PSYCHOLOGY REVISION NOTES PSYA1: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPLANATIONS OF ATTACHMENT THEORY Learning Theory Evolutionary Theory Bowlby s Theory EXPLANATION Classical conditioning involves learning by association. The child associates caregiver with food (primary reinforcer) and caregivers give a secondary reinforcer in the form of comfort (cupboard love theory). Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement and so in this case the caregiver is seen by the child to reduce unpleasant feelings of hunger with food and therefore is a positive reinforcer. Lorenz was an evolutionary psychologist who believed that through imprinting imprinting animals are innately able to recognise their caregiver but this must happen within a critical period. Harlow s monkey experiment found that when scared, infant monkeys would run to a cloth mother rather than a wire mother with food, indicating that physical comfort is more important than food (challenging learning theory) Bowlby used the term attachment of imprinting and the critical period is approx. 3 years. He believed that infants attach to one primary caregiver, usually the biological mother (monotropy monotropy). The bond goes both ways. Babies have social releasers which are adaptive and are signals which show the child s need for food, protection etc and triggers attachment behaviour from the caregiver. The attachment forms an internal working model for future relationships. Continuity hypothesis states consistent sensitive care will show themselves later in life. The secure-base hypothesis states that children use their caregiver as a secure base and will be more likely to explore their environment. EVIDENCE Dollard and Miller (1950) in their first year babies are fed 2000 times by their primary caregiver. Evidence for learning theory? Evidence for conditioning exists outside of attachment theory (e.g. Little Albert, Pavlov s dogs) but don t use these in the exam! Klaus and Kennel human babies show a need for physical comfort (e.g. babies who spend lots of time with their mothers as infants have stronger attachments later in life). Fox children brought up by nurses/nannies still showed stronger attachments to their mothers (it is the type of attachment, not quantity again, challenges learning theory) Bowlby s 44 thieves study looked at the behaviour of 44 boys who had experienced poor attachment due to absent primary caregiver (i.e. the mother). They became juvenile delinquents, or as Bowlby called them affectionless psychopaths There is evidence to support the continuity hypothesis (e.g. the consistency found between early attachment and later life relationships). Evidence to support secure-base hypothesis (e.g. at 6 months infants begin to show stranger and separation anxiety and signal to the primary caregiver). EVALUATION of THEORIES of ATTACHMENT Learning Theory Evolutionary Theory Bowlby s Theory Reductionist. Not much evidence to support. See further points above. Anthropomorphism Lorenz and Harlow used research from animals. Shaffer and Emerson- some infants form multiple attachments. The idea of a critical period has been criticised.
TYPES OF ATTACHMENT ATTACHMENT STYLES Attachment Type B (Secure) Child explores and is distressed on separation. Greets mother warmly. When mother is present, child is friendly with strangers. Attachmenr Type A Little interest in exploring and little distress on separation. Avoids contact when mother (Insecure avoidant) returns and not nervous around strangers. Attachment Type C Appears anxious and is very distressed upon separation. Disinterested (ambivalent) when (Insecure resistant) mother returns and nervous of strangers when mother present. STRANGE SITUATION Use to determine range of attachment styles. Stages of the Strange Situation include: The room Play/explore Stranger Separation Mother Alone Stranger Mother Mother and child enter the room Mother and child interact within the room and mother responds to child if it seeks attention. Stranger enters the room and speaks with mother. Stranger approaches child and mother leaves room. Stranger interacts with child and encourages play. If child is distressed, procedure ends. Mother returns and stranger leaves. Child settles. Child is left alone in the room. If child is distressed, the procedure ends. Stranger enters and repeats the separation stage. Mother returns and stranger leaves. STRANGE SITUATION FINDINGS They found that of 106 mother-child pairs, 70% of pairs were securely attached, 15% insecure avoidant and 15% insecure resistant. Scoring was on an intensity of behaviour scale from 1 7 every 15 seconds. STRANGE SITUATION EVALUATION STRENGTHS Has become an accepted way of exploring attachment (an accepted method is also called a paradigm) Although the Strange Situation has been criticised for being unethical, it does mirror real life scenarios where a child may be left by the caregiver with a stranger. WEAKNESSES Low ecological validity. The child s behaviour is less natural due to the bizarre situation. Brofenbrenner (1979) found very different behaviours in child s own home Rutter et al believes the strange situation focuses too much on secure/insecure attachment and not other important aspects of behaviour. WHAT INFLUENCES THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENTS? Maternal Sensitivity Hypothesis Infant Temperament Emotional Availability According to Bowlby, responding to the needs of the child is crucial to developing secure attachments. Ainsworth s hypothesis states that attachment is closely related to the sensitivity the mother has to her child s needs. Thomas and Chess argue babies temperament can be categorised as easy, difficult and slow-to-warmup. The last two are harder to cope with for parents and this affects the emotional bond between primary caregiver and the child. This refers to the quality of the emotional interaction between mother and child. Beringen et al (2005) argues children in emotionally available relationships are more likely to form secure attachments and have better peer relationships.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT There are some key cultural differences in attachment across cultures. Long term goals Parental response to needs How children and caregivers are valued Collectivist cultures emphasise values of cooperation and compliance as a goal of child rearing, while individualist cultures emphasise individual achievement and independence (e.g. Carson and Harwood (2003) found Puerto Rican (collectivist) families have a strong sense of community and a very physical approach to child-rearing/discipline results in secure attachments, unlike Ainsworth s prediction of insecure) Child rearing practices are passed down and therefore satisfy that culture s needs. (e.g. True et al (2001) found the Dogon people keep children very close at all times resulting in secure attachments but also insecure-disorganised, probably due to high rates of infant mortality and parental fear being communicated to infants) The caregiver-infant relationship