. Carlsson, On the Orbit Averaged Monte Carlo Operator Describing ICRF Wave Particle Interaction in a Tokamak, Physics of Plasmas 6 (1999) 513-518. 24. J. Lingertat, V. Bhatnagar, G.D. Conway, L.-G. Eriksson, K. Günther, M. von Hellermann, M. Mantsinen, V. Parail, R. Prentice, G. Saibene, R. Smith and K.-D. Zastrow, The Edge Operational Space in JET, Journal of Nuclear Materials 266-269 (1999) 124-130. 25. G.T. Razdobarin, R.R.E. Salomaa, M.I.K. Santala, and S.Yu. Tolstyakov, Application of resonant Raman Scattering of Light for Plasma diagnostics, Technical Physics Letters 9 (1999) 58-68. 26. J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi, A.G. Peeters, Neoclassical Radial Current Balance in Tokamaks and Transition to the H-mode, Physical Review Letters 84 (2000) 487-490. 27. D. Teychenné, E. Bésuelle, A. Oloumi, and R.R.E. Salomaa, Chaotic dynamics of coupled transverse-longitudinal plasma oscillations in magnetized plasmas, Physical Review Letters 85 (2000) 5571-5574. 28. J.P.T. Koponen, T. Geist, U. Stroth, S. Fiedler, H.-J. Hartfuss, O. Heinrich, H. Walter, O. Dumbrajs, the ECH Group and the W7-AS Team, Perturbative Particle Transport Studies in the W7-AS Stellarator, Nuclear Fusion 40 (2000) 365-378. 29. K.M. Rantamäki, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, P. Bibet, X. Litaudon and D. Moreau, Estimation of Heat Loads on the Wall Structures in Parasitic Absorption of Lower Hybrid Power, Nuclear Fusion 40 (2000) 1477-1490. 30. T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, Test Particle Simulation of Non-Ambipolar Ion Diffusion in Tokamaks, Nuclear Fusion 40 (2000) 1587-1596. 31. T.J.J. Tala, Yu.F. Baranov, V.V. Parail, F.X. Söldner, A. Taroni, J.A. Heikkinen and S.J. Karttunen, Modelling of Optimised Shear Scenarious with LHCD for High Performance Experiments on JET, Nuclear Fusion 40 (2000) 1635-1650. 32. M.J. Mantsinen, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, N.C. Hawkes, T. Hellsten, X. Litaudon, F. Rimini, S. Sharapov and B.C. Stratton, On the role of dif- 122

ferent phasings of the ICRF antennas in the optimised shear discharges in JET, Nuclear Fusion 40 (2000) 1773-1789. 33. S. Saarelma, S. Günter, T. Kurki-Suonio, and H. Zehrfeld, ELM Phenomenon as an Interaction between Bootstrap Current Driven Peeling Modes and Pressure Driven Ballooning Modes, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 42 (2000) A139-A145. 34. T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, T. Kurki-Suonio, and S.K.Sipilä, Critical Assessment of Ion Loss Mechanism for L-H Transition, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 42 (2000) A185-A190. 35. T. Kurki-Suonio, S.K. Sipilä, and J.A. Heikkinen, Active Diagnostic of Edge E r Using Neutral Particle Analyzers, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 42 (2000) A277-A282. 36. J.P.T. Koponen, U. Stroth, T. Geist, H.-J. Hartfuss, H.P. Laqua, Ch. Wendland, E. Wursching, ECRH and W7-AS team, Peaked Density Profiles: Evidence of Inward Particle Transport in W7-AS Stellarator, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 42 (2000) 1123-1136. 37. M.J. Mantsinen, S. Sharapov, B. Alper, A. Gondhalekar and D.C. McDonald, A New Type of MHD Activity in JET ICRF-Only Discharges with High Fast Ion Energy Contents, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 42 (2000) 1291-1308. 38. T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, Effect of Poloidal Density Variation on Parallel Viscosity for Large Mach Numbers, Physics of Plasmas 7 (2000) 5255-5258. 39. J.A. Heikkinen, K.M. Rantamäki, S.J. Karttunen, A. Lampela, M. Mantsinen and T.J.H. Pättikangas, Parasitic Particle Acceleration and RF Power Absorption in Edge Plasmas, (invited) Contributions to Plasma Physics 40 (2000) 276-287. 40. J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi, and A.G. Peeters, L-H Transport Barrier Formation: Monte Carlo Simulation of the Sheared E B Flow Dynamics in Tokamaks, Contributions to Plasma Physics 40 (2000) 431-436. 41. O. Dumbrajs, M.Yu. Glyavin, V.E. Zapevalov, and N.A. Zavolsky, Influence of Reflections on Mode Competition in Gyrotrons, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28 (2000) 588-596. 42. O. Dumbrajs, V.I. Khizhnyak, A.B. Pavelyev, B. Piosczyk, and M. Thumm, Design of Rapid Frequency-Step-Tunable Powerful Coaxial-Cavity Harmonic Gyrotrons, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28 (2000) 681-687. 43. M.I. Airila, O. Dumbrajs, A. Reinfelds, and D. Teychenné, Traces of Stochasticity in Electron Trajectories in Gyrotron Resonators, International Journal on Infrared and Millimeter Waves 21 (2000) 1759-1776. 44. S.E. Sharapov, B. Alper, D. Borba, L.-G. Eriksson, A. Fasoli, R.D. Gill, A. Gondhalekar, C. Gormezano, R.F. Heeter, G.T.A. Huysmans, J. Jacquinot, A.A. Korotkov, P. Lamalle, M.J. Mantsinen, D.C. McDonald, F. Rimini, D. Start, D. Testa, P. Thomas and the JET Team, Energetic Particle Physics in JET, Nuclear Fusion 40 (2000) 1363. 45. J.P. Graves, K.I. Hopcraft, R.O. Dendy, R.J. Hastie, K.G. McClements, M. Mantsinen, Sawtooth Evolution during JET ICRH Pulses, Physical Review Letters 84 (2000) 1204-1207. 46. L.C. Ingesson, H. Chen, P. Helander and M.J. Mantsinen, Comparison of Basis Functions in Soft X-Ray Tomography and Observation of Poloidal Asymmetries in Impurity Density, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 42 (2000) 161-180. 47. A.Fasoli, D. Borba, B. Breizman, C. Gormezano, R.F. Heeter, A. Jaun, M. Mantsinen, S. Sharapov and T. Testa, Fast Particle-Wave Interaction in the Alfvén Frequency Range Physics of Plasmas 7 (2000) 1816. 48. R.A. Cairns, B. Rau, and M. Airila, Enhanced Transmission of Laser Light through Thin Slabs of Overdense Plasmas, Physics of Plasmas 7 (2000) 3736-3742. 49. V.L. Bratman, O. Dumbrajs, P. Nikkola and A.V. Savilov, Space-Charge Effects as a Source of Electron Energy Spread and Efficiency Degradation in Gyrotrons, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 28 (2000) 633-637. 50. G. Dammertz, O. Dumbrajs, K. Koppenburg, B. Piosczyk, and M. Thumm, Frequency-Step-Tunable High-Power Gyrotrons for Plasma Physics Applications, J. Communications Technology and Electronics 45 (2000) 560-564. 51. O. Dumbrajs, J.A. Heikkinen, and H. Zohm, Electron Cyclotron Heating and Current Drive Control by Means of Frequency-Step-Tunable Gyrotrons, Nuclear Fusion 41 (2001) 927-944. 52. M.J. Mantsinen, O.N. Jarvis, V. Kiptily, S. Sharapov, B. Alper, L-G. Eriksson, A. Gondhalekar, R.F. Heeter, D. McDonald, First Observation of p-t Fusion in JET Tritium Plasmas with ICRF Heating of Protons, Nuclear Fusion 41 (2001) 1815-1822. 53. T.J.J. Tala, J.A. Heikkinen, V.V. Parail, Yu.F. Baranov, and S.J. Karttunen, ITB Formation in Terms of ω E B Flow Shear and Magnetic Shear s on 123

JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 43 (2001) 507-523. 54. T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, S.K.Sipilä, Monte Carlo Guiding Centre Simulations of E B Flow Shear in Edge Transport Barrier, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 43 (2001) 1103-1118. 55. M.I. Airila and O. Dumbrajs, Generalized Gyrotron Theory with Inclusion of Adiabatic Electron Trapping in the Presence of a Depressed Collector, Physics of Plasmas 8 (2001) 1358-1362. 56. J.A. Heikkinen, S. Jachmich, T.P. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, and A.G. Peeters, Bifurcation of the Radial Electric Field in the Presence of Edge Polarization in Tokamaks, Physics of Plasmas 8 (2001) 2824-2834. 57. M.I. Airila, O. Dumbrajs, A. Reinfelds, and U. Strautins, Nonstationary Oscillations in Gyrotrons, Physics of Plasmas 8 (2001) 4608-4612. 58. J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, A.G. Peeters, and S.K. Sipilä, Particle Simulation of the Neoclassical Plasmas, Journal of Computational Physics 173 (2001) 527-548. 59. O. Dumbrajs, P. Nikkola, and B. Piosczyk, On the Negative-Mass Instability in Gyrotrons, International Journal of Electronics 88 (2001) 215-224. 60. T.P. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, S.K. Sipilä, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, Radial Electric Field Shear due to Neoclassical Effects in Transport Barriers, Czechoslovak Journal of Physics 51 (2001) 1053-1064. 61. T. Kurki-Suonio, S.K. Sipilä, T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, W. Fundamenski, G.F. Matthews, and V. Riccardo, Significance of the Radial Electric Field to Divertor Load Asymmetries, Czechoslovak Journal of Physics 51 (2001) 1097-1105. 62. N.C. Hawkes, B.C. Stratton, T.J.J. Tala, C.D. Challis, G. Conway, R.DeAngelis, C. Giroud, J. Hobirk, E. Joffrin, P. Lomas, P. Lotte, J. Mailloux, E. Rachlew, S. Reyes-Cortes, E. Solano and K.-D. Zastrow, Observation of Zero Current Density in the Core of JET Discharges with Lower Hybrid Heating and Current Drive, Physical Review Letters 87 (2001) 115001:1-4. 63. S. Günter, A. Gude, J. Hobirk, M. Maraschek, A.G. Peeters, S.D. Pincher, S. Saarelma, S. Schade, R.C. Wolf and the ASDEX Upgrade team, MHD Phenomena in Advanced Scenarios on ASDEX Upgrade and the Influence of Localized Electron Heating and Current Drive, Nuclear Fusion 41, (2001) 1283-1290. 64. J. Ongena, W. Suttrop, M. Bécoulet, G. Cordey, P. Dumortier, Th. Eich, L.C. Ingesson, S. Jachmich, P. Lang, A. Loarte, P. Lomas, G.P. Maddison, A.Messiaen, M.F.F. Nave, J. Rapp, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, O. Sauter, J.D. Strachan, B. Unterberg, M. Valovic, B. Alper, Ph. Andrew, Y. Baranov, J. Brzozowski, J. Bucalossi, M. Brix, R. Budny, M. Charlet, I. Coffey, M. De Baar, P. De Vries, C. Gowers, N. Hawkes, M. von Hellermann, D.L. Hillis, J. Hogan, G.L. Jackson, E. Joffrin, C. Jupen, A. Kallenbach, H.R. Koslowski, K.D. Lawson, M. Mantsinen, G. Matthews, P. Monier-Garbet, D. Mc- Donald, F. Milani, M. Murakami, A. Murari, R. Neu, V. Parail, S. Podda, M.E. Puiatti, E. Righi, F. Sartori, Y. Sarazin, A. Staebler, M. Stamp, G. Telesca, M. Valisa, B. Weyssow, K.-D. Zastrow and EFDA-JET Workprogramme contributors, Recent Progress on JET towards the ITER Reference Mode of Operation at High Density, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 43 (2001) 11-30. 65. W.W. Heidbrink, T. Beitzel, K.H. Burrell, R. Colchin, C.W. Guldi, T. Kurki-Suonio, and R. Groebner, The Effect of Electric Fields and Pitch-Angle Scattering on the Radial Neutral Flux, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 43 (2001) 373-387. 66. S.E. Sharapov, D. Testa, B. Alper, D.N. Borba, A. Fasoli, N.C. Hawkes, R.F. Heeter, M. Mantsinen, M.G. von Hellermann and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, MHD Spectroscopy through Detecting Toroidal Alfvén Eigenmodes and Alfvén Wave Cascades, Physics Letters A 289 (2001) 127-134. 67. M. Thumm, A. Arnold, E. Borie, O. Braz, G. Dammertz, O. Dumbrajs, K. Koppenburg, M. Kuntze, G. Michel and B. Piosczyk, Frequency Step-Tunable (114-170 GHz) Megawatt Gyrotrons for Plasma Physics Applications, Fusion Engineering and Design 53 (2001) 407-422. 68. M.J. Mantsinen, L.C. Ingesson, T. Johnson, V.G. Kiptily, M.-L. Mayoral, S.E. Sharapov, B. Alper, L. Bertalot, S. Conroy, L.-G. Eriksson, T. Hellsten, J.-M. Noterdaeme, S. Popovichev, E. Righi, and A.A. Tuccillo, Controlling the Profile of Ion-Cyclotron-Resonant Ions in JET with the Wave-Induced Pinch Effect, Physical Review Letters 89 (2002) 115004:1-4. 69. M.J. Mantsinen, M.-L. Mayoral, V.G. Kiptily, S.E. Sharapov, B. Alper, A. Bickley, M. de Baar, L.-G. Eriksson, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, K. Lawson, F. Nguyen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, E. Righi, A.A. Tuccillo, M. Zerbini and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Alpha Tail Production with Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating of 124

4He-Beam Ions in JET Plasmas, Physical Review Letters 88 (2002) 105002: 1-4. 70. T. Kurki-Suonio, T.P. Kiviniemi, S.K. Sipilä, J.A. Heikkinen, W. Fundamenski, G.F. Matthews, and V. Riccardo, Monte Carlo Simulation of the Heat Load Asymmetry on JET Divertor Plates, Nuclear Fusion 42 (2002) 725-732. 71. T. Kurki-Suonio, S. Lashkul, and J.A. Heikkinen, Formation and Detection of Internal Transport Barriers in Low Current Tokamaks, Plasma Physics Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 301-323. 72. T. Kurki-Suonio, S. Sipilä, J.A. Heikkinen, H.-U. Fahrbach, A. Khudoleev and the ASDEX Upgrade Team, Monte Carlo Simulations of Central Ion Temperature Measurements Using Neutral Particle Analysers, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 475-491. 73. T.J.J. Tala, V.V. Parail, A. Becoulet, G. Corrigan, D.J. Heading, M.J. Mantsinen, P.I. Strand and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Comparison of Theory-Based and Semi-Empirical Transport Modelling in JET Plasmas with ITBs, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) A495-A500. 74. T.J.J. Tala, V.V. Parail, A. Becoulet, C.D. Challis, G. Corrigan, N.C. Hawkes, D.J. Heading, M.J. Mantsinen, S. Nowak and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Impact of Different Heating and Current Drive Methods on the Early q-profile Evolution in JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 44 (2002) 1181-1202. 75. K.M. Rantamäki, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, K.M. Alm-Lytz, J.P. Verboncoeur and P. Mardahl, Electromagnetic Particle-in-Cell Simulations of a Lower Hybrid Grill, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 1349-1362. 76. M.J. Mantsinen, C. Angioni, L.-G. Eriksson, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, T. Johnson, M.-L. Mayoral, K.G. McClements, M.F.F. Nave, F. Nguyen, S. Podda, J. Rapp, O. Sauter, S.E. Sharapov, E. Westerhof and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Analysis of Ion Cyclotron Heating and Current Drive at ω 2ω ch for Sawtooth Control in JET Plasmas, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 1521-1542 77. M.J. Mantsinen, C.C. Petty, L.-G. Eriksson, T.K. Mau, R.I. Pinsker and M. Porkolab, Analysis of Combined Fast Wave Current Drive and Neutral Beam Injection in the DIII-D Tokamak, Physics Plasmas 9 (2002) 1318-1325. 78. J.S. Lönnroth, J.A. Heikkinen, K.M. Rantamäki and S.J. Karttunen, Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Ion Bernstein Excitation, Physics of Plasmas 9 (2002) 2926-2939. 79. S. Sipilä, J.A. Heikkinen, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki- Suonio, W. Fundamenski and K. Nordlund, Recent Developments in Monte Carlo Codes for Edge Plasma Studies, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 145-156. 80. T. Kurki-Suonio, J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi and J. Stober, Monte Carlo Simulations of Edge Ion Temperature Profile in ASDEX Upgrade, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 224-229. 81. T. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, and A.G. Peeters, Neoclassical Radial Electric Field and Ion Heat Flux in the Presence of the Transport Barrier, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 236-240. 82. S. Saarelma, S. Günter, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki- Suonio, and the ASDEX Upgrade Team, MHD Stability Analysis of Type II ELMs in ASDEX Upgrade, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 277-282. 83. J. Likonen, E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, T. Ahlgren, S. Lehto, T. Sajavaara, W. Rydman, J. Keinonen and C. Wu, Annealing Behaviour of Deuterium in Silicon Doped Carbon Films, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 445-450. 84. A.V. Krasheninnikov, E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen and C.H. Wu, Tight-Binding Atomistic Simulations of Hydrocarbon Sputtering by Hyperthermal Ions in Tokamak Divertors, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 451-457. 85. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen and C.H. Wu, Obtaining Distributions of Plasma Impurities Using Atomistic Simulation, Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002) 458-463. 86. F. Crisanti, X. Litaudon, J. Mailloux, D. Mazon, E. Barbato, Y. Baranov, A. Bécoulet, M. Bécoulet, C.D. Challis, G.D. Conway, R. Dux, L.-G. Eriksson, B. Esposito, D. Frigione, P. Hennequin, C. Giroud, N. Hawkes, G. Huysmans, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, P. Lomas, Ph. Lotte, P. Maget, M. Mantsinen, D. Moreau, F. Rimini, M. Riva,Y. Sarazin, G. Tresset, A.A. Tuccillo, K.-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, JET Quasi-Stationary Internal Transport Barrier Operation with Active Control of the Pressure Profile, Physical Review Letters 88 (2002) 145004:1-4. 87. O. Sauter, E. Westerhof, M.L. Mayoral, B. Alper, P.A. Belo, R.J. Buttery, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, T.C. Hender, D.F. Howell, T. Johnson, P. Lamalle, M.J. Mantsinen, F. Milani, M.F.F. Nave, F. Nguyen, A.L. Pecquet, S.D. Pinches, S. Podda, J. 125

