The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Chapter 1 (1500 1800)
During the first half of the 1700s, philosophers emphasized the use of reason. They thought that people should use reason to free themselves from ignorance and superstition and thereby become enlightened. They were convinced that enlightened people could perfect themselves and society. Thus, the eighteenth century is known as the Enlightenment or Age of Reason.
The Scientific Method The scientific method is a threefold approach to scientific study. First, careful experiments and observations are made. Second, reason is used to interpret the results of the experiments and observations. Third, mathematics rather than logic or reasoning from principles, is used to prove scientific theories.
Copernicus Nicolas Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, played a central role in developing the scientific method. Nicolaus Copernicus 1473 1543
Ptolemy Ptolemy taught that the earth was the center of the universe and the sun and the other planets revolved around it in perfect circles.
Copernicus Theory Copernicus used mathematical calculations to show that Ptolemy was wrong on two crucial points. First, Copernicus said that the earth was not stationary but that it turned on its axis once a day. Second, he declared that the earth was not the center of the universe. He argued that the planets revolved around the sun in perfect circles.
Further Discoveries In 1609, Kepler announced that the planets move in another kind of orbit, called an ellipse. Johannes Kepler 1571-1630
Galileo Galilei Through the telescope, Galileo saw that the moon had a rough surface broken by jagged mountains. He discovered that the planet Jupiter had four moons, which no one had seen before. The sun was seen to be imperfect because it had dark, changeable spots on its surface. Galileo s s discoveries showed that the universe was very different from what ancient philosophers had taught. Galileo Galilei 1564-1642
Galileo s s Telescopes
Galileo on Trial When Galileo announced his discoveries in the early 1600s, the conflict between the traditional thinking and the new science broke into the open. An outspoken man, he did not hesitate to defend his views. He made powerful enemies when he humiliated his critics in public. These enemies convinced the Catholic Church to condemn the teachings of Copernicus and to forbid Galileo from defending his new ideas.
Newton and Natural Laws An English mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton, built on the work of many earlier scientists. Among Newton s s most important contribution was the law of gravity. It states that there is a force of attraction between objects that increases as objects move closer together. Newton s s law explains mathematically how the moon s gravity causes tides on earth and how the sun s s gravity keeps the planets within their orbits. Newton is said to have discovered gravity after he saw an apple fall. His law explains that an apple falls to the ground because it is attracted by the earth s s gravity.
Newton s s effects Newton s s work had many effects. Navigators and mapmakers used his mathematics to make more precise charts. Calculus was used to improve weapons such as guns and cannons. Later, inventors improved on Newton s ideas and developed such practical devices as the steam engine.
Section Review Patterns of Civilization Patterns of Civilization P. 5 # 1-7
Enlightenment Thinkers Philosophers felt confident that they could use reason to discover natural laws that governed human behaviour.
Hobbes & Locke The ideas of two English philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, had a significant impact on how people viewed the individual s role in society. Thomas Hobbes 1588-1769 John Locke 1632-1704
Hobbes In 1651, he published his ideas in Leviathan.. In his work he described a state of nature in which people had no laws or government. During the 1640s, Hobbes witnessed the violent upheavals of a civil war in England. Hobbes became convinced that if people were left alone they would constantly fight among themselves. According to Hobbes, to escape the chaos of their natural state, people entered into a contract, or agreement. They gave up freedom and agreed to obey a ruler. In exchange the ruler ensured peace and order. Hobbes also insisted, once people entered into such a contract, they could not rebel, even if they thought the ruler was a tyrant. Hobbes ideas, therefore, supported the rule of absolute monarchs.
Locke In 1690, John Locke published Two Treatises on Government. Locke agreed with Hobbes that the purpose of government was to establish order in society. He also saw government as a contract between the ruler and the ruled. Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature than Hobbes. He thought people were basically reasonable and would cooperate with each other. Moreover, he argued that rulers could stay in power only as long as they had the consent of those they governed. If a ruler were a tyrant, then he or she had broken the contract. In such a case, the people had the right to rebel and to set up a new government. He believed that people had natural rights, including the right to life, liberty and property. Government was responsible for protecting these rights, but its power should be limited.
Social & Economic Ideas Many writers and thinkers expanded on Locke s s idea of natural rights. They became known as philosophes (French word for philosopher). The philosophes were concerned about many social issues. They urged religious toleration and condemned wars of religion. They claimed people had the right to believe as they wished. They called for freedom of speech and the press and they criticized the strict censorship that most governments imposed. They believed censorship was harmful because it prevented people from learning about new ideas. They encouraged education as the way to end ignorance, prejudice and superstition. The philosophes denounced slavery because it deprived people of their most basic rights. They also spoke out against torture and cruel punishments for crimes.
Three Influential Views of Government Montesquieu believed that English government preserved the liberty of the people by the separation of the power among three branches of government: the legislature, executive, and judiciary. Montesquieu thought that in England Parliament: The legislature, made the laws The king, as the executive, enforced laws The courts, as the judiciary, interpreted the laws if disputes arose. The Baron of Montesquieu 1689-1755
Voltaire Francois Marie Arouet also known as Voltaire. Voltaire spent much of his life arguing for religious toleration and freedom of thought. He is credited with saying, I I do not agree with a word you say but I will defend to the death your right to say it. To Voltaire, the best ruler was an enlightened monarch. By that he meant a monarch who studied the science of government and protected the basic rights of the people. Voltaire (1694 1778)
Rousseau Rousseau believed that human nature was basically good. In his opinion, society corrupted people. He also argued that all people were equal and that all titles of rank and nobility should be abolished. In The Social Contract,, Rousseau described an ideal society. In this society, people would form a community and make a contract with each other, not with a ruler. People would give up some of their freedom in favour of the general will, or the decisions of the majority. The community would vote on all decisions, and everyone would accept the community decision. Rousseau s s beliefs in equality and in the will of the majority made him a spokesman for the common people. Revolutionaries in many countries would later adopt his ideas. Jacques Rousseau (1712 1778)
Section Review Patterns of Civilization P. 9 # 1, 3-6
Spread of New Ideas Denis Diderot, a French philosophe helped create the first encyclopedia. Diderot hoped the Encyclopedia would bring about a a revolution in the minds of men to free them from prejudice. Many philosophe s contributed articles on philosophy, religion, the arts, literature, and government. But the Encyclopedia devoted the most space to articles on science and technology. Diderot included diagrams that showed the latest advances in printing, spinning, medicine, and other fields. Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Enlightenment ideas also spread in other ways. As the number of people who could read and write increased in the 1700s, more newspapers and journals were published. Learned societies informed people of the new ideas through public lectures and published reports. In addition, middle class men met in coffee houses to discuss the latest news in science or politics. In working class neighbourhoods, popular songs and political pamphlets helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
Enlightened Monarchs Many European rulers were impressed by the ideas of the Enlightenment. Some adopted policies that they hoped would improve social and economic conditions in their countries. They considered themselves enlightened monarchs. However, they also used the new ideas to centralize their power by reducing the privileges of nobles.
The Arts During the Enlightenment Many talented individuals made lasting contributions to music. Two German composers, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel, are among the most important composers of this period. Bach wrote many types of music, but he is perhaps best known for his religious music. Johann George Frederick Sebastian Bach Handel (1685 1750) (1685 1759)
In the mid-1700s, music began to reflect the simplicity and elegance expressed by artists and architects of the time. In the late 1700s, this style of music was brought to its height by Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 1791)
Read p.9-12 P. 12 #1, 2, 3, 4 and Recalling Facts