Rapp and contributions to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Control of Neoclassical Tearing Modes by Sawtooth Control, Physical Review Letters 88 (2002) 105001:1-4. 88. V.G. Kiptily, F.E. Cecil, O.N. Jarvis, M.J. Mantsinen, S.E. Sharapov, L. Bertalot, S. Conroy, L.C. Ingesson, T. Johnson, K.D. Lawson, S. Popovichev and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, γ-ray Diagnostics of Energetic Ions in JET, Nuclear Fusion 42 (2002) 999-1007. 89. J. Pamela, D. Stork, E. Solano, Yu.F. Baranov, D. Borba, C.D. Challis, H.P.L. de Esch, R.D. Gill, A. Gondhalekar, V. Kiptily, T. Johnson, M. Mantsinen, K.G. McClements, M.F.F. Nave, S.D. Pinches, O. Sauter, S.E. Sharapov, D. Testa and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Overview of Results and Possibilities for Fast Particle Research on JET, Nuclear Fusion 42 (2002) 1014-1028. 90. E. Westerhof, O. Sauter, M.L. Mayoral, D.F. Howell, M.J. Mantsinen, M.F.F. Nave, B. Alper, C. Angioni, P. Belo, R.J. Buttery, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, T.C. Hender, T. Johnson, P. Lamalle, M.E. Maraschek, K.G. McClements, F. Nguyen, A.L. Péquet, S. Podda, J. Rapp, S. Sharapov, M. Zabiego and contributors to the EFDA-JET work programme, Control of Neoclassical Tearing Modes by Sawtooth Control with Ion Cyclotron Resonance Frequency Waves in JET, Nuclear Fusion 42 (2002) 1324-1334. 91. D.A. D Ippolito, J.R. Myra, P.M. Ryan, E. Righi, J.A. Heikkinen, P. Lamalle, J.-M. Noterdaeme, and Contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Modeling of Mixed-Phasing Antenna-Plasma Interactions on JET A2 Antennas, Nuclear Fusion, 42 (2002) 1356-1364. 92. A Fasoli, D Testa, S Sharapov, H L Berk, B Breizman, A Gondhalekar, R F Heeter, M Mantsinen and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, MHD spectroscopy, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 159-172. 93. C. Angioni, A. Pochelon, N.N. Gorelenkov, K.G. McClements, O.Sauter, R.V. Budny, P.C. de Vries, D.F. Howell, M. Mantsinen, M.F.F. Nave, S.E. Sharapov, and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Neutral Beam Stabilization of Sawtooth Oscillations in JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 205-222. 94 L.D. Horton, T. Hatae, A. Hubbard, G. Janeschitz, Y. Kamada, B. Kurzan, L. Lao, P.J. McCarthy, D. Mossessian, T.H. Osborne, S.D. Pinches, S. Saarelma, M. Sugihara, W. Suttrop, K. Thomsen, H. Urano, Dependence of H-Mode Pedestal Parameters on Plasma Magnetic Geometry, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) A273- A278. 95. W. Fundamenski, G.F. Matthews, V. Riccardo, P. Andrews, T. Eich, L.C. Ingesson, T.P. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, V. Philipps, S.K. Sipilä, and contributors to the EFDA Work Programme, Interpretation of Recent Power Width Measurements in JET MkIIGB ELMy H-modes, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 761-793. 96. C.D. Challis, X. Litaudon, G. Tresset, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Bécoulet, C. Giroud, N.C. Hawkes, D.F. Howell, E. Joffrin, P.J. Lomas, J. Mailloux, M.J. Mantsinen, B.C. Stratton, D.J. Ward, K.-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Influence of the q-profile Shape on Plasma Performance in JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002), 1031-1055. (Erratum PPCF 44 (2002), 2063) 97. X. Litaudon, F. Crisanti, B. Alper, J.F. Artaud, Yu.F. Baranov, E. Barbato, V. Basiuk, A. Bécoulet, M. Bécoulet, C. Castaldo, C.D. Challis, G.D. Conway, R. Dux, L.-G. Eriksson, B. Esposito, C. Fourment, D. Frigione, X. Garbet, C. Giroud, N.C. Hawkes, P. Hennequin, G.T.A. Huysmans, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, P.J. Lomas, Ph. Lotte, P. Maget, M. Mantsinen, J. Mailloux, D. Mazon, F. Milani, D. Moreau, V. Parail, E. Pohn, F.G. Rimini, Y. Sarazin, G. Tresset, K.D. Zastrow, M. Zerbini and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Towards Fully Non-Inductive Current Drive Operation in JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002), 1057-1086. 98. N.C. Hawkes, Y. Andrew, C.D. Challis, R. DeAngelis, V. Drozlow, J. Hobirk, E. Joffrin, P. Lotte, D. Mazon, E. Rachlew, S. Reyes-Cortes, F. Sattin, E. Solano, B.C. Stratton, T.J.J. Tala, M. Valisa and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme The Formation and Evolution of Extreme Shear Reversal in JET and Its Influence on Local Thermal Transport, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 1105-1126. 99. G.P. Maddison, J.A. Snipes, J.-M. Chareau, G.D. Conway, I.H. Hutchinson, L.C. Ingesson, H.R. Koslowski, A. Loarte, P.J. Lomas, M.J. Mantsinen, G.F. Matthews, L. Meneses, M.F.F. Nave, E. Righi, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, O. Sauter, K.-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, ELM moderation with ICRF heating on JET, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion 44 (2002) 1937-1952. 100. A.A. Andreev, K.Yu. Platonov, and R.R.E. Salomaa, Backscattering of ultrashort high intensity laser pulses from solid targets at oblique incidence, Physics of Plasmas 9, 581-588 (2002). 126

101. J. Mailloux, B. Alper, Y. Baranov, A. Becoulet, A. Cardinali, C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, G. Conway, C.D. Challis, F. Crisanti, M. de Baar, P. de Vries, A. Ekedahl, K. Erents, C. Gowers, N.C. Hawkes, G.M.D. Hogeweij, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, X. Litaudon, P. Lomas, G.F. Matthews, D. Mazon, V. Pericoli, R. Prentice, F. Rimini, Y. Sarazin, B.C. Stratton, A.A. Tuccillo, T. Tala, K.-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme Progress in internal transport barrier plasmas with lower hybrid current drive and heating in JET (Joint European Torus), Physics of Plasmas 9 (2002) 2156-2164. 102. C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, A. Cardinali, X. Litaudon, J. Mailloux, V. Parail, T. Tala, F. Crisanti, C. Gormezano, L. Panaccione, F. Santini, P. Smeulders, and A.A. Tuccillo, and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Effect of low magnetic shear induced by lower hybrid current drive on high performance internal transport barriers in the Joint European Torus (JET), Physics of Plasmas 9 (2002) 3205-3208. 103. M.I. Airila, Degradation of operation mode purity in a gyrotron with an off-axis electron beam, Physics of Plasmas 10 (2002) 296-299. 104. J.A. Heikkinen and K.M. Rantamäki, Plasma Coupling and Near Field of a Modular Recessed ICRF Antenna, accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, (2002) 27 pp. 105. M.I. Airila and O. Dumbrajs, Spatio-Temporal Chaos in the Transverse Section of Gyrotron Resonators, accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Ninth Special Issue on High Power Microwave Generation, (2002) 6 pp. 106. O. Dumbrajs and V. Hynönen, Methods of detecting unstable periodic orbits in chaotic ELM experimetal data, accepted for publication in Computer Modelling and New Technologies (2002) (in print). 107. O. Dumbrajs and D. Teychenné, Electron trajectories in gyrotron resonators with realistic RF field profiles. Hamiltonian approach, accepted for publication in Journal of Communications Technology and Electronics (2002) (in print) 108. S. Lashkul, V.Budnikov, V. Dyachenko, L. Esipov, E. Its, M. Kantor, D. Kouprienko, A. Popov, P. Goncharov, S. Shatalin, V. Yermolaev, E. Vekshina, T. Kurki-Suonio, and J. Heikkinen, Formation of Transport Barriers in Lower Hybrid Experiment at FT-2, accepted for publications in the Journal of Plasma and Fusion Research (2002) 12 pp. 109. V.G. Kiptily, S. Popovichev, S.E. Sharapov, L. Bertalot, F. E. Cecil, S. Conroy, M.J. Mantsinen, and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Gamma-diagnostics of alpha particles in 4 He and D-T plasmas, accepted for publication in Review of Scientific Instruments (2002). 110. M.I. Airila, O. Dumbrajs, P. Kåll, and B. Piosczyk, Influence of reflections on the operation of the 2 MW, CW 170 GHz coaxial cavity gyrotron for ITER, submitted to Nuclear Fusion (2002). 111. M.I. Airila and O. Dumbrajs, Stochastic processes in gyrotrons, submitted to Nuclear Fusion (2002). 112. M.F.F. Nave, J. Rapp, T. Bolzonella, R. Dux, M.J. Mantsinen, R. Budny, P. Dumortier, M. von Hellermann, S. Jachmich, H.R. Koslowski, G. Maddison, A. Messiaen, P. Monier-Garbet, J. Ongena, M.E. Puiatti, J. Strachan, G. Telesca, B. Unterberg, M. Valisa, and contributors to the JET-EFDA Workprogramme, Control of Impurity Accumulation in JET Radiative Mantle Discharges submitted to Nuclear Fusion (2002). 113. J.-M. Noterdaeme, E. Righi, V. Chan, J. degrassie, K. Kirov, M. Mantsinen, M.F.F.Nave, D. Testa, K-D. Zastrow, R. Budny, R. Cesario, A. Gondhalekar, N. Hawkes, T. Hellsten, Ph. Lamalle, F. Meo, F. Nguyen and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Spatially Resolved Toroidal Plasma Rotation with ICRF on JET submitted to Nuclear Fusion (2002). 114. R.C. Wolf, Y. Baranov, X. Garbet, N. Hawkes, A. G. Peeters, C. Challis, M. de Baar, C. Giroud, E. Joffrin, M. Mantsinen, D. Mazon, H. Meister, K.-D. Zastrow, and the ASDEX Upgrade team and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Characterisation of ion heat conduction in JET and ASDEX Upgrade plasmas with and without internal transport barriers, submitted to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion (2002). 115. J.S. Lönnroth, V.V. Parail, G. Corrigan, D. Heading, G. Huysmans, A. Loarte, G. Saibene, S. Sharapov, J. Spence, Integrated predictive modeling of the effect of neutral gas puffing in ELMy H-mode plasmas, submitted to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion. 116. O. Dumbrajs, A Novel Method of Improving Performance of Coaxial Gyrotron Resonators, (2002) accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 117. T. Onjun, A.H. Kritz, G. Bateman, V. Parail, J. Lönnroth, G. Huysmans, Pedestal modelling of JET discharges and access to the second stability, submitted to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion. 118. B. Piosczyk, A. Arnold, G. Dammertz, O. Dumbrajs, M. Kuntze, and M. Thumm 165 GHz, TE 31,17 127

coaxial cavity gyrotron (experimental results), IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (in print). 119. M.I. Airila and P. Kåll, Effect of reflections on nonstationary gyrotron oscillations, submitted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques (2002). 120. M.I. Airila and O. Dumbrajs, Optimization of the viewing chords of the multichannel laser interferometer for W7-X, Review of Scientific Instruments, to be submitted (2002). 121. V. Parail, G. Bateman, M. Becoulet, G. Corrigan, D.Heading, J. Hogan, W. Houlberg, G.T.A. Huysmans, J. Kinsey, A. Korotkov, A. Kritz, A. Loarte, J. Lönnroth, D. McDonald, P. Monier- Garbet, T. Onjun, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, S.E. Sharapov, H.R. Wilson, Integrated predictive modelling of JET H-mode plasmas with type-i and type-iii ELMs submitted to Soviet Journal of Plasma Physics. 1.2 Conference Articles Fusion Plasma Physics 1. T. Hellsten, J. Carlsson, L.-G. Eriksson, J. Hedin, and M. Mantsinen, Finite Orbit Width Effects on Ion Cyclotron Heating and Current Drive, Proceedings of Theory of Fusion Plasmas, Joint Varenna-Lausanne International Workshop, Varenna, Italy, August 31-September 4, 1998, International School of Plasma Physics Piero Caldirola, J.W. Connor, E. Sindoni and J. Vaclavik (Eds), Societa Italiana di Fisica, Bologna, Italy 1999, pp. 131-144. 2. S.E. Sharapov, D.N. Borba, A. Fasoli, R.F. Heeter, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, G.T.A. Huysmans, W. Kerner, M. Mantsinen, A.B. Mikhailovskii, and D.F.H. Start, Studies of Alfvén Instabilities on JET in the Recent D-T Campaign, Proceedings of Theory of Fusion Plasmas, Joint Varenna-Lausanne International Workshop, Varenna, Italy, August 31-September 4, 1998. International School of Plasma Physics Piero Caldirola, J.W. Connor, E. Sindoni and J. Vaclavik (Eds), Societa Italiana di Fisica, Bologna, Italy 1999, pp. 215-228. 3. K.M. Rantamäki, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, X. Litaudon and D. Moreau, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Power Absorption in the Near Field of Lower Hybrid Grills, Proceedings of Theory of Fusion Plasmas, Joint Varenna-Lausanne International Workshop, Varenna, Italy, August 31-September 4, 1998, International School of Plasma Physics Piero Caldirola, J.W. Connor, E. Sindoni and J. Vaclavik (Eds), Societa Italiana di Fisica, Bologna, Italy 1999, pp. 531-536. 4. Y. Peysson, M. Goniche, R. Arslanbekov, A. Bécoulet, P. Bibet, A. Côté, C. Côté, Y. Demers, P. Froissard, V. Fuchs, P. Ghendrih, A. Grosman, J. Gunn, D. Guilhem, J.H. Harris, J.T. Hogan, F. Imbeaux, P. Jacquet, F. Kazarian, X. Litaudon, J. Mailloux, D. Moreau, V. Petrzílka, R. Pugno, K.M. Rantamäki, G. Rey, N. Richard, E. Sébelin and M. Shoucri, Core and Edge Electron Dynamics During Lower Hybrid Current Drive Experiments, Proceedings of the 17 th International Conference on Fusion Energy, Yokohama, Japan, October 18-24, 1998, IAEA Vienna 1999, Vol. 2, pp. 629-634. 5. F.X. Söldner & The JET Team (including M.J. Mantsinen and T.J.J. Tala), Towards Steady-State Tokamak Operation with Double Transport Barriers, Proceedings of the 17 th International Conference on Fusion Energy, Yokohama, Japan, October 18-24, 1998, IAEA Vienna 1999, Vol. 2, pp. 709-712. 6. O. Dumbrajs, J.A. Heikkinen, S.J. Karttunen, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, T.J.H. Pättikangas, K.M. Rantamäki, S. Saarelma, R.R.E. Salomaa and S.K. Sipilä, T.J.J. Tala, P. Bibet, X. Litaudon, D. Moreau, A. Peeters, A. Ekedahl, Impact of Edge Electric Fields on Particle Transport and Dynamics in Tokamaks, Proceedings of the 17 th International Conference on Fusion Energy, Yokohama, Japan, October 18-24, 1998, IAEA Vienna 1999, Vol. 4, pp. 1541-1544. 7. K.M. Rantamäki, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, P. Bibet, X. Litaudon and D. Moreau, Power and Temperature Dependence of Lower Hybrid Power Absorption in the Edge Plasmas, Proceedings of the XXXIII Annual Meeting of the Finnish Physical Society, Turku, Finland, March 4-6, 1999, Turku-FL-L28 Report (1999) (abstract). 8. T.P.Kiviniemi and J.A.Heikkinen, Self-consistent Simulation of Radial Electric Fields in a Tokamak Plasma Edge, Proceedings of the XXXIII Annual Meeting of the Finnish Physical Society, Turku, Finland, March 4-6, 1999, Turku-FL-L28 Report (1999) (abstract). 9. M.J. Mantsinen, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, F.G. Rimini and A.C.C. Sips, ICRH Heating in JET High-Performance Discharges: Analysis of the Effects on the Plasma Performance, 13th Topical Conference on Applications of Radio Frequency Power to Plasmas, Annapolis, Maryland, USA, April 12-14, 1999, AIP Conference Proceedings 485 (1999) 120-128. 10. T.J.J. Tala, F.X. Söldner, V.V. Parail, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Taroni, J.A. Heikkinen, S.J. Karttunen, T.J.H. Pättikangas, Modelling of LHCD Profile Control for High Performance DT Experiments on JET, 13th Topical Conference on Applications of Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas, Annapolis, Mary- 128

land, USA, April 12-14, 1999, AIP Conference Proceedings 485 (1999) 207-210. 11. F.X. Söldner, B. Alper, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Bickley, A. Bondeson, D. Borba, C.D. Challis, G. Conway, G.A. Cottrell, M. de Benedetti, N. Deliyanakis, A. Ekedahl, K. Erents, C. Gormezano, C. Gowers, N.C. Hawkes, T.C. Hender, G.T.A. Huysmans, E. Joffrin, T.T.C. Jones, X. Litaudon, D.-H. Liu, P.J. Lomas, A. Maas, J. Mailloux, M. Mantsinen, F. Nave, V.V. Parail, F. Rimini, Y. Sarazin, A.C.C. Sips, P. Smeulders, M.F. Stamp, T.J.J. Tala, M. von Hellermann, D.J. Ward, K.-D. Zastrow, The Role of RF in the Optimised Shear Scenario on JET, 13th Topical Conference on Applications of Radio Frequency Power to Plasmas, Annapolis, Maryland, USA, April 12-14, 1999, AIP Conference Proceedings 485 (1999) 288-295. 12. G. Saibene, R. Budny, A.V. Chanikin, G.D. Conway, G.J. Cordey, K Guenter, N. Hawkes, L.D. Horton, J. Lingertat, C.F. Maggi, M. Mantsinen, R.D. Monk, V.V. Parail, F.G. Rimini, R. Sartori, J.D. Strachan, M. von Hellermann, Comparison of Core and Edge Characteristics of NB and ICRH ELMy H-modes in JET, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14 18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 97-100. 13. R.J. Buttery, T.C. Hender, G.T.A. Huysmans, R.J. La Haye, P.U. Lamalle, M. Mantsinen, C. Petty, O. Sauter, H.R. Wilson, Onset and Control of Neo-classical Tearing Modes on JET, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14 18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 121-124. 14. F.X. Söldner, B. Alper, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Bickley, D. Borba, C.D. Challis, G. Conway, G.A. Cottrell, M. de Benedetti, N. Deliyanakis, C. Gormezano, C. Gowers, C.M. Greenfield, N.C. Hawkes, T.C. Hender, G.T.A. Huysmans, E. Joffrin, T.T.C. Jones, P.T. Lang, X. Litaudon, P.J. Lomas, A. Maas, J. Mailloux, M.J. Mantsinen, F. Nave, V.V. Parail, F. Rimini, B. Schunke, A.C.C. Sips, P. Smeulders, M.F. Stamp, E.J. Strait, T.J.J. Tala, M. von Hellermann, D.J. Ward, K.-D. Zastrow, Optimised Shear Scenario Development on JET towards Steady-State, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14 18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 185-188. 15. K.-D. Zastrow, H. Anderson, C. Jupén, M.G. von Hellermann, A.C. Maas, M.G.O Mullane, B. Alper, Yu.F. Baranov, A.J. Bickley, D. Borba, C.D. Challis, G.D. Conway, N. Deliyanakis, C. Gormezano, C.W. Gowers, N.C. Hawkes, T.C. Hender, L.C. Ingesson, E. Joffrin, T.T.C. Jones, P.J. Lomas, M.J. Mantsinen, F.G. Rimini, A.C.C. Sips, F.X. Söldner, M.F. Stamp, Argon in JET Optimised Shear Plasmas, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14 18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 217-220. 16. D. Borba, S. Allfrey, T. Hender, M. Mantsinen, F. Nabais, M.F.F. Nave, S. Sharapov, The Influence of ICRH-driven Energetic Ions on the Stability of Optimised Shear Discharges in JET, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14-18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 221-224. 17. X. Litaudon, Y. Baranov, A Bécoulet, G.D. Conway, G.A. Cottrell, L.G. Eriksson, V. Fuchs, C. Gormezano, E. Joffrin, M. Mantsinen, M.L. Mayoral, D. Moreau, V. Parail, F. Rimini, F. Rochard, Y. Sarazin, A.C.C. Sips, F.X. Söldner, I. Voitsekhovitch, Improved Core Electron Confinement on JET, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14 18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 965-968. 18. L.-G. Eriksson, M.J. Mantsinen, A. Bécoulet, V. Fuchs, C. Gormezano, T. Hellsten, X. Litaudon and F. Rimini, Analysis of the Influence of Different ICRF Heating Scenarios on the Performance of Optimised Shear Discharges in JET, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 14-18 June 1999, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1013-1016. 19. W. Ott, F.-P. Penningsfeld, C. Fuchs, L. Giannone, H.J. Hartfuss, J.P. Koponen, E. Speth, NI Group and W7-AS Team, Neutral-Beam Deposition Profiles in the W7-AS Stellarator, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, 14-18 June 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1565-1568. 20. S. Saarelma, S. Günter, T. Kurki-Suonio, M. Marachek, A. Turnbull, and H. Zehrfeld, Peeling Mode Stability Studies of ELMs in ASDEX Upgrade, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, the Netherlands, 14-18 June 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1637-1640. 21. J.P.T. Koponen, T. Geist, H.-J. Hartfuss, H. Laqua, U. Stroth, Ch. Wendland, W. Wursching, and ECRH and W7-AS Team, Evidence for Convective Inward Particle Transport in W7-AS, 26th 129

EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, 14-18 June 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1641-1644. 22. J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi, A.G. Peeters, T. Kurki-Suonio and S.K. Sipilä, L-H Transport Barrier Formation: Neoclassical Simulation and Comparison with Tokamak Experiments, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, the Netherlands, 14-18 June 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1645-1648. 23. T. Kurki-Suonio, S.K. Sipilä and J.A. Heikkinen, Neutral Flux Measurements as Diagnostics for Edge Radial Electric Fields, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, the Netherlands, 14-18 June 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1649-1652. 24. K.M. Rantamäki, K.M. Alm, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, J.P. Verboncoeur and P. Mardahl, An Electromagnetic Particle-in-Cell Model for a Lower Hybrid Launcher, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, Netherlands, June 14-18, 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 23J (1999) 1653-1656. 25. K.M. Rantamäki, T.J.H. Pättikangas, S.J. Karttunen, P. Bibet, X. Litaudon and D. Moreau, Parasitic Absorption in the Near-Field of Lower Hybrid Grill, 8th European Fusion Theory Conference, Como, Italy, October 27-29, 1999, (abstract). 26. S.E. Sharapov, D. Borba, A. Fasoli, R.F. Heeter, V.V. Drozdov, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gormezano, J. Jacquinot, M.J. Mantsinen, D. Testa, M.G. von Hellermann, Energetic Ions and MHD Diagnostics through Alfvén Eigenmodes Detection in JET, Proceedings of 6 th IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on Energetic Particles in Magnetic Confinement Systems, Naka, Japan (1999) Conference Paper JAERI-Conf 2000-004 Department of Fusion Plasma Research Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Ibaraki-ken March 2000, p.122-125. 27. O. Dumbrajs, A. Reinfelds, and D. Teychenné, Electron Trajectories in Gyrotron Resonators with Realistic RF Field. Profiles Hamiltonian Approach, 24 th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, Monterey, California, September 6-10, 1999, USA. 28. H.M. Lauranto, S.Yu. Tolstyakov, and R.R.E. Salomaa, Plasma Diagnostics by Near-Resonant Raman Scattering, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 71. 29. M.J. Mantsinen et al., The Role of ICRF-Induced Pinch in Experiments with Toroidally Asymmetric ICRF Waves, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 151. 30. J.A.Heikkinen, T.P.Kiviniemi, T.Kurki-Suonio, and A.Peeters, Monte Carlo Simulation of the Sheared ExB Flow Dynamics in Tokamaks, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 152. 31. T. Kurki-Suonio, S. Sipilä and J.A. Heikkinen, Detecting Radial Electric Field near Tokamak Edge using Neutral Particle Analyzers, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 153. 32. S. Sipilä, J. Heikkinen and T. Kurki-Suonio, Energy and Momentum Conserving Tokamak Transport Simulation Using the Orbit-Following Monte Carlo Code ASCOT, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 154. 33. M. Airila, R.A. Cairns, and B. Rau, Enhanced Transmission of Laser Light through Thin Slabs of Overdense Plasmas, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 155. 34. T.P.Kiviniemi, J.A.Heikkinen, and S.Sipilä, Edge Transport Formation and Turbulence Suppression in ASDEX Upgrade, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 156. 35. T.J.J. Tala, F.X. Söldner, V.V. Parail, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Taroni, J.A. Heikkinen, and S. Karttunen, Modelling of LHCD Profile Control for High Performance DT Experiments on JET-tokamak, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 157. 36. M. Airila, T. Carlsson, O. Dumbrajs, J.A. Heikkinen, S.J. Karttunen, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, A. Lampela, H. Lauranto, J. Lönnroth, M. Mantsinen, K.M. Rantamäki, B. Rau, S. Saarelma, R. Salomaa, S. Sipilä, T. Tala, and D. Teychenne, Fusion - Harnessing the Energy of the Sun, Proc. of XXXIV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, March 9-11, 2000, Espoo, Finland, TKK-F-A797 (2000) 158. 130

37. H.-U. Fahrbach, A.V. Khudoleev, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, H. Meister, T. Kurki-Suonio, S.K. Sipilä, A. Stäbler, J. Stober, W. Ullrich and the ASDEX Upgrade Team, Ion Temperature Determination from Atomic Fluxes above Neutral Beam Injection Energies in ASDEX Upgrade, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, 12-16 June 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000) 53-56. 38. K.M. Rantamäki, S.J. Karttunen, T.J.H. Pättikangas, K.M. Alm-Lytz, J. P. Verboncoeur and P. Mardahl, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Wave Propagation in front of a Lower Hybrid Grill, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, June 12-16 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000) 1196-1199. 39. T.J.J. Tala, V.V. Parail, Yu.F. Baranov, J.A. Heikkinen and S.J. Karttunen, ITB Formation in Terms of ω E B Flow Shear and Magnetic Shear s on JET, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, 12-16 June 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000)1493-1496. 40. J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi, A.G. Peeters, T. Kurki-Suonio and S. Sipilä, Numerical Simulation of Particle Flux in a Poloidally Rotating Tokamak Plasma, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, 12-16 June 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000) 1497-1500. 41. S. Saarelma, S. Günter, H.-P. Zehrfel, The Limits of beta imposed by MHD Modes near the Plasma edge in ASDEX Upgrade, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, 12-16 June 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000) 1501-1504. 42. T. Kurki-Suonio, S.I. Lashkul, and J.A. Heikkinen, Radial Electric Field and Neoclassical Effects in FT-2 Tokamak, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, 12-16 June 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000) 1641-1644. 43. S.K. Sipilä, T. Kurki-Suonio, J.A. Heikkinen, A.V. Khudoleev, H.-U. Fahrbach and A.G. Peeters, Toroidal Orbit-Following Simulation of Ion Temperature Measurements from NBI Tail Distribution in ASDEX Upgrade, 27 th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Budapest, Hungary, 12-16 June 2000, Europhysics Conference Abstracts 24B (2000) 1645-1648. 44. T.C. Hender, S.J. Allfrey, B. Alper, Y. Baranov, D.N. Borba, D. Howell, G.T.A. Huysmans, O.J. Kwan and M. Mantsinen, MHD Limiting JET Optimised Shear Performance, Theory of Fusion Plasmas, Proceedings of the Joint Varenna- Lausanne International Workshop, Varenna, Italy, August 28 September 1, 2000, International School of Plasma Physics Piero Caldirola, Eds. J.W. Connor, O. Sauter and E. Sindoni, Editrice Compositori, Bologna 2000, pp. 213-224. 45. K.M. Rantamäki, J.S. Lönnroth, J.A. Heikkinen, and S.J. Karttunen, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Ion-Bernstein Wave Excitation, Theory of Fusion Plasmas, Proceedings of the Joint Varenna- Lausanne International Workshop, Varenna, Italy, August 28 September 1, 2000, International School of Plasma Physics Piero Caldirola, Eds. J.W. Connor, O. Sauter and E. Sindoni, Editrice Compositori, Bologna 2000, pp. 457-462. 46. K.M. Rantamäki, Ph. Bibet, S.J. Karttunen, T.J.H. Pättikangas, and X. Litaudon Particle-in-Cell Simulations of the New Tore Supra LH Grill, Theory of Fusion Plasmas, Proceedings of the Joint Varenna-Lausanne International Workshop, Varenna, Italy, August 28 September 1, 2000, International School of Plasma Physics Piero Caldirola, Eds. J.W. Connor, O. Sauter and E. Sindoni, Editrice Compositori, Bologna 2000, pp. 463-468. 47. O. Dumbrajs, Ch.T. Iatrou, A.B. Pavelyev, B. Piosczyk, and M. Thumm, Design Considerations for a Multi-Megawatt Coaxial Cavity Gyrotron at 170 GHz, In Conference Digest, 25 th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, September 12-15, 2000, Beijing, China, pp. 23-24. 48. O. Dumbrajs, J.A. Heikkinen, S.J. Karttunen, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, M.J. Mantsinen, K.M. Rantamäki, S. Saarelma, R.R.E. Salomaa, S.K. Sipilä and T.J.J. Tala, Triggering Mechanisms for Transport Barriers, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10, 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/THP1/20, 6 pp. 49. R. Jaenicke, and W7-AS Team (including J.P. Koponen), Operational Boundaries on the Stellarator W7-AS at the Beginning of the Divertor Experiments, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10, 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/OV4/3, 12 pp. 50. O. Gruber and ASDEX Upgrade Team (including S. Saarelma), Overview of ASDEX Upgrade Results, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10, 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/OVH2/1, 8 pp. 51. S. Günther, A. Gude, J. Hobirk, M. Maraschek, A.G. Peeters, S.D. Pinches, S. Saarelma, S. Schade, R.C. Wolf, and the ASDEX Upgrade Team, MHD 131

phenomena in advanced scenarios on ASDEX Upgrade and the influence of localized heating and current drive, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10, 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/EX7/3, 8 pp. 52. V.V. Parail and the JET Team (including M. Mantsinen and T.J.J. Tala) Role of Magnetic Configuration and Heating Power in ITB Formation in JET, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/EXP5/05, 5 pp. 53. C. Gormezano the JET Team (including M. Mantsinen and T.J.J. Tala), Overview of JET Results in Support of the ITER Physics Basis, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/OV1/2, 16 pp. 54. T.C. Hender, R.J. Buttery, D.F. Howell, G.T.A. Huysmans, R.J. La Haye, P.J. Lomas, A.A. Martynov, M.J. Mantsinen, S.I. Pinches, O. Sauter, M. Zabiego and personnel involved in JET workprogramme, Neo-Classical Tearing Mode Studies in JET, 18 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10, 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, Paper IAEA-CN-77/EXP3/02, 8 pp. 55. J.A. Heikkinen, Modeling of Sheared Flow and Electric Field Generation in Fusion and Space Plasmas, Proceedings of the XXXV Annual Conference on the Finnish Physical Society, 22-24 March 2001, Jyväskylä, Finland, paper 10.19. 56. J. Lönnroth, J. Heikkinen, K. Rantamäki, S. Karttunen, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Ion Bernstein Wave Excitation, Proceedings of the XXXV Annual Conference on the Finnish Physical Society, 22-24 March 2001, Jyväskylä, Finland p. 257. 57. T.P.Kiviniemi and J.A.Heikkinen, A Study of Parallel Viscosity, Convection and Particle Flux in a Tokamak Plasma, Proceedings of XXXV Annual Conference of the Finnish Physical Society, 22-24 March 2001, Jyväskylä, Finland, Research Report No. 5 (2001) 115. 58. M.I. Airila and O. Dumbrajs, Effect of Trapped Electrons on Gyrotron Efficiency, Proceedings of the 9 th Triennial ITG-Conference Vacuum Electronics and Displays, 2-3 May 2001, Garmisch- Partengirchen, Germany, VDE Verlag, Berlin, pp. 183-188. 59. M.J. Mantsinen, M.-L. Mayoral, E. Righi, J.-M. Noterdaeme, A.A. Tuccillo, M. de Baar, A. Figueiredo, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, V. Kiptily, K. Lawson, F. Meo, F. Milani, I. Monakhov, Yu. Petrov, V. Riccardo, F. Rimini, S. Sharapov, D. Van Eester, K.-D. Zastrow, R. Barnsley, L. Bertalot, A. Bickley, J. Bucalossi, R. Cesario, J.M. Chareau, M. Charlet, I. Coffey, S. Conroy, P. de Vries, K. Erents, L.-G. Eriksson, C. Gowers, L.C. Ingesson, N. Jarvis, T. Johnson, R. Koch, Ph. Lamalle, G. Maddison, J. Mailloux, A. Murari, F. Nguyen, J. Ongena, V. Parail, S. Popovichev, G. Saibene, F. Sartori, J. Strachan, M. Zerbini and Task Force H and EFDA-JET contributors, ICRF Heating Scenarios in JET with Emphasis on 4 He Plasmas for the Non-Activated Phase of ITER, in Radio-Frequency Power in Plasmas (Proceedings of the 14th Topical Conference on Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas May 7-9, 2001, Oxnard, California, USA), AIP, New York, pp. 59-66. 60. T. Johnson, T. Hellsten, M. Mantsinen, V. Kiptily, S. Sharapov, M.-L. Mayoral, F. Nguyen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, J. Hedin and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, RF-induced Pinch of Resonant 3 He Minority Ions in JET, in Radio-Frequency Power in Plasmas, Proceedings of the 14th Topical Conference on Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas May 7-9, 2001, Oxnard, California, USA, AIP, New York, pp. 102-105. 61. M.-L. Mayoral, O. Sauter, F. Nguyen, E. Westerhof, M. Mantsinen, T. Hellsten, T. Johnson and EFDA- JET Workprogramme Contributors, Sawtooth and neoclassical tearing mode seed island control by ICRF Current drive on JET, in Radio-Frequency Power in Plasmas, Proceedings of the 14th Topical Conference on Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas, May 7-9, 2001, Oxnard, California, USA, AIP, New York, pp. 106-109. 62. D.A. D Ippolito, J.R. Myra, E. Righi, J.A. Heikkinen, P. Lamalle, and J.-M. Noterdaeme, Modeling of Antenna-Plasma Interactions for Monopole-Dipole Operation Applied to JET A2 Antennas, in Radio-Frequency Power in Plasmas, Proceedings of the 14th Topical Conference on Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas May 7-9, 2001, Oxnard, California, USA, AIP, New York, pp. 114-117 63. D.A. Hartmann, M.-L. Mayoral, J.A. Heikkinen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, E. Righi, P. Lamalle, and F. Rimini, Loading Resistance of the JET ICRH A2 Antennas in the Divertor Configuration Mark II GB, in Radio-Frequency Power in Plasmas, Proceedings of the 14th Topical Conference on Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas May 7-9, 2001, Oxnard, California, USA, AIP, New York, pp. 130-133. 64. A.A. Tuccillo, Y. Baranov, E. Barbato, Ph. Bibet, C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, W. Cocilovo, F. Crisanti, R. De Angelis, A.C. Ekedahl, A. Figueiredo, M. Graham, G. Granucci, D. Hartmann, J. Heikkinen, T. Hellsten, F. Imbeaux, T.H.H. Jones, T. Johnson, 132

K.V. Kirov, P. Lamalle, M. Laxaback, F. Leuterer, X. Litaudon, P. Maget, J. Mailloux, M.J. Mantsinen, M.L. Mayoral, F. Meo, I. Monakhov, F. Nguyen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, V. Percoli-Ridolfini, S. Podda, L. Paccione, E. Righi, F. Rimini, Y. Sarazin, A. Sibley, A. Staeber, T. Tala, D. Van Eester and EFDA-JET Workprogramme contributors, Recent Heating and Current Drive Results on JET, in Radio-Frequency Power in Plasmas, Proceedings of the 14th Topical Conference on Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas May 7-9, 2001, Oxnard, California, USA, AIP, New York, pp. 209-216. 65. N.C. Hawkes, B.C. Stratton, T. Tala, Y. Andrew, Yu.F. Baranov, T. Bolzonella, C.D. Challis, S. Reyes- Cortes, R. DeAngelis, C. Giroud, C. Gowers, E. Joffrin, P. Lomas, Ph. Lotte, J. Mailloux, D. Mazon, V. Parail, R. Prentice, E. Rachlew, F. Sattin, E. Solano, G. Tresset, M. Valisa, and K-D. Zastrow, and contributors to the EFDA Workprogramme, Extreme Shear Reversal in JET Discharges, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 5-8. 66. S. Saarelma, S. Guenter, T. Kiviniemi, T.Kurki- Suonio, ASDEX Upgrade Team, MHD Stability Analysis of Type II ELMs in ASDEX Upgrade, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 165-168. 67. J.S. Lönnroth, J.A. Heikkinen, K.M. Rantamäki, S.J. Karttunen, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Ion Bernstein Wave Excitation, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 333-336. 68. K.M. Rantamäki and S.J. Karttunen, Particle-in- Cell Simulations for Lower Hybrid Coupling and Current Drive, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 337-340. 69. O. Sauter, E. Westerhof, M.L. Mayoral, D.F. Howell, M.J. Mantsinen, B. Alper, C. Angioni, P. Belo, R. Buttery, K.G. McClements, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, T.C. Hender, T. Johnson, P. Lamalle, F. Milani, M.F. Nave, F. Nguyen, A.-L. Pecquet, S. Pinches, S. Podda and J. Rapp and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Neoclassical Tearing Mode Seed Island Control with ICRH in JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 449-452. 70. W. Fundamenski, G. Matthews, V. Riccardo, T. Eich, C. Ingesson, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, V.Philipps and S.Sipilä and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Power Exhaust in JET MkIIGB ELMy H-modes, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 469-472. 71. M.I.K. Santala, R.R.E. Salomaa, Z. Najmudin, M. Zepf, K. Krushelnick, and A.E. Dangor, Studying laser-plasma interactions by the use of nuclear diagnostics, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001). 72. R.C. Wolf, Y. Baranov, C. Giroud, M. Mantsinen, D. Mazon, K.-D. Zastrow, N. Hawkes, T. Hellsten, J. Hobirk, M. Laxaaback, F. Rimini, A. Stäbler, F. Ryter, J. Stober, and H. Zohm, the ASDEX Upgrade Team and the Contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Influence of electron heating on confinement in JET and ASDEX Upgrade internal transport barrier plasmas, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 513-516. 73. X. Litaudon, F. Crisanti, J. Mailloux, Yu. Baranov, E. Barbato, V. Basiuk, A. Bécoulet, M. Bécoulet, C.D. Challis, G.D. Conway, R. Dux, R. DeAngelis, L.G. Eriksson, B. Esposito, D. Frigione, C. Giroud, N. Hawkes, P. Hennequin, G. Huysmans, F. Imbeaux, M. Mantsinen, D. Mazon, D. Moreau, F. Rimini, Y. Sarazin, G. Tresset, K.D. Zastrow, M. Zerbini and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Towards Full Current Drive Operation in JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 517-520. 74. S.E. Sharapov, D.N. Borba, A. Fasoli, C.Giroud, A.Gondhalekar, N.C.Hawkes, T.C.Hender, V.G. Kiptily, M.J. Mantsinen, F. Nabais, D. Testa, Beam Afterglow Scenario for TAE excitation in Optimised Shear JET Plasmas, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 525-528. 133

75. T.J.J. Tala, V.V. Parail, A. Becoulet, C.D. Challis, G. Corrigan, N.C. Hawkes, D.J. Heading, M.J. Mantsinen, S. Nowak and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Impact of Different Preheating Methods on q-profile Evolution in JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 541-544. 76. B. Esposito, Y. Baranov, F. Crisanti, P. Maget, V. Parail, A. Becoulet, R.V. Budny, C. Castaldo, C.D. Challis, R. De Angelis, C.Giroud,N. Hawkes, T. Tala, K.-D. Zastrow, and contributors to the EFDA- JET Workprogramme, Correlation Between Magnetic Shear and E B Flow Shearing Rate in JET ITB Discharges, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 553-556. 77. F. Nabais, D. Borba, M. Mantsinen, K. McClements, M.F.F. Nave, S. Sharapov, Numerical Simulation of Sawtooth Stabilisation by Super-Thermal Particles in the Potato Regime, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 557-560. 78. T. Hellsten, B. Alper, P. Hennequin, T. Johnson, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Becoulet, C. Challis, E. Joffrin, T.C. Hender, P.J. Lomas, D. Mazon, M. Mantsinen, F. Orsitto, E. Rachlew, and K.-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Sawtoothing in Reversed Shear Plasmas 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 573-576. 79. S.K. Sipilä, T. Kurki-Suonio, T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, W. Fundamenski, Orbit-Following Monte Carlo Simulation of Divertor Load Distributions in JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 665-668. 80. T. Kurki-Suonio, S.I. Lashkul, J.A. Heikkinen, Monte Carlo Simulations of E r on FT-2 Tokamak, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 669-672. 81. J.A. Heikkinen and T. Kurki-Suonio, Toroidal Ripple as the Trigger to Improved Core Confinement, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 681-684. 82. F. Nguyen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, M.-L. Mayoral, T. Hellsten, M. Mantsinen, D.A. Hartmann, R. de Angelis, V. Basiuk, M.R. de Baar, L.-G. Eriksson, D. Van Eester, A. Gondhalekar, N. Hawkes, T. Johnsson, Ph. Lamalle, Ph. Lotte, F. Meo, L. Panaccione, A.-L. Pecquet, S. Podda, E. Righi, Y. Sarazin, O. Sauter, T. Tala, A. Tuccillo, M. Zabiego, ICRF Current Drive Experiments on JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 781-784. 83. M.J. Mantsinen, M.-L. Mayoral, O. Sauter, E. Westerhof, C. Angioni, L.-G. Eriksson, A. Gondhalekar, T. Hellsten, T. Johnson, K.G. McClements, F. Nave, F. Nguyen, S. Podda, J. Rapp, S. Sharapov, and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Analysis of Ion Cyclotron Current Drive at ω=2ω Ch for Sawtooth Control in JET Plasmas, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 789-792. 84. J. Mailloux, B. Alper, Y. Baranov, E. Barbato, A. Becoulet, A. Cardinali, C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, C.D. Challis, F. Crisanti, M. de Baar, P. de Vries, A. Ekedahl, C. Gowers, N. Hawkes, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, X. Litaudon, D. Mazon, V. Pericoli, R. Prentice, Y. Sarazin, B.C. Stratton, A.A. Tuccillo, T. Tala, K.-D. Zastrow, Contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Use of Lower Hybrid Current Drive and Heating in Optimised Shear Plasmas in JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 793-796. 85. M.F.F. Nave, J. Rapp,T. Bolzonella, R. Dux, N. Hawkes, S. Jachmich, H.R. Koslowski, Ph. Lotte, M.J. Mantsinen, V. Parail, and J. Strachan, and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Sawtooth and Impurity Accumulation Control in JET Radiative Mantle Discharges, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 961-964. 86. W. Suttrop, R. Budny, J.G. Cordey, C. Gowers, M. Mantsinen, G. Matthews, H. Nordman, V. Parail, J. 134

Rapp, J. Storrs, J. Strachan, J. Weiland, K.D. Zastrow, EFDA-JET Workprogramme Contributors, Effect of Heat Flux and Density Variation on Electron Temperature Profiles in JET ELMy H-Modes, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 989-992. 87. G.P. Maddison, J.A. Snipes, J-M. Chareau, I.H. Hutchinson, L.C. Ingesson, H.R. Koslowski, A. Loarte, P.J. Lomas, M.J. Mantsinen, G.F. Matthews, M.F.F. Nave, E. Righi, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, O. Sauter, K-D. Zastrow, contributors to the EFDA- JET Workprogramme, ELM Moderation in High Density H-Modes on JET and Alcator C-Mod, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 997-1000. 88. T.T.C. Jones, A.J. Bickley, R. Felton, P. Lamalle, K.D. Lawson, G.P. Maddison, M. Mantsinen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, S. Podda, E. Righi, Y. Sarazin, A. Staebler, and A.A. Tuccillo, Simulation of Alpha Particle Plasma Self-Heating Using ICRH Under Real-Time Control, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 1197-1200. 89. T.P.Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, A.G. Peeters, S. Sipilä, Comparison of E B Flow Shear in JET and ASDEX Upgrade by Monte Carlo Simulations, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 1641-1644. 90. M.J. Mantsinen, M.-L. Mayoral, J. Bucalossi, M. de Baar, P. de Vries, A. Figueiredo, T. Hellsten, V. Kiptily, Ph. Lamalle, F. Meo, F. Milani, I. Monakhov, F. Nguyen, J.-M., Noterdaeme, Yu. Petrov, V. Riccardo, E. Righi, F. Rimini, A.A. Tuccillo, D. Van Eester, K.-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, ICRF Mode Conversion Experiments on JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 1745-1748. 91. A. Pochelon, C. Angioni, M. Mantsinen, N. Gorelenkov, K.G. McClements, R. Budny, P.C. de Vries, D.F. Howell, M.F.F. Nave, O. Sauter, and S.Sharapov and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Sawtooth Stabilisation by Neutral Beam-Injected Fast Ions in JET, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 1805-1808. 92. V. Parail, Yu.F. Baranov, A. Becoulet, C. Castaldo, G. Corrigan, C.D. Challis, D. Heading, J. Ongena, H. Nordman, P. Strand, W. Suttrop, T. Tala, M. Valovic, J. Weiland, and contributors to the EFDA- JET Workprogramme, Predictive Modelling of JET Plasmas with Edge and Core Transport Barriers, 28th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, 18-22 June 2001, Funchal Madeira, Portugal, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 25A (2001) 1873-1876. 93. V. Kiptily, O.N. Jarvis, L. Bertalot, S.W. Conroy, S. Popovichev, M.J. Mantsinen and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Gamma-Ray Measurements at JET and Diagnostics Development, Proceedings of the 6 th International Conference on Advanced Diagnostics for Magnetic and Inertial Fusion, Ed. D. Batani, Villa Monastero, Varenna, Italy, 3-7 September 2001, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers (2002) pp. 141-144. 94. M.I. Airila and O. Dumbrajs, Stochastic Oscillations in Gyrotrons, Conference Digest, 26th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 10-14 September 2001, Toulouse, France. 95. B. Piosczyk, A. Arnold, H. Budig, G. Dammertz, O. Drumm, O. Dumbrajs, M. Kuntze, M. Schmid, and M. Thumm, Toward 170 GHz, 2 MW, CW Coaxial Cavity Gyrotron. Experimental Results and Design Considerations, Conference Digest, 26th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 10-14 September 2001, Toulouse, France. 96. O. Dumbrajs, B. Piosczyk, and Ch.T. Iatrou, Mode Selection fora2mw,cw170ghzcoaxial Cavity Gyrotron, Conference Digest, 26th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, 10-14 September 2001, Toulouse, France. 97. M.J. Mantsinen, M.-L. Mayoral, V. Kiptily, S. Sharapov, A. Bickley, M. de Baar, L.-G. Eriksson, T. Hellsten, K. Lawson, F. Nguyen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, E. Righi, A.A. Tuccillo, M. Zerbini and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Alpha Particle Physics Studies on JET with ICRH-Accelerated 4 He Beam Ions, Proceedings of the 7 th IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on Energetic Particles in Magnetic Confinement Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 8-11 October 2001, 4 pp. paper ot1. 98. S.E. Sharapov, D. Testa, B. Alper, D.N.borba, A. Fasoli, N.C. Hawkes, R.F. Heeter, M. Mantsinen, M.G. Von Hellermann and contributors to the 135

EFDA-JET Workprogramme, MHD Spectroscopy through Detecting Alfvén Wave Cascades, Proceedings of the 7 th IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on Energetic Particles in Magnetic Confinement Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 8-11 October 2001, 4 pp. paper ot4. 99. K.G. McClements, C. Angioni, R.V. Budny, P.C. de Vries, N.N. Gorelenkov, D.F. Howell, M. Mantsinen, M.F.F. Nave, A. Pochelon, O. Sauter, S.E. Sharapov, contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Modelling of Sawtooth Stabilisation by Beam-Injected Energetic particles in JET, Proceedings of the 7 th IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on Energetic Particles in Magnetic Confinement Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 8-11 October 2001, 4 pp. paper ot26. 100. T. Johnson, T. Hellsten, M. Mantsinen, L.C. Ingesson, V. Kiptily, T. Bergkvist, S. Conroy, J. Hedin, M.-L. Mayoral, F. Nguyen, J.-M. Noterdaeme, S. Sharapov and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Experimental Evidence for RF-Induced Transport of Resonant 3 He Ions in JET, Proceedings of the 7 th IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on Energetic Particles in Magnetic Confinement Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 8-11 October 2001, 4 pp. paper ot28. 101. R.R.E. Salomaa, A.A. Andreev and K.Yu. Platonov, Backscattering of ultra short high intensity laser pulses from solid targets at oblique incidence, Proceedings of the XXXVI Annual Conference of The Finnish Physical Society, March 14-16, 2002, Joensuu, Finland, p. 66 102. A.T. Salmi, K.M. Rantamäki and S.J. Karttunen, Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Wave Coupling in front of a Lower Hybrid Grill, Proceedings of the XXXVI Annual Conference of The Finnish Physical Society, March 14-16, 2002, Joensuu, Finland, 103. F. Wasastjerna, A Study of variance reduction methods in MCNP4C in a slot with a dogleg Proceedings of the 12 th Biennial Topical Meeting of the Radiation Protection and Shielding Division of the American Nuclear Society (ANS), Santa Fe, NM, USA, 14-18 April 2002, CD-Rom. (2002) 104. H. Iida; V. Khripunov, S. Sato, L. Petrizzi, F. Wasastjerna, G. Ruvutuso, Nuclear analysis of ITER, Proceedings of the 12 th Biennial Topical Meeting of the Radiation Protection and Shielding Division of the American Nuclear Society (ANS). Santa Fe, NM, USA, 14-18 April 2002, CD-Rom (2002) 105. B. Piosczyk, A. Arnold, H. Budig, G. Dammertz, O. Drumm, O. Dumbrajs, M. Kunze, and M. Thumm, A coaxial cavity gyrotron experimental results and technical conditions, Conference digest, 12 th Joint Workshop on Electron Cyclotron Emission and Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating, May 13-16, 2002, Aix-en-Provence, France. 106. J.A. Heikkinen, T.P. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, and S.J. Janhunen, Gyrokinetic Simulation of Edge Plasma in L-H Transition Conditions, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 107. T.P. Kiviniemi, J.A. Heikkinen, and S.J. Janhunen, Particle Modeling of Neoclassical Effects and Low-Frequency Turbulence in Tokamak Plasmas, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 108. T. Kurki-Suonio, J.A. Heikkinen, S.K. Sipilä, H.-U. Fahrbach, J. Neuhauser, J. Stober and ASDEX Upgrade Team, Monte Carlo Simulations of Edge Ion Distribution and NPA Fluxes in ASDEX Upgrade, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 109. J.S. Lönnroth, G. Corrigan, D. Heading, G.Huysmans, A. Loarte V.V. Parail, G. Saibene, S. Sharapov, J. Spence, Integrated Predictive Transport Modelling of ELMy H-Mode JET Plasmas, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 110. M.J. Mantsinen, M.D. Kihlman and L.-G. Eriksson, Extrapolating the Performance of ICRF Heating Scenarios for JET Deuterium-Tritium Plasmas to High Coupled Powers, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 111. K.M. Rantamäki, A.T. Salmi, and S.J. Karttunen, Particle-in-Cell Simulations for Lower Hybrid Coupling near Cut-off Density, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 136

112. S.K. Sipilä, W. Fundamenski, T.Kurki-Suonio, and J. Likonen, Orbit-Following Monte Carlo Study of Differences in Divertor Target Ion Load Profiles between Helium and Deuterium Plasmas in JET, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 113. C. Angioni, T.P. Goodman, M.A. Henderson, M.J. Mantsinen, O. Sauter, and contributors to the EFDA-JET work programme, Understanding sawtooth period behaviour with electron and ion cyclotron resonance heating and current drive, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 114. T. Bolzonella, E. Martines, M. Maraschek, H. Zohm, S. Günter, S. Saarelma and ASDEX Upgrade Team, ELM-related High Frequency MHD Activity in ASDEX Upgrade, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 115. R. Cesario, A. Cardinali, C. Castaldo, F. Crisanti, N.C. Hawkes, X. Litaudon, J. Mailloux, V. Parail, T. Tala, C. Gormezano, F. Santini, A.A. Tuccillo, and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Modelling of Lower Hybrid current drive and q-profile on high performance Internal Transport Barriers (ITBs) in JET, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 116. M.L. Mayoral, E. Westerhof, O. Sauter, B. Alper, R.J. Buttery, T.C. Hender, D.F. Howell, M.J. Mantsinen, A. Mück, M.F.F. Nave and contributors to EFDA JET workprogramme, Neo-Classical Tearing Mode Control through Sawtooth Destabilisatio in JET, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 117. L.D. Horton, J.C. Fuchs, M. Jakobi, B. Kurzan, P.J. McCarthy, H. Murmann, J. Neuhauser, S.D. Pinches, S. Saarelma, J.K. Stober, W. Suttrop and the ASDEX Upgrade Team, Pedestal Physics at ASDEX Upgrade, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 118. L. Lao, P. Snyder, A. Leonard, T. Osborne, T. Petrie, J. Ferron, R. Groebner, L. Horton, Y. Kamada, M. Murakami, T. Oikawa, L. Pearlstein, S. Saarelma, H. St. John, D. Thomas, A. Turnbull, H. Wilson, Quantitative Tests of ELMs as Intermediate n Peeling-Ballooning Modes, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 119. D. Mazon, X. Litaudon, D. Moreau, G. Tresset, R. Felton, E. Joffrin, M. Riva, L. Zabeo, A. Bécoulet, J.M.Chareau, F.Crisanti, M. Mantsinen, A. Murari, V.Pericoli-Ridolfini, K.D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Real-time control of the current profile in JET, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 120. D. Testa, A. Fasoli, D.N. Borba, G.Y. Fu, A. Jaun, M. Mantsinen, P. de Vries, and contributors to the EFDA-JET work programme, Measurement of Alfvén Waves on the JET Tokamak, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 121. G. Tresset, C.D. Challis, X. Garbet, X. Litaudon, M. Mantsinen, D. Mazon, D. Moreau, and contributors to the EFDA-JET work programme, Transport Identification by neural network in JET ITB regimes, 29 th EPS Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 17-21 June 2002, Montreux, Switzerland, Europhysics Conference Abstracts, Contributed Papers 26B (2002) 4 pp. 122. O. Dumbrajs, Y.V. Gandel, and G.I. Zaginaylov, Multiwave analysis of coaxial structure with corrugated insert based on the singular integral equation method 5th International Workshop on Strong Microwaves in Plasmas, August 1-9, 2002, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. 123. B. Piosczyk, A. Arnold, H. Budig, G. Dammertz, O. Drumm, O. Dumbrajs, M.V. Kartikeyan, M. Kuntze, M. Thumm, and X. Yang, A 2 MW, CW coaxial cavity gyrotron experimental and technical conditions, 5 th International Workshop on Strong Microwaves in Plasmas, August 1-9, 2002, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. 124. S.I. Lashkul, A.V. Altukhov, V.N. Budnikov, A.D. Gurchenko, E.Z. Gusakov, V.V. Dyachenko, L.A. Esipov, E.R. Its, M.Yu. Kantor, D.V. Kouprienko, T. Kurki-Suonio, K.M. Novik, A.Yu. Popov, S.V. Shatalin, V.L. Selenin, A.Yu. Stepanov, E.O. 137

Vekshina, and V.B. Yermolajev, Effective Lower Hybrid Heating and Transport Barrier Formation in the FT-2 Experiment, 5 th International Workshop on Strong Microwaves in Plasmas, August 1-9, 2002, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. 125. Ph. Bibet, F. Mirizzi, P. Bosia, L. Doceul, S. Kuzikov, K. Rantamäki, A.A. Tuccillo, F. Wasastjerna, Overview of the ITER-FEAT LH System, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 126. B. Piosczyk, A. Arnold, H. Budig, G. Dammertz, O. Drumm, O. Dumbrajs, M.V. Kartikeyan, M. Kuntze, M. Thumm, and X. Yang, Towards a 2 MW, CW, 170 GHz coaxial cavity gyrotron for ITER, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 127. B. Piosczyk, A. Arnold, H. Budig, G. Dammertz, O. Drumm, O. Dumbrajs, M.V. Kartikeyan, M. Kuntze, M.Thumm, and X. Yang, Experimental and technical requirements for a2mw,cwco- axial cavity gyrotron, Proceedings of 27 th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, September 22-26, 2002, San Diego, USA, IEEE Catalog Number 02EX561 (2002) pp. 7-8. 128. M.I. Airila, Spatio-temporal chaos in a gyrotron resonator with an off-axis electron beam, Proceedings of 27 th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, September 22-26, 2002, San Diego, USA, IEEE Catalog Number 02EX561 (2002) pp. 43-44. 129. O. Dumbrajs, Y.V. Gandel, and G.I. Zaginaylov, Full Wave Analysis of Coaxial Gyrotron Cavity with Corrugated Insert, Proceedings of 27 th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, September 22-26, 2002, San Diego, USA, IEEE Catalog Number 02EX561 (2002) pp. 185-186. 130. O. Dumbrajs, T. Idehara, Y. Iwata, S. Mitsudo, I. Ogawa, and B. Piosczyk, Hysteresis in gyrotrons, Proceedings of 27 th International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves, September 22-26, 2002, San Diego, USA, IEEE Catalog Number 02EX561 (2002) pp. 331-332. 131. R. Walton, G. Agarici, G. Amarante, W. Baity, B. Beaumont, S. Bremond, F. Durodie, J. Fanthome, R. Goulding, J. Heikkinen, A. Kaye, R. Koch, P. Lamalle, G. Mazzone, J.M. Noterdaeme, V. Riccardo, M. Roccella, C. Sborcira, P. Testoni, P. Tigwell, K. Vulliez, Mechanical Design of the ICRH Antenna for JET-EP, IEEE 19th Symposium on Fusion Engineering, (2002) pp. 103-106. 132. M. Airila, O. Dumbrajs, J. Heikkinen, S. Karttunen, T. Kiviniemi, T. Kurki-Suonio, S. Lehto, J. Likonen, J. Lönnroth, K. Rantamäki, S. Saarelma, R. Salomaa, S. Sipilä and T. Tala, Simulations of Heat Loads on Plasma Facing Components, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper IAEA-CN-94/EX/P1-22 133. O. Gruber, S. Günter, A. Herrmann, L.D. Horton, P.T. Lang, M Maraschek, S. Saarelma, A.C. Sips. J Stober, W. Suttorp, H. Zohm, and the ASDEX Upgrade Team, Tolerable ELMs in Conventional and Advanced Scenarios at ASDEX Upgrade, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper IAEA-CN-94/EX/C2-1. 134. B. Piosczyk, S. Alberti, A. Arnold, E. Borie, H. Budig, G. Dammertz, O. Drumm, O. Dumbrajs, V. Erckmann, E. Giguet, T. Goodman, R. Heidinger, J.P. Hogge, S. Illy, M.V. Kartikeyan, W. Kasparek, K. Koppenburg, M. Kuntze, G. LeCloarec, C. Lievin, R. Magne, G. Michel, G. Mueller, M. Thumm, M.Q. Tran, and X. Yang, A 2MW, CW, 170 GHz gyrotron for ITER, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France. 135. C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, Y, Andrew, A. Cardinali, V. Kiptly, M. Mantsinen, F. Meo, A. Murari, A. A. Tuccillo, M. Valisa, D. Van Eester, L. Bertalot, D. Bettella, C. Giroud, C. Ingesson, E. Joffrin, M.-L. Mayoral, L. Meneses and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Transport barriers produced in JET discharges by ion Bernstein waves, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper EX-W 136. X. Garbet, Y. Baranov, G. Bateman, S. Benkadda, P. Beyer, R. Budny, F. Crisanti, B. Esposito, C. Figarella, C. Fourment, P. Ghendrih, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, J. Kinsey, A. Kritz, X. Litaudon, P. Maget, P. Mantica, D. Moreau, Y. Sarazin, A. Pankin, V. Parail, A. Peeters, T. Tala, G. Tardini, A. Thyagaraja, I. Voitsekhovitch, J. Weiland, R. Wolf and EFDA-JET contributors, Micro-stability and Transport Modelling of Internal Transport Barriers on JET, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper TH/C2-1 137. T.C. Hender, O. Sauter, B. Alper, C. Angioni, M. de Baar, M. De Benedetti, P. Belo, M. Bigi, D.N. Borba, T. Bolzonella, R. Budny, R.J. Buttery, A. Gondhalekar, N.N. Gorelenkov, A. Gude, S. Guenter, T. Hellsten, D.F. Howell, R. Koslowki, R.J. La Haye, 138

A.W. Hyatt, P. Lamalle, E. Lazzaro, M.J. Mantsinen, M. Maraschek, M.L. Mayoral, K.G. McClements, F. Milani, F. Nabais, M.F.F. Nave, F. Nguyen, S. Nowak, A.-L. Pecquet, C. Perez von Thun, C.C. Petty, S.D. Pinches, A. Pochelon, S. Podda, J. Rapp, F. Salzedas, F. Sartori, S.E. Sharapov, M. Stamp, D. Testa, E. Westerhof, P. de Vries, P. Zanca and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Sawtooth, Neo-Classical Tearing Mode and Error Field Studies in JET, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper IAEA-CN-94/EX/S1-2 138. X. Litaudon, A. Bécoulet, F. Crisanti, R.C. Wolf, Yu.F. Baranov, E. Barbato, M. Bécoulet, R. Budny, C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, C.D. Challis, G.D. Conway, M.R. De Baar, P. De Vries, R. Dux, L.G. Eriksson, B. Esposito, R. Felton, C. Fourment, D. Frigione, X. Garbet, R. Giannella, C. Giroud, G. Gorini, N.C. Hawkes, T. Hellsten, T.C. Hender, P. Hennequin, G.M.D. Hogeweij, G.T.A. Huysmans, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, P.J. Lomas, Ph Lotte, P. Maget, J. Mailloux, P. Mantica, M.J. Mantsinen, D. Mazon, D. Moreau, V. Parail, V. Pericoli, E. Rachlew, M. Riva, F. Rimini, Y. Sarazin, B.C. Stratton, T.J.J. Tala, G. Tresset, O. Tudisco, L. Zabeo, K-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Progress Towards Steady-State Operation and Real Time Control of Internal Transport Barriers in JET, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper EX/C3-4 139. P. Mantica, I. Coffey, R. Dux, X. Garbet, L. Garzotti, G. Gorini, F. Imbeaux, E. Joffrin, J. Kinsey, M. Mantsinen, R. Mooney, V. Parail, Y. Sarazin, C. Sozzi, W. Suttrop, G. Tardini, D. Van Eester and JET EFDA contributors, Transient Heat Transport Studies in JET Conventional and Advanced Tokamak Plasmas, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper EX/P1-04 140. J.-M. Noterdaeme, R. Budny, A. Cardinali, C. Castaldo, R. Cesario, F. Crisanti, J. de Grassie, D.A. D Ippolito, F. Durodié, A. Ekedahl, E. Joffrin, D. Hartmann, J. Heikkinen, T. Hellsten, T. Jones, V. Kiptily, Ph. Lamalle, X. Litaudon, F. Nguyen, J. Mailloux, M. Mantsinen, M. Mayoral, D. Mazon, F. Meo, I. Monakhov, J.R. Myra, J. Paméla, V. Pericoli, O. Sauter, Y. Sarazin, S.E. Sharapov, A.A. Tuccillo, D. Van Eester and contributors to the EFDA-JET Workprogramme, Heating, Current Drive and Energetic Particles Studies on JET in Preparation of ITER Operation, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper EX/W-1 141. J. Ongena, W. Suttrop, M. Bécoulet, G. Cordey, P. Dumortier, Th. Eich, L.C. Ingesson, S. Jachmich, P. Lang, A. Loarte, P. Lomas, G.P. Maddison, A. Messiaen, M.F.F. Nave, J. Rapp, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, O. Sauter, J.D. Strachan, B. Unterberg, M. Valovic, B. Alper, Ph. Andrew, Y. Baranov, J. Brzozowski, J. Bucalossi, M. Brix, R. Budny, M. Charlet, I. Coffey, M. De Baar, P. De Vries, C. Gowers, N. Hawkes, M. von Hellermann, D.L. Hillis, J. Hogan, G.L. Jackson, E. Joffrin, C. Jupen, A. Kallenbach, H.R. Koslowski, K.D. Lawson, M.Mantsinen, G. Matthews, P. Monier- Garbet, D. McDonald, F. Milani, M. Murakami, A. Murari, R. Neu, V. Parail, S. Podda, M.E. Puiatti, E. Righi, F. Sartori, Y. Sarazin, A. Staebler, M. Stamp, G. Telesca, M. Valisa, B. Weyssow, K-D. Zastrow and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Towards the realization on JET of an integrated H-Mode scenario for ITER, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France. 142. V. Parail, G. Bateman, M. Becoulet, G. Corrigan, D. Heading, J. Hogan, W. Houlberg, G.T.A. Huysmans, J. Kinsey, A. Korotkov, A. Kritz, A. Loarte, J. Lönnroth, D. McDonald, P. Monier-Garbet, T. Onjun, G. Saibene, R. Sartori, S.E. Sharapov, H.R. Wilson and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Integrated Predictive Modelling of JET H-mode Plasma with Type-I ELMs, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper IAEA-CN-94/TH/ P3-08. 143. B.C. Stratton, N.C. Hawkes, G.T.A. Huysmans, J.A. Breslau, L.E. Zakharov, B. Alper, R.V. Budny, C.D. Challis, R. Deangelis, V. Drozdov, C. Fenzi, C. Giroud, T.C. Hender, J. Hobirk, S.C. Jardin, E. Joffrin, P.J. Lomas, P. Lotte, J. Mailloux, W. Park, E. Rachlew, S. Reyes-Cortes, E. Solano, T. Tala, K-D. Zastrow, and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Equilibria and stability of JET discharges with zero core current density, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper IAEA-CN-94/ EX/C3-1Rb. 144. R.C. Wolf, A. Becoulet, Y. Baranov, M. Becoulet, R. Budny, C. Castaldo, C.D. Challis, G.D. Conway, F. Crisanti, M.R. de Baar, R. Dux, B. Esposito, X. Garbet, C. Giroud, G. Gorini, N.C. Hawkes, T.A.K. Hellsten, T.C. Hender, P. Hennequin, G.M.D. Hogeweij, G. Huysmans, E. Joffrin, X. Litaudon, P. Lomas, J. Mailloux, P. Mantica, M.J. Mantsinen, D. Mazon, D. Moreau, V. Parail, A.G. Peeters, M. Riva, Y. Sarazin, B.C. Stratton, T.J.J. Tala, G. Tresset, K.-D. Zastrow, and contribu- 139

tors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Internal transport barrier experiments in JET: Transport studies and their application for advanced tokamak scenarios, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France. 145. H. Zohm and ASDEX Upgrade Team (including T. Kurki-Suonio and S. Saarelma), Overview of ASDEX Upgrade results, 19 th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference, 14-19 October 2002, Lyon, France, paper IAEA-CN-94/EX/C2-1. 1.3 Research Reports Fusion Plasma Physics 1. L.-G. Eriksson and M.J. Mantsinen, Applying the ICRF Code PION to JET Data, Report JET- IR(99)04, JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK (1999). 2. T.J.J. Tala, Yu.F. Baranov, J.A. Heikkinen, S.J. Karttunen, V.V. Parail, F.X. Söldner and A. Taroni, Predictive Modelling of Optimised Shear Scenarios for High Performance Experiments on JET, Report JET-P(99)65, JET Joint Undertaking, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK (1999). 3. R.J. Buttery, N. Hawkes, T.C. Hender, M. Mantsinen and P. Lamalle, Neoclassical Tearing Mode Stabilisation with ICRH, Report JET-R(00)02, EURATOM-UKAEA Fusion Association, Culham Science Centre, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom (2000) p. 73-78. 4. J.A. Heikkinen and K.M. Rantamäki, Re-Assessment of the ITER FEAT ICRF Array Coupling and Heating Efficiency, Final Report on ITER Design Task, EFDA/00-545, 40 pp. 5. K.M. Rantamäki, S.J. Karttunen and P. Bibet, Parasitic Absorption in the Near-Field of an ITER Type Lower Hybrid Grill, Chapter 10 in the Report on ITER FEAT LHCD Launcher, EFDA/00-553 (2001) 29-31. 6. F. Wasastjerna Damping of the Neutrons by the Antennae, Chapter 11 in the Report on ITER FEAT LHCD Launcher, EFDA/00-553 (2001) 31-33. 7. M. Airila and A. Salmi, Äärettömän hyötövaipan hyötösuhde ja energiavahvistus, Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Report TKK-F-C194, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo 2002, 26 pp. (in Finnish) 2 Fusion Technology Materials 2.1 Publications in Scientific Journals Fusion Materials 1. K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen, M. Ghaly, and R.S. Averback, Coherent displacement of atoms during ion irradiation, Nature 398 (1999) 49. 2. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Tarus, T. Ahlgren, J. Keinonen, and C.H. Wu, Suppression of Carbon Erosion by Hydrogen Shielding during High-Flux Hydrogen Bombardment, Physical Review B 60 (1999) R14005-R14008. 3. E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, P. Tikkanen, J. Likonen, E. Rauhala, and J. Keinonen, Hydrogen in diamond-like carbon films, Journal of Nuclear Materials 266-269 (1999) 975-979. 4. Yu. Jagodzinski, O. Tarasenko, S. Smuk, S. Tähtinen and H. Hänninen: Internal friction study of hydrogen behaviour in low activated martensitic F82H steel, Journal of Nuclear Materials 275 (1999) 47-55. 5. J.A. Heikkinen, L. Heikinheimo, J. Linden, S. Orivuori, S. Saarelma, Thermal and Electrical Analysis of Alumina and Beryllia Coax High-power Windows under Irradiation, IEEE Transactions on Dielectric and Electrical Insulation 6 (1999) 169-174. 6. A. Toivonen, P. Moilanen, M. Pyykkönen, S. Tähtinen, R. Rintamaa and T. Saario, The Feasibility of Small Size Specimens for Testing of Environmentally Assisted Cracking of Irradiated Materials and of Materials Under Irradiation In Reactor Core, Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 309-316. 7. E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, T. Sajavaara, W. Rydman, T.Ahlgren, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen, J. Likonen, S. Lehto, and C.H. Wu, Deuterium Retention in Si Doped Carbon Films, in C.H. Wu (ed.) Hydrogen Recycling at Plasma Facing Materials, Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands (2000), 281-287. 8. S. Tähtinen, Yu. Jagodzinski, O. Tarasenko, S. Smuk, and H. Hänninen: Application of the Internal Friction to Studying Microstructural Effects in Fusion Materials, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 283-287 (2000) 255-258. 9. S. Tähtinen, A. Laukkanen, B.N. Singh, Damage Mechanisms and Fracture Toughness of GlidCop Al25 IG0 Alloy, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 283-287 (2000) 1028-1032. 140

10. S. Tähtinen, B.N. Singh and P. Toft, Effect of Neutron Irradiation on Mechanical Properties of Cu/SS Joints after Single and Multible HIP Cycles, Journal of Nuclear Materials, 283-287 (2000) 1238-1242. 11. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen, and C.H. Wu, Bond-breaking mechanism of sputtering, Europhysics Letters 52 (2000) 504. 12. T. Jokinen, T. Vihervä, H. Riikonen, V. Kujanpää, Welding of ship structural steel A36 using Nd:YAG laser and GMAW, Journal of Laser Application 12 (2000) 185-188. 13. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion, Laser applications in the Nordic countries, Fabricator 30 (2000) 64-66. 14. P. Lorenzetto, A. Cardella, P. Chappuis, W. Dänner, A. Erskine, M. Febvre, G. Hofmann, P. LeGallo, H. Stamm and S. Tähtinen, Main Achievements of the EU HT Test Programme of ITER Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-Ups, Fusion Engineering and Design 49-50 (2000) 263-268. 15. L- Jones, J.-P. Alfile, Ph. Aubert, C. Punchon, W. Dänner, V. Kujanpää, D. Maisonnier, M. Serre, G. Schreck and M. Wykes, Advanced Cutting, Welding and Inspection Methods for Vacuum Vessel Assembly and Maintenance, Fusion Engineering and Design 51-52 (2000) 985-991. 16. L. Khriachtchev, E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, T. Sajavaara, T. Ahlgren, and J. Keinonen, Stability of Si-C films prepared by a pulsed arc discharge method: Thermal treatment and heavy-ion irradiation, Journal of Applied Physics 88 (2000) 2118-2124. 17. F. Tavassoli, H. Burlet, A. Lind, B.N. Singh, S. Tähtinen and E. van Osch, Effect of irradiation on structural materials in fusion reactors, Effects of Radiation on Materials, 19 th International Symposium, STP 1366, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA (2000), 1093-1108. 18. S. Tähtinen, M. Pyykkönen, B.N. Singh and P. Toft, Effect of neutron irradiation on tensile and fracture toughness properties of copper alloys and their joints with stainless steel, Effects of Radiation and Materials, 19 th International Symposium, STP 1366, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA (2000), 1241-1259. 19. E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, T. Ahlgren, J. Likonen, S. Lehto, T. Sajavaara, W. Rydman, J. Keinonen and C.H. Wu, Deuterium Diffusion in Silicon Doped Diamond-like Carbon Films, Physical Review B 63 (2001) 045406. 20. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen and C.H. Wu, Swift Chemical Sputtering of Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon, Physical Review B 63 (2001) 195415. 21. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen and C.H. Wu, Carbon Erosion Mechanisms in Tokamak Divertor Materials: Insight from Molecular Dynamics Simulations, Journal of Nuclear Materials 290-293 (2001) 144. 22. E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, T. Ahlgren, L. Khriachtchev, J. Likonen, S. Lehto, J. Keinonen, and C.H. Wu, Silicon Diffusion in Amorphous Carbon Films, Journal of Nuclear Materials 290-293 (2001) 216. 23. K. Nordlund, E. Salonen, J. Keinonen and C.H. Wu, Sputtering of Hydrocarbons by Ion-induced Breaking of Chemical Bonds, Bonds, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 180 (2001) 77. 24. L. Heikinheimo, J.A. Heikkinen, J. Linden, A Kaye, S. Orivuori, S. Saarelma, S. Tähtinen, R. Walton and F. Wasastjerna, Dielectric Window for Reactor like ICRF Vacuum Transmission Line, Fusion Engineering and Design 55 (2001) 419-436. 25. S. Tähtinen, A. Laukkanen, and B.N. Singh, Investigations of Copper to Stainless Steel Joints, Fusion Engineering and Design 56-57 (2001) 391-396. 26. M. Merola, G. Vieider, M. Bet, L. Briottet, P. Chappuis, K. Cheyne, G. Dell`Orco, D. Duglué, R. Duwe, S. Erskine, F. Escourbiac, M. Fèbvre, M. Grattarola, L.F. Moreschi, A. Orsini, R. Pamato, L. Petrizzi, L. Plöchl, E. Rigal, M. Rödig, J.F. Salavy, J. Schlosser, B. Schedler, S. Tähtinen, I. Bobin- Vastra, R. Vesprini, E. Visca, C.H. Wu, European Achievements for ITER High Heat Flux Components, Fusion Engineering and Design 56-57 (2001) 173-178. 27. C.H. Wu, C. Alessandrini, J.P. Bonal, J.W. Davis, A.A. Haasz, W. Jacob, A. Kallenbach, J. Keinonen, P. Kornejew, R. Moormann, V. Phillips, J. Roth, F. Scaffidi-Argentina and H. Wuerz, Progress of the European R&D on Plasma-Wall Interactions, Neutron Effects and Tritium Removal in ITER Plasma Facing Materials, Fusion Engineering and Design, 56-57 (2001) 179. 28. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen and C. H. Wu, Enhanced erosion of tungsten by atom clusters, Journal of Nuclear Materials 305 (2002) 60-65. 29. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen, and C. H. Wu, Chemical Sputtering of Amorphous Silicon Carbide under Hydrogen Bombardment, Applied Surface Science 184 (2001) 387-390. 141

30. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen, N. Runeberg, and C. H. Wu, Reduced chemical sputtering of carbon by silicon doping, Journal of Applied Physics 92 (2002) 2216-2218. 31. A.V. Krasheninnikov, K. Nordlund, E. Salonen, J. Keinonen, and C. H. Wu, Sputtering of Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon by Hyperthermal Ions as Studied by Tight-Binding Molecular Dynamics, Computational Materials Science 25 (2002) 427. 32. W. Dänner, M. Merola, P. Lorenzetto, A. Peacock, I. Bobin-Vastra, L. Briottet, P. Bucci, D. Conchon, A. Erskine, F. Escourbiac, M. Febvre, M. Grattarola, C.G. Hjorth, G. Hofmann, A. Ilzhoefer, K. Lill, A. Lind, J. Linke, W. Richards, E. Rigal, M. Roedig, F. Saint-Antonin, B. Schedler, J. Schlösser, S. Tähtinen and E. Visca, Status of Fabrication Development for Plasma Facing Components in the EU, Fusion Engineering and Design 61-62 (2002) 61-70. 33. M. Merola, P. Chappuis, F. Escorbiac, M. Grattarola, H. Jeskanen, P. Kauppinen, L. Plöchl, B. Schedler, J. Schlosser, I. Smid, S. Tähtinen, R. Vesprini, E. Visca and A. Zabernic, Non-Destructive Testing of Divertor Components, Fusion Engineering and Design 61-62 (2002) 141-146. 34. E. Bogusch, H. Bolt, A. Chevalier, C. Forty, F. Gnesotto, R. Heller, A. Laurenti, G. Link, J. Lister, R. Munther, G. Rey, B. Schedler, M. Thumm, A. Vallee and N. Waterman, Benefits to European industry from involvement in fusion, Fusion Engineering and Design 63-64 (2002) 679-687. 35. J.C. Ion, T. Jokinen, A. Salminen and V. Kujanpää, Laser Beam Welding Using Filler Wire, Industrial Laser Solutions, February 2001, pp. 16-18. 36. P. Träskelin, E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, A. V. Krasheninnikov, J. Keinonen, and C. H. Wu, Molecular dynamics simulations of CH3 sticking on carbon surfaces, accepted for publication in Journal of Applied Physics (2002). 37. S. Tähtinen, A. Laukkanen, B. Singh and P. Toft, Properties of copper-stainless steel HIP joints before and after neutron irradiation, Journal of Nuclear Materials (2002), submitted for publication. 38. S. Tähtinen, P. Moilanen, B. Singh and D. J. Edwards, Tensile and fracture toughness properties of unirradiated and neutron irradiated titanium alloys, Journal of Nuclear Materials (2002), submitted for publication. 39. A. Laukkanen, K. Wallin, P. Nevasmaa and S. Tähtinen, Transferability Properties of Local Approach Modeling in the Ductile to Brittle Transition Region, Predictive Material Modeling, ASTM STP 1429, M. Kirk (Eds.), American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002. 40. K. Wallin, A. Laukkanen, S. Tähtinen, Examination on fracture resistance of F82H steel and performance of small specimens in transition and ductile regimes, ASTM STP 1418, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002. 41. S. Salminen, V.P. Kujanpää, Effect of wire feed position on laser welding with filler wire, to be published in Journal of Laser Application, 11/2002. 2.2 Conference Articles Fusion Materials 1. T. Jokinen, J. Hovikorpi, A. Salminen, V. Kujanpää, The effect of an air gap on the properties of high power Nd:YAG laser welds, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion), Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 111-119. 2. T. Jokinen, A. Salminen, V. Kujanpää, Preliminary Study of the Feasibility of Nd:YAG -laser Welding with Filler Wire of Austenitic Stainless Steel, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion) Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 202-208, 3. Z. Sun, V. Kujanpää, A. Salminen, T. Moisio, Filler wire distribution in laser welds, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion) Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 222-230. 4. J. Siltanen, K. Leino, V. Kujanpää, Comparison of laser, high-density plasma and abrasive water-jet cutting for cutting for mild steel and plastic-coated sheets, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion) Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 271-279. 5. Z. Sun, V. Kujanpää, T. Moisio, Fusion zone microstructural characterisation of laser and plasma welded dissimilar steel joints, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion) Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 313-322. 6. V. Kujanpää, Compositional variations caused by incomplete mixing in laser and electron beam welds, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion) Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 346-351. 142

7. M. Vilpas, V. Kujanpää, R. Karppi, Microsegregation and pitting corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steel laser welds, Proc. 7 th Nordic Conf. in Laser Processing of Materials, August 23-25, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. V. Kujanpää and J. Ion) Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 84, 352-363. 8. H.Y. Han, Z. Sun and V. Kujanpää, Welding of High-Purity Austenitic Stainless Steels, International Conference on Efficient Welding in Industrial Applications ICEWIA, August 25-27, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. J. Martikainen and H. Eskelinen), Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 85, 45-55. 9. Z. Sun, H.Y. Han and V. Kujanpää, Stainless steel strip cladding in pressure vessel fabrication, International Conference on Efficient Welding in Industrial Applications ICEWIA, August 25-27, 1999, Lappeenranta, (Eds. J. Martikainen and H. Eskelinen), Acta Univ. Lappeenrantaensis 85, 236-243. 10. S. Smuk, H. Hänninen, Y. Jagodzinski and O. Tarasenko, Redistribution of Alloying Elements in Electron-Irradiated Iron-Based FCC Alloys Studied by Hydrogen-Probe Mechanical Spectroscopy, MRS Symposium Proceedings, vol. 540, (1999) 567-572. 11. S. Tähtinen, M. Pyykkönen, S. Smuk, H. Hänninen, Y. Jagodzinski, O. Tarasenko, Fracture Toughness and Internal Friction of CuAL25 Alloy, MRS Symposium Proceedings, vol. 540 (1999) 573-578. 12. P. Lorenzetto, A. Gardella, P. Chappuis, W. Dänner, A. Erskine, M. Fébvre, G. Hofmann, P. Le Gallo, H. Stamm, and S. Tähtinen, Main Achievements of ITER Primary Wall Small Scale Mock Ups 5th International Symposium on Fusion Nuclear Technology, Rome, Italy, September 19-24, 1999, 17 pp. 13. L Jones, J-P Alfile, Ph. Aubert, C Punshon, W Dänner, V. Kujanpää, D Maisonnier, M Serre, L. Wernwag, Advanced cutting, welding and inspection methods for vacuum vessel assembly and maintenance, 5th International Symposium on Fusion Nuclear Technology, Rome, Italy, September 19-24, 1999. 14. S. Tähtinen, A. Laukkanen, and B.N. Singh, Damage Mechanisms and Fracture Toughness of GlidCop AL25 IG0 Copper Alloy, 9 th International Conference on Fusion reactor Materials ICFRM-9, Colorado Springs, USA, October 10-15, 1999, 20 pp. 15. S. Tähtinen, B.N. Singh, and P. Toft, Effcet of Neutron Irradiation on Mechanical Properties of Cu/SS Joints After Single and Multiple HIP Cycles, 9th International Conference on Fusion reactor Materials ICFRM-9, Colorado Springs, USA, October 10-15, 1999, 11 pp. 16. S. Tähtinen, Y. Jagodzinski, O. Tarasenko, S. Smuk and H. Hänninen, Application of Internal Friction Method to Studying Microstructural Effects in Fusion Materials, 9th International Conference on Fusion reactor Materials ICFRM-9, Colorado Springs, USA, October 10-15, 1999, 13 pp. 17. T. Jokinen, J. Hovikorpi, A. Salminen and Veli Kujanpää, The effect of an air gap on the properties of high power Nd:YAG laser welds, Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (ICALEO 98), 16-19. November 1998, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A., Vol. 85, Part 2, Laser Institute of America, Orlando, FL, U.S.A., 1999, pp. F103- F113. 18. T. Jokinen, T. Vihervä, H. Riikonen, V. Kujanpää, Welding of ship structural steel A36 using Nd: YAG laser and GMAW, 18 th Int. Conf. of Lasers and Electro-Optics, November 15-18, 1999, San Diego, CA, USA, Laser Institute of America, 87 (2000) D-225 D-232. 19. T. Jokinen, A. Salminen, V. Kujanpää, Nd:YAG laser welding of austenitic stainless steel - filler wire parameters, 18 th Int. Conf. of Lasers and Electro-Optics, November 15-18, 1999, San Diego, CA, USA, Laser Institute of America, 87 (2000) D-216 D-224. 20. V. Kujanpää, Beam welding of structural components, ASM FINLAND Powder metallurgy section seminar, Second annual meeting of powder metallurgy R&D network, January 27-28, 2000, Tampere. 21. J. Siltanen, K. Leino, V. Kujanpää, Comparison of laser, high-density plasma and abrasive water-jet cutting for cutting for mild steel and plastic-coated sheets, IIW Annual Meeting, July 9-14, 2000, Florence, Italy (IIW Doc-IE-326-00). 22. A. Laukkanen, Constraint effects and modelling under generic loading conditions, ECF-13 Fracture Mechanics: Applications and Challenges, San Sebastian, Spain, September 6-8, 2000, 8 pp. 23. M. Merola, G. Vieider, B. Schedler, P. Chappuis, R. Duwe, F. Escourbiac, M. Febvre, M. Grattarola, M. Rödig, J. Schlosser, S. Tähtinen, R. Vesprini, European development of carbon armoured plasma facing components for ITER, 9 th International Workshop on Carbon Materials, Hohenkammer, Germany, 18-19 September 2000, 16 p. 24. V. Kujanpää, J. Kauppila, A. Jansson and J. Ion, A Preliminary Comparison of CO 2 and Nd:YAG Laser Cladding, Int. Conf. of Lasers and Electro-Optics (ICALEO 2000), October 2-5, 2000, Detroit, MI, USA, LIA 89 (2000) D-63 D-69. 143

25. S. Tähtinen and B.N. Singh, Tensile and fracture behaviour of high strength copper alloys and their joints with 316 L(N) stainless steel, International Symposium on Materials Ageing and Life Management, Kalpakkam, India, October 3-6, 2000, Proceedings of ISOMALM 2000 Vol. 3, B. Raj, K.B. Sankara Rao, T. Jayakumar and R.K. Dayal (eds.) Allied Publishers Ltd. New Delhi (2000), 1080-1086. 26. H. Jeskanen, P. Kauppinen, J. Pitkänen and S. Tähtinen, Material characterisation probe, 15 th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing, Rome, Italy, October 15-21, 2000, Society for Non-Destructive Testing (2000), paper IDN.628, 2 p. 27. A. Laukkanen and S. Tähtinen, Implications of nonlinear mismatch in fracture of bimetallic interfaces, European Conference on Advances in Mechanical Behaviour, Plasticity and damage EURO- MAT 2000, Tours, France, November 7-9, 2000, Proceedings of EUROMAT 2000, Vol. 1, D.Miannay, P.Costa, D.Francois, A.Pineau (eds.), Elsevier Science Ltd. Oxford (2000), 103-108. 28. V. Kujanpää, J. Kauppila, A. Jansson and J. Ion, Comparison of CO 2 and Nd:YAG laser cladding for wear and corrosion resisting applications, Proc. Conf. Nordisk Svetsmöte 2000, November 20.-22, 2000, Reykjavik, Iceland, 6pp. 29. K. Wallin, A. Laukkanen and S. Tähtinen, Examination on fracture resistance of F82H steel and performance of small specimens in transition and ductile regimes, ASTM 4th Symposium on Small Specimen Testing Techniques, Reno, Nevada, USA, 23-25 January 2001, 13 p. 30. T. Jokinen, Situation of the task No: T518, Further Development of High Power Nd:YAG -Laser Welding with Multipass Filler Wire, Vacuum Vessel Assembly and Maintenance, 14-15 May 2001, TWI, Abingdon, UK. 31. T. Jokinen, V. Kujanpää, Narrow Gap Nd:YAG Laser Welding of Thick Austenitic Stainless Steel with Filler Wire, 8th NOLAMP Conference, 13-15 August 2001, Copenhagen, Danmark, pp. 81-92. 32. T. Jokinen, V. Kujanpää, Multipass Nd:YAG-laser Welding of Thick Section Austenitic Stainless Steel, Proceedings of the International Conference in Laser Materials Processing Conference, ICALEO 01, Jacksonville, USA (CD-ROM). 33. V. Kujanpää et al, Pitting Corrosion of Laser Welded Stainless Offshore Steels, Proceedings of the International Conference in Laser Materials Processing Conference, ICALEO 01, Jacksonville, USA (CD-ROM). 34. S. Tähtinen, A. Laukkanen and B.N. Singh, Properties of Copper to Stainless Steel HIP-Joints before and after Neutron Irradiation, 10 th International Conference on Fusion Reactor Materials ICFRM-10, Baden-Baden, Germany, 14-19 October 2001, 15 pp. 35. S. Tähtinen, P. Moilanen and B.N. Singh, Tensile and Fracture Toughness Properties of Neutron Irradiated Titanium Alloys, 10 th International Conference on Fusion Reactor Materials ICFRM-10, Baden-Baden, Germany, 14-19 October 2001, 12 pp. 36. J.P. Coad, P Andrew, D.E. Hole, S. Lehto, J. Likonen, G.F. Matthews, M. Rubel, EFDA-JET workprogramme contributors, Erosion/deposition in JET during the period 1999-2001, Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Plasma Surface Interactions in Controlled Fusion Devices, May 27-31, 2002, Gifu, Japan, submitted for publication in Journal of Nuclear Materials. 37. E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, J. Keinonen, and C. H. Wu, Molecular dynamics studies of the sputtering of divertor materials, Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Plasma-Surface Interactions in Controlled Fusion Devices, May 27-31, 2002, Gifu, Japan, accepted for publication in Journal of Nuclear Materials. 38. P. Träskelin, E. Salonen, K. Nordlund, A. V. Krasheninnikov, J. Keinonen, C. H. Wu, Chemisorption of CH3 radicals on carbon first wall structures, Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Plasma-Surface Interactions in Controlled Fusion Devices, May 27-31, 2002, Gifu, Japan, accepted for publication in Journal of Nuclear Materials. 39. V. Kujanpää, P. Maaranen, T. Kostamo, Effect of parameters in diode laser welding of steel sheets, Int. Congress on Laser Advanced Materials processing (LAMP2002), May 27-31, 2002, Osaka, Japan. 40. A. Jansson, J. Ion, V. Kujanpää, CO2 and Nd:YAG laser cladding using Stellite 6, Int. Congress on Laser Advanced Materials processing (LAMP2002), May 27-31, 2002, Osaka, Japan. 41. V. Kujanpää, A. Salminen, T. Jokinen, P.Jernström, Laser welding with filler wire, IIW Int. Conf. Advanced processes and technologies in welding and allied processes, Ed. J. Kristensen, June 24-25, 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark, 12 pages. 42. J. Likonen, S. Lehto, J.P. Coad, T. Renvall, T. Sajavaara, T. Ahlgren, D.E. Hole, G.F. Matthews, J. Keinonen, and contributors to the EFDA-JET work-programme, Studies of impurity deposi- 144

tion/implantation in JET divertor tiles using SIMS and ion beam techniques, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 43. S. Lehto, J. Likonen, J.P. Coad, T. Ahlgren, D.E. Hole, M. Mayer, H. Maier and J. Kolehmainen, and contributors to the EFDA-JET workprogramme, Tungsten coating on JET divertor tiles for erosion/deposition studies, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 44. S. Ciattaglia, B. Benoit, P. Coad, A. Coletti, R.A. Forrest, J.P. Fricconneau, E. Gautier, C. Grisolia, R. Lässer, J. Likonen, M. Mayer, T. Pinna, F. Scaffidi-Argentina, Fusion technology engineering R&D at JET, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 45. R. Lässer, N. Bekris, A.C. Bell, D. Brennan, C. Caldwell-Nichols, I. Cristescu, S. Ciattaglia, P. Coad, Ch. Day, M. Glugla, J. Likonen, S. Rosanvallon, F. Scaffidi-Argentina, Tritium Related Studies at the JET Facilities, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 46. L.P. Jones, P. Aubert, F. Coste, H. Handroos, T. Jokinen, V. Kujanpää, P. Meja; C. Punshon, M. Wykes, Towards Advanced Welding Methods for the ITER Vacuum Vessel sectors, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 47. J. Pitkänen, P. Kauppinen, H. Jeskanen, S. Tähtinen and S. Sandlin, Ultrasonic Studies on ITER Divertor and First Wall Modules, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 48. T. Jokinen, V. Kujanpää, High power Nd:YAG laser welding in manufacturing of vacuum vessel of fusion reactor, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 49. T. Jokinen, M. Karhu, V. Kujanpää, Welding of thick austenitic stainless steel using Nd:YAG laser with filler wire and hybrid process, 21 st Int. Congress on Appl. of Lasers and Electro-Optics (ICALEO2002), Oct. 14-17, 2002, Scottsdale, AZ, U.S.A. 2.3 Research Reports Fusion Materials 1. A.Laukkanen, Notched tensile Experiments and Gurson-Tregaard Simulation-Part I: Analysis Method for True Stress Strain Curve Determination, Espoo, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report VALB361, Espoo 1999, 50 pp. 2. A.Laukkanen and S. Tähtinen, Notched tensile Experiments and Gurson-Tregaard Simulation-Part II: Evaluating Failure Behaviour of CuAl25 IG0 Alloy at Room and Elevated Temperatures, Espoo, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report VALB362, Espoo 1999, 63 pp. 3. S. Tähtinen, Fracture Toughness of CuAl25 IG1 Alloy and It s HIP Joints with 316L(N), Espoo, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report VALB369, Espoo 1999, 17 pp. 4. S. Tähtinen and B.N. Singh, Tensile and Fracture Toughness Properties of Copper Alloys to Stainless Steel Joints, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing technology, Report BVAL62-001030, Espoo 2000, 14 p. 5. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-ups DS-2I, DS-3I, DS-4I, DS-7J, DS-8J, DS-10J and RH-1F, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report BVAL62-001036, Espoo 2000, 24 pp. 6. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock up DS-5K, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing technology, Report BVAL62-001037, Espoo 2000, 24 pp. 7. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-up PHS-4K, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report BVAL62-001038, Espoo 2000, 24 pp. 8. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-up SSMU-DS-5K, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report BVAL62-001039, Espoo 2000, 26 pp. 9. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-up DS-6J, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report BVAL62-001040, Espoo 2000, 10 pp. 10. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non Destructive Examination of Primary Wall Small Scale Mock-up DS-9J, Espoo, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report BVAL62-001041, Espoo 2000, 10 pp. 145

11. S. Tähtinen and B.N. Singh, Effects of multiple HIP thermal cycles and neutron irradiation on mechanical properties of copper alloys joint to stainless steel, VTT Manufacturing technology, Report BVAL62-001062, Espoo 2000, 12 p. 12. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non destructive examination of primary wall small scale mock-up PHP-2F, VTT Manufacturing technology, Report VALB 267, Espoo 2000, 15 p. 13. A. Laukkanen and S. Tähtinen, Damage mechanics based analysis of tensile tests of CuA125 IGO alloy, VTT Manufacturing technology, Report VALB 377, Espoo 2000, 20 p. 14. H. Jeskanen, K. Lahdenperä, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Non destructive examination of primary wall small scale mock-up DS-14F, VTT Manufacturing technology, Report VALB 404, Espoo 2000, 25 p. 15. S. Tähtinen and L. Taivalaho, SCC susceptibility of 316L stainless steels and CuCrZr alloy stainless steel joints, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report VALB 431, Espoo 2000, 40 p. 16. S. Tähtinen and A. Laukkanen, Notch sensitivity and fracture toughness of CuAl25 IG0 alloy, VTT Manufacturing Technology, Report VALB 433, Espoo 2000, 20 p. 17. T. Jokinen, and V. Kujanpää, High energy beam welding for manufacture of large tokamak containment vessel sectors: Welding of thick austenitic, VTT Manufacturing Technology, BVAL;26-011098, Lappeenranta 2001. 18. S. Tähtinen, P. Moilanen and B.N. Singh, Mechanical and Fracture Properties of Neutron Irradiated Titanium Alloys, VTT - Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report BVAL62-001077, Espoo, 2001, 25 pp. 19. S. Tähtinen, H. Jeskanen and P. Kauppinen, Ultrasonic and Metallographic Examination of ITER Vertical Target Prototype, VTT - Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report BVAL62-011099, Espoo, 2001, 27 pp. 20. S. Tähtinen, Manufacturing of Primary First Wall Panel by Powder Hipping, Intermediate Report for ITER Task T420-04 - May 2001, VTT - Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report BVAL62-011128, Espoo, 2001, 17 pp. 21. A-M. Kosonen, L. Taivalaho and S. Tähtinen, Stress Corrosion Cracking Susceptibility of TIG Welded and HIP Bonded 316L(N) Stainless Steel, Status Report - May 2001, VTT - Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report BVAL62-011129, Espoo, 2001, 24 pp. 22. A. Laukkanen and S. Tähtinen, Mixed-Mode Fracture Tests of Mismatching Copper-Stainless Steel HIP Joints at Room and Elevated Temperatures, VTT - Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report BVAL64-011132, Espoo, 2001, 26 pp. 23. H. Jeskanen, P. Kauppinen and S. Tähtinen, Ultrasonic Examination of Primary First Wall Small Scale Mock-Ups and Full Scale Panel, DS-15F, PHS-6F, P-PHS-1B, VTT - Technical Research Centre of Finland, Report BVAL62-011137, Espoo, 2001, 11 pp. 24. J. Keinonen, K. Nordlund, E. Salonen, A. Krasheninnikov and P. Träskelin, Modelling of Erosion/ Re-Deposition/Co-Deposition Part 1: Modelling Dynamics Computer Simulation Intermediate Report, EFDA/00-567 (2001) 41 pp. 25. J. Keinonen E. Vainonen-Ahlgren, T. Ahlgren, J. Likonen, S. Lehto, T. Sajavaara, W. Rydman, Development and Testing of D(T) Removal Techniques, Final Report, PFC Task T438/02 (2001) 50 pp. 26. F. Wasastjerna, VHTP Support of Nuclear Analysis for ITER Final Report on the VHTP Task Agreement G 73 TD 08 FE (2001) 6 pp. 27. B.N. Singh, S. Tähtinen, Final Report on Characterisation of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys before and after Irradiation, Materials Research Department, Riso National Laboratory, Riso-R 1276(EN), Roskilde, 2001, 21 pp. 28. P. Bucci, S. Tähtinen, I. Chu, J. Calapez and J.M. Leibold, Fabrication of First Wall Panel with HIP ed Beryllium Armor, Intermediate Report, CEA, Note Technique DTEN 52/2001, Grenoble, 2001, 28 pp. 29. J. Likonen, Characterisation of wall tiles and plasma facing components with surface analytical techniques, Task JW0-FT-1.5 Final Report, 2002, 14 p. 30. H. Jeskanen, S. Tähtinen, and P. Kauppinen, Ultrasonic Examination of ITER Primary First Wall Prototypes PFW-5, PFW-6, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Research Report BTUO73-021043, Espoo, 2002. 31. H. Jeskanen, S. Tähtinen, and P. Kauppinen, Ultrasonic Examination of ITER Primary First Wall Small Scale Mock-ups DS-13J, DS-16J, DS-17J, PHD-1J, PHS-8J, PHS-7Jb and Full Scale Panel P-PHS-1B, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Research Report BTUO73-021044, Espoo, 2002. 32. S. Tähtinen, A.-M. Kosonen and L. Taivalaho, Stress Corrosion Cracking Susceptibility of TIG 146

Welded and HIP Bonded 316 L(N) Stainless Steel, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Research Report BTUO73-021045, Espoo, 2002. 33. H. Jeskanen, S. Tähtinen, and P. Kauppinen, Ultrasonic Examination of Stainless Steel Serpentine Primary First Wall Panel P-SSP-1, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Research Report BTUO73-021063, Espoo, 2002. 34. K. Saarinen and S. Tähtinen, SCC Susceptibility of 316L Stainless Steel and CuCrZr Alloy Tube Joints, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Research Report BTUO75-021020, Espoo, 2002. 35. F. Wasastjerna, Experience of Fusion Neutronics Calculations, VTT Processes, Project Report, PRO1/T7031/01, Espoo, 2002. 3 Fusion Technology Remote Handling and Viewing 1. C. Damiani, G. Bertacci, M. Irwing, M. Armeani, G. Collina, L. Baldi, L. Muro, G. Varocchi, A. Poggianti, G. Cerdan, D. Maisonnier, J. Palmer, S. Chiocchio, M. Siuko and A. Turner, R.H: Divertor Maintenance Divertor Refurbishment Platform, Fusion Engineering and Design 51-52 (2000) 965-972. 2. J. Palmer, S. Chiocchio, C. Damiani, M. Irwing, D. Maisonnier, E. Martin, A. Poggianti, M. Siuko, A. Turner, Performance and Remote Maintenance of Attachment Schemes for Plasma Facing Components, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 463-468. 3. M. Siuko, S. Chiocchio, C. Damiani, M. Irving, D. Maisonnier, J. Palmer, M. Pitkäaho, A. Poggianti, J. Poutanen, A. Raneda, A. Turner, and M. Vilenius, Tool Prototypes for Replacing Plasma Facing Components, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 475-480. 4. H. Ahola, V. Heikkinen, K. Keränen, J. Suomela Modified ITER In-Vessel Viewing System, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 513-516. 5. V. Heikkinen, M. Aikio, K. Keränen, M. Wang, Fiberoptic in-vessel viewing system for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, Review of Scientific Instruments, 73 (2002) 2616-2623. 6. D. Maisonnier et al., (including M. Lamminpää and M. Siuko), The Divertor Remote Maintenance Project, Proceedings of the 17 th International Conference on Fusion Energy, Yokohama, Japan, October 18-24, 1998, IAEA Vienna 1999, Vol. 3, pp. 1057-1060. 7. H. Ahola, T. Luntama, K. Viherkanto, T. Ylikorpi, V. Heikkinen, M. Aikio, K. Keränen, J-T. Mäkinen, V-P. Aarnio, A. Halme, P. Jakubik, M. Savela, J. Suomela, J. Heimsch, In-Vessel Viewing System for ITER Fusion Reactor, Electronic Proceedings of the American Nuclear Society 8th International Topical Meeting on Robotics and Remote Systems, Pittsburgh, USA, April 25-29, 1999, CD-ROM, 18 pp. 8. E. Mäkinen, T. Virvalo, and M. Vilenius, The Effect of Reference Signal to the Behavior of the Water Hydraulic Position Servo, Proceedings of the Sixth Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power (Eds., Koskinen, K.T., Vilenius, M. & Tikka, K.), May 26-28, 1999, Tampere, Finland, pp. 261-270. 9. T.Virvalo, E. Mäkinen, and M. Vilenius, Force Control of a Hydraulic Cylinder Drive, Proceedings of the Sixth Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power (Eds., Koskinen, K.T., Vilenius, M. & Tikka, K.), May 26-28, 1999, Tampere, Finland, pp. 271-284. 10. A.Raneda, J. Uusi-Heikkilä, M. Siuko, K. Koskinen, M. Vilenius, Development of Teleoperation for a Water Hydraulic Manipulator Using Real Time Simulation, Proceedings of The Sixth Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power (Eds., Koskinen, K.T., Vilenius, M. & Tikka, K.), May 26-28, 1999, Tampere, Finland, pp. 285-294. 11. M. Siuko, T., Kemppainen, P. Kunttu, T. Koivula, E. Mäkinen, K.T. Koskinen, T. Virvalo, M. Vilenius, Development of Water Hydraulic Extractor Tool for ITER, Proceedings of the Sixth Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power (Eds., Koskinen, K.T., Vilenius, M. & Tikka, K.), May 26-28, 1999, Tampere, Finland, pp. 687-698. 12. A. Raneda Remote Control and Monitoring of Hydraulically-Drivencrane Using Virtual Reality in Koivula, T. (ed), Virtuaalinen testausja hyötysuhde. IHA:n Hydrauliikan teemapäivä, 7.10.1999, Tampereen Teknillinen Korkeakoulu, Tampere, (1999) pp. 43-54. 13. A. Raneda, M. Siuko, T. Virvalo, M. Vilenius A Teleoperation Interface for Remote Control of a Hydraulic Manipulator, The 1999 Deneb International Simulation Conference and Technology Showcase, October 25-29, 1999 Troy, Michigan, 1999. 14. A. Raneda, M. Siuko, T. Virvalo, M. Vilenius, Model-based teleoperation of a hydraulic crane, Proceedings of the Scandinavian Symposium on Robotics 1999, October 14-15 1999, Oulu, Finland, Robotic Society of Finland, p. 96-102. 147

15. A. Raneda, M. Siuko, T. Virvalo, M. Vilenius, A virtual reality human-machine interface for teleoperation, Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Automation ICMA2000, Human Friendly Mechatronics, September 27-29, 2000, Osaka, Japan, p.561-566. 16. T. Virvalo, M. Linjama, V. Aaltonen, and M. Kivikoski, User friendly environment for the R&D of controllers in heavy machinery, Proceedings of the International Conference on Machine Automation, ICMA2000, Human Friendly Mechatronics, September 27-29, 2000, Osaka, Japan, p. 213-218. 17. M. Vuorisalo, and T. Virvalo, Comparing the control methods of fast water hydraulic on/off-valves in pressure control, Proceedings of the 7 th Mechatronics Forum International Conference, September 6-8, 2000, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 5 p. 18. E. Mäkinen, and T. Virvalo, Improving the accurary of the water hydraulic position servo by compensating servo-valve nonlinearities, In: Burrows, C.R. and Edge, K.A. (eds.), Bath Workshop on Power Transmission and Motion Control (PTMC 2000), p. 283-295. 19. E. Mäkinen, and T. Virvalo, The influence of characteristics of servo valves on the accurary of a water hydraulic position servo, in Laneville, A. (ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth Triennal International Symposium on Fluid Control, Measurement and Visualization, FLUCOME 2000, August 13-17, 2000, Sherbrooke, Canada, 6 p. 20. A. Raneda, M. Siuko, and M. Vilenius, Teleoperation of a mobile crane using virtual reality, in Callaos, N. et al. Proceedings of World Multiconference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, SCI 2000, July 23-26, 2000, Orlando, USA, Vol. 3, p. 100-105. 21. T. Virvalo, and E., Mäkinen, Follow-up accurary of a force control water hydraulic cylinder drive, in: Laneville, A. (ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth Triennal International Symposium on Fluid Control, Measurement and Visualization, FLUCOME 2000, August 13-17, 2000, Sherbrooke, Canada, 5 p. 22. M. Vilenius, K. Koskinen, and T. Virvalo, Water and Mobile Hydraulics Research in Finland, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Fluid Power Transmission and Control (ICFP 2001), Y. Lu, Y. Chen, and L. Xu (Eds.) April 3-5, 2001, Hangzhou, China, s.12-27. 23. M. Vuorisalo, T. Virvalo, and P. Anttonen, Different Types of Pilot Stages for a Water Hydraulic Control Valve, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Fluid Power Transmission and Control (ICFP 2001), Y. Lu, Y. Chen, and L. Xu (Eds.), April 3-5, 2001, Hangzhou, China, s. 435-439. 24. E. Mäkinen and T. Virvalo, On the motion control of a water hydraulic servo cylinder drive, the Seventh Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power, SICFP 01, Linköping, Sweden, May 30 - June 1, 2001. p. 109-123. 25. A. Raneda, M. Siuko, and T. Virvalo, Comparison of a Hydraulic Vane Actuator with Oil and Water, ASME Internation Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 11-16, 2001, New York, USA. 26. A. Raneda, J. Vilenius, E. Mäkinen, and T. Virvalo, Efficient remote control of a hydraulic mobile machine, in J. van Amerongen et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Mechatronics Forum International Conference, University of Twente, Netherlands, 24-26 June, 2002. p. 1221-1229. 27. A. Raneda, J. Tammisto, M. Siuko, and M. Vilenius, Real time simulation of a 2 DOF water hydraulic parallel structure for virtual prototyping, Proceedings of 2002 Summer Computer Simulation Conference & the 2002 International Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems, July 14-18, 2002, San Diego, California, 6 p. 28. P. Gravez, C. Leroux, M. Irving, L. Galbiati, A. Raneda, M. Siuko, D. Maisonnier, J. Palmer, Model-based remote handling with the MAE- STRO hydraulic manipulator, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 29. A.Raneda, P. Pessi, M. Siuko, H. Handroos, J. Palmer, and M. Vilenius, Utilization of virtual prototyping in development of CMM, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 30. M. Siuko, M. Pitkäaho, A. Raneda, J. Poutanen, J. Tammisto, J. Palmer, and M. Vilenius, Water hydraulic actuators for ITER maintenance devices, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 31. H. Wu, H. Handroos, J. Kovanen, A. Rouvinen, P. Hannukainen, T. Saira, L. Jones, Design of Parallel Intersector Weld/Cut Robot for Machining Processes in ITER Vacuum Vessel, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 148

32. T. Virvalo, Feasibility Study of a Water Hydraulic Positioning System in Process Valves, Proceedings of the 5 th JFPS International Symposium on Fluid Power, Nara 2002, November 13, 2002. Japan. p. 131-136. 33. A. Raneda, M. Siuko and T. Virvalo, Torque control of a water hydraulic vane actuator using pressure feedback, ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 18-22, 2002, New Orleans, USA. 34. T. Virvalo, and E. Mäkinen Motion and force control in water hydraulics, Actionneurs hydrauliques: pourquoi pas l eau?, 2000, pp. 99-138. 35. J. Mattila, On energy-efficient motion control of hydraulic manipulators, Tampereen teknillinen korkeakoulu, Julkaisuja, Tampere, 312, 2000 100 p. 36. E. Mäkinen, Vesihydrauliikka, tulevaisuuden(servo)tekniikkaa, Servotekniikka ja sen sovellukset teollisuudessa. INSKO seminaarit, 1.-2.11.2000, Vantaa. 29 p. 37. M. Vilenius, and M. Siuko, IHA mukana miljardien eurojen fuusioenergiahankkeessa, Lämpöydinreaktoriin huoltovälineet Tampereelta, MetalliTekniikka 1, 2000, p 25. 38. J. Suomela, J. Sievilä and V. Heikkinen, ITER/ IVVS Updating the Prototype and Imaging with Fibre Optics Prototype, Final Report of the Task TVA-IVV (2001) 11 pp. 39. H. Handroos, J. Sopanen, P. Hannukainen, J. Kovanen and H. Wu, Virtual Prototyping of IWR Control Loop, Final Report, EFDA/00-555 (2001) 19 pp. 40. V. Heikkinen, K. Keränen, and A. Haapalainen 2001. Modifications and testing of the IVVS prototype, VTT Electronics (2001), 22 pp. 41. K. Dufva, Mechanical Modelling of Dynamics of IVP, Final Report, EFDA TW1-TVA/IVP (2002) 32 pp. 4 Fusion Technology System Studies 1. T. Hamacher, H. Cabal, B. Hallberg, R. Korhonen, Y. Lechón, R.M. Sáez, L. Schleisner, External Costs of Future Fusion Plants, Fusion Engineering and Design 54 (2001) 405-411. 2. T. Hamacher, R.M. Sáez, K. Aquilonius, H. Cabal, B. Hallberg, R. Korhonen, Y. Lechón, S. Lepicard, L. Schleisner, T. Schneider, and D. Ward, A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Environmental External Costs of a Fusion Power Plant, Fusion Engineering and Design 56-57 (2001) 95-103. 3. K. Aquilonius, D. Hofman, U. Bergström, B. Hallberg, Y. Lechón, H. Cabal, R.M. Sáez, T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, D. Ward, T. Hamacher and R. Korhonen, Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analyses in External Cost Assessments of Fusion Power, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 1021-1026. 4. Y. Lechón, H. Cabal, R.M. Sáez, B. Hallberg, K. Aquilonius, T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, D. Ward, T. Hamacher and R. Korhonen, Exploitation and Improvement of the External Costs Assessment of Fusion Power, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 1027-1032. 5. T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, K. Aquilonius, H. Cabal, B. Hallberg, Y. Lechón, S. Lepicard, R.M. Sáez, T. Schneider, D. Ward, Radiological Impact of an Intense Fusion Economy, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 1037-1040. 6. T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, R.M.Sáez, H. Cabal, Y. Lechón, D. Ward, T. Hamacher, K. Aquilonius, B. Hallberg and R. Korhonen, Evaluation of Radiological and Economic Consequences Associated with an Accident of a Fusion Power Plant, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 1077-1080. 7. L. Schleisner, T. Hamacher, H.Cabal, Y. Lechón, R. Korhonen, R.M. Sáez, Energy, Material and Land Requirement of a Fusion Plant, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 1081-1085. 8. T. Hamacher, P. Lako, J.R. Ybema, R. Korhonen, K. Aquilonius, H.Cabal, B. Hallberg, Y. Lechón, S. Lepicard, R.M. Sáez, T. Schneider, D. Ward, Can Fusion Help to Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Fusion Engineering and Design 58-59 (2001) 1087-1090. 9. Y. Lechon, H. Cabal, R. Saez, B. Hallberg, T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, L. Schleisner, Environmental Externalities of a Fusion Power Plant, M & C 99. Mathematics and Computation, Reactor Physics and Environmental Analysis in Nuclear Applications. Madrid 27-30 September. José M. Aragonés (ed.). Senda Editorial, S.A., vol. 2 (1999), p. 1715-1724. 10. H. Cabal, B. Hallberg, T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, L. Schleisner, Y. Lechón, R.M. Sáez, Environmental Externalities of a Future Fusion Plant, 26th EPS Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics, Maastricht, 14-18 June 1999, Europhysics Conference Abstracts Vol. 23J (1999) 1453-1456. 11. T. Hamacher, R.M. Sáez, P. Lako, H. Cabal, B. Hallberg, R. Korhonen, Y. Lechón, S. Lepicard, L. Schleisner, T. Schneider, D. Ward, J.R. Ybema, G. Zankl, Economic and Environmental Performance of Future Fusion Plants in Comparison, Proceed- 149

ings of the 18th International Conference on Fusion Energy, Sorrento, Italy, October 4-10, 2000, IAEA Vienna 2001, IAEA-CN-77/SEP/04, 5 pp. 12. Y. Lechón, H. Cabal, R.M. Sáez, B. Hallberg, K. Aquilonius, T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, D. Ward, T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, Fusion, a new energy source for sustainable future, the Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems in Dubrovnik in June 2-7, 2002. 13. Y. Lechon, H. Cabal, R. Saez, B. Hallberg, K. Aquilonius, T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, D. Ward, T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, External costs of silicon carbide fusion power plants compared to other advanced generation technologies, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 14. B. Hallberg, K. Aquilonius, Y. Lechon, H. Cabal, R. Saez, T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, D. Ward, T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, External costs of material recycling strategies for fusion power plants, 22nd Symposium on Fusion Technology, September 9-13 2002, Helsinki, Fusion Engineering and Design submitted for publication. 15. R. Sáez, Y. Lechón, H. Cabal, B. Hallberg, T. Hamacher, R. Korhonen, L. Schleisner, External costs and benefits, Macrotask E2 Report (disk version includes also reports R. Korhonen, Long term disposal of fusion waste and R. Korhonen, Comparison of external costs of fusion to external costs of fossil fuels and nuclear fission ), CIEMAT, Spain, January 1999. 16. T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, T. Hamacher, B. Hallberg, K. Aquilonius, D. Ward, R. Korhonen, R. Sáez, H. Cabal, Y. Lechón, Externalities of fusion, Exploitation and improvement of work performed under SERF1, Intermediate Report, Prepared by CIEMAT, July 2000, Includes report: R. Korhonen, Evaluation of doses and external costs due to long term disposal of fusion waste. 17. R. Sáez et al. Externalities of Fusion. Exploitation and Improvement of Work Performed under SERF1, Final Report prepared by CIEMAT, January 2001, T. Schneider, S. Lepicard, T. Hamacher, B. Hallberg, K. Aquilonius, D. Ward, R. Korhonen, R. Sáez, H. Cabal, and Y. Lechón, 81 pp. 18. R. Korhonen, Evaluation of doses and external costs due to long term disposal of fusion waste, Socio-economic research on fusion. SERF 2 1999 2000, CD-ROM. CIEMAT (2001) 28 pp 19. R. Korhonen, Future fusion economy: Impacts of a future nuclear fusion economy to global warming and global ionizing radiation, Socio-economic Research Fusion. SERF 2 1999 2000, CD-ROM. CIEMAT (2001) 21 pp. 20. R. Korhonen, Identification of key variables, Socio-economic Research on Fusion, SERF 2 1999 2000, CD-ROM. CIEMAT (2001) 12 pp. 21. R. Korhonen, Identification of key variables in external costs due to long term disposal of fusion waste, Socio-economic Research on Fusion, SERF 2 1999 2000, CD-ROM. CIEMAT (2001) 27 pp. 22. V. Suolanen and S. Vuori, Review of Implemantation of ALARA in the Design of Effluents Management Systems for ITER, EISS Technical Document SL3-TEC-2001-3, (2001) 22 pp. 23. R. Korhonen External costs due to disposal of fusion waste, Task Deliverable D2, part: Externalities of waste disposal. Draft Final Report November 2002 for the final SERF Externalities report, 33p 2002. 24. R. Korhonen, Global environmental impacts of fusion Impacts and transfer of C-14 releases in the future environment, Task Deliverable D3 report: Re-evaluation of C-14 impacts in the future environment, Draft Final Report November 2002 for the final SERF Externalities report. 23p. 2002 5 General Articles and Other Publications 1. O. Dumbrajs, Tunable Gyrotrons for Plasma Heating and Diagnostics, RAU Scientific Reports, Riga 2 (1998) 66-69 2. Seppo Karttunen and Karin Rantamäki (Eds.), FFUSION Yearbook 1998, Annual Report of the Finnish Fusion Research Unit, Association Euratom-Tekes, Report FFUSION R99-1, VTT Energy, Espoo, May 1999, 120 pp. 3. M. Malmgren, T. Kurki-Suonio, S. Karttunen, R. Salomaa (Eds.), Fuusio- ja plasmafysiikan termit α-hiukkasesta Z-pinteeseen (Fusion and plasma physics glossary), Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Report TKK-F-B179, Espoo 1999, 189 pp. 4. J.A. Heikkinen (ed.), The 7th Finnish Russian Symposium on Fusion Research and Plasma Physics, 23-24 Nov. 1999, Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Engineering Physics, Report TKK-F-C183 Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo 1999. 5. Seppo Karttunen, Tähtien energialähde ratkaisu tulevan vuosituhannen energiakysymykseen, Toolilainen 1/99, Tekniikan opettajien järjestölehti, 1999, 23-25. (in Finnish) 150

6. Seppo Karttunen, Fuusio voi olla tulevan vuosituhannen energiaratkaisu, Tieteessä Tapahtuu 5 (1999) 22-24, (in Finnish) 7. Seppo Karttunen, Fusion research community ready for burning plasma experiment, ENERTEC 2000, 7 (1999) 1/99, 10-11. 8. Veli Kujanpää, John Ion, High-power lasers gain hold in Nordic countries, Photonics Spectra, 33 (1999) 38-40. 9. Veli Kujanpää, Harnessing High Power Laser Processing, High Technology Finland 2000, Suomen Tiedeakatemia, Espoo, 1999, s. 129. 10. MTV-Akatemia # 364: Fuusiolla auringon ja tähtien energialähteellä Energiaa vuosituhansiksi (video lecture on MTV3) 1999 11. T. Kurki-Suonio, Tähtien energiaa ihmiskunnan parhaaksi, a newspaper article for STT, appeared in least in 13 newspapers around the country in 1999. 12. Seppo Karttunen and Karin Rantamäki (Eds.), FFUSION 2 Yearbook 1999, Annual Report of the Finnish Fusion Research Unit, Association Euratom- Tekes, Report FFUSION R00-1, VTT Chemical Technology, Espoo, April 2000, 125 pp. 13. Seppo Karttunen, Fuusioenergia tulevaisuuden perusvoimaa, Article based on the invited talk given at Energia 2000 Congress, Tampere, Finland, 18 October 2000, 6 pp. (in Finnish). 14. T. Kurki-Suonio, Fuusio energialähteiden kuningas Midas?, a newspaper article accepted to STT 10/2000 (in Finnish). 15. Siuko, M. Vesihydrauliikkaa fuusioreaktorin huoltoon, Radio 957, February, week 6 (2000). 16. Seppo Karttunen and Karin Rantamäki (Eds.), FFUSION 2 Yearbook 2000, Annual Report of the Finnish Fusion Research Unit, Association Euratom- Tekes, Report FFUSION R01-1, VTT Chemical Technology, Espoo, May 2001, 139 pp. 17. J.A. Heikkinen (Guest Editor) in Contributions to Plasma Physics 42 (2002); Proceedings of Invited and Contributed Papers in 8 th International Workshop on Plasma Edge Theory in Fusion Devices, Espoo, Sep.10-12, 2001. 18. T. Kurki-Suonio, Korkeakoulututkinto vai keisarin uudet vaatteet vieraskynäartikkeli hyväksytty Suomen Tietotoimistoon 2/2001. 19. Rainer Salomaa, Fuusioenergian 50 vuoden synnytys, ATS-Ydintekniikka 30, 16-18 (2001) No 2. 20. Timo Kiviniemi, Kiviniemi väitteli fuusioplasmasta, Laukaa-Konnevesi lehti, 16. August 2001. (in finnish) 21. S. Sipilä, Seppo and K. Rantamäki, Magnetic confinement fusion studies, CSC Report on Scientific Computing 1999-2000. Kotila, Sirpa & Haataja, Juha (eds.). CSC - Scientific Computing (2001) 76-81. 22. S.K. Sipilä and J.A. Heikkinen (Eds.), Abstracts of Invited and Contributed Papers, 8 th International Workshop on Plasma Edge Theory in Fusion Devices, Dipoli Congress Centre, Espoo, 10-12 September 2001, Helsinki University of Technology, Publications on Engineering Physics, Report TKK- F-A808, Espoo 2001, 51 pp. 23. Taina Kurki-Suonio, and Karin Rantamäki, Tutkijoiden menestys toi fuusioenergian kansainvälisen konferenssin ensimmäistä kertaa Suomeen, Press release, 5 September 2001. (in Finnish) 24. Seppo Karttunen, Tuomas Tala and Karin Rantamäki (Eds.), FFusion 2 Yearbook 2001, Annual Report of the Finnish Fusion Research Unit, Association Euratom-Tekes, Report FFUSION R02-1, VTT Processes, Espoo, May 2002, 144 pp. 25. T. Kurki-Suonio, Energiantuotannon mytologiaa faktaa vai fiktiota?, a newspaper article accepted to STT 4/2002 (in Finnish). 26. O. Dumbrajs, Fusion Energy Research in Latvia, Latvian Journal of Physics and Technical Sciences, No 1, (2002) p. 3. 27. Tuomas Tala, Väitöstutkimuksen mukaan fuusioenergia voi olla käytösssä jo 50 vuodessa, Helsingin Sanomat 7.6. 2002 (in Finnish). 28. Tuomas Tala, Saasteeton fuusioenergia on teknologinen haaste, Helsingin Sanomat, vieraskynä, 8.7. 2002 (in Finnish). 29. S. Tähtinen, R. Rintamaa, M. Asikainen and H. Tuomisto (Eds.), the 22 nd Symposium on Fusion Technology - Book of Abstracts, VTT Symposium 220, Espoo, 2002. 6 Patents 1. O. Dumbrajs, Innenleiter eines koaxialen Gyrotrons mit um den Umfang gleichverteilten axialen Korrugationen, Deutsches Patentamt, München, Patent Nr. 100 40 320, May 28, 2001. 151

Tekes Technology Programme Reports 1/2003 FFusion 2 Technology Programme 1999 2002. Final Report. 151 p. Seppo Karttunen, Karin Rantamäki (eds.) 14/2002 Technology and Climate Change. CLIMTECH 1999 2002. 258 p. Sampo Soimakallio, Ilkka Savolainen (eds.) 13/2002 Avautuneet sähkömarkkinat ja jätteiden energiakäyttö lainsäädännöllä synnytettyinä markkinoina. TESLA- ja Jätteiden energiakäyttö -teknologiaohjelmien arviointiraportti. 62 s. Mervi Rajahonka, Lasse Kivikko, Mikko Valtakari, Matti Pulkkinen 12/2002 Information Technology and Electric Power Systems, TESLA Technology Programme 1998 2002. Final Report. 80 p. 11/2002 Informaatiotekniikka sähkönjakelussa, TESLA-teknologiaohjelma 1998 2002. Loppuraportti 102 s. 10/2002 Kilpailukykyä yritysten toimintatapoja kehittämällä GPB-, ProBuild- ja Laatu-ohjelmien arviointi. Arviointiraportti 44 s. Mikko Valtakari ja Mervi Rajahonka 9/2002 Energiateknologiayritykset liiketoimintaympäristön murroksessa. Materiaalit energiatekniikan palveluksessa, KESTO-teknologiaohjelma 1997 2001. Arviointiraportti. 31 s. Lasse Kivikko 8/2002 Materials for Energy Technology, KESTO Technology Programme 1997 2001. Final Report. 128 p. 7/2002 Materiaalit energiatekniikan palveluksessa, KESTO-teknologiaohjelma 1997 2001. Loppuraportti. 128 s. 6/2002 Water Services 1997 2001. Evaluation and Final Report. 132 p. 5/2002 Pigmentit paperin raaka-aineena 1998 2001. Loppuraportti. 87 s. 4/2002 Global Project Business, Kansainvälinen liiketoiminta 1998 2001. Loppuraportti. 3/2002 ETX Electronics for the Information Society 1997 2001. Final Report. 387 p. 2/2002 Evaluation of Finnish R&D Programmes in the Field of Electronics and Telecommunications (ETX, TLX and Telectronics I) Evaluation Report. 95 p. 1/2002 TLX Telecommunications Creating a Global Village 1997 2001. Final Report. 200 p. 14/2001 Laatu verkostotaloudessa -teknologiaohjelma 1998 2001. Loppuraportti. 13/2001 Vesihuolto 1997 2001. Loppuraportti. 94 s. 12/2001 Pro Muovi -teknologiaohjelma 1998 2001. Loppuraportti. 74 s. 11/2001 Space Technology Programmes 1995 2000. Evaluation Report. 36 p. 10/2001 Competitive Reliability 1995 2000. Evaluation Report. 2001, 42 p. Subscriptions: www.tekes.fi/english/publications 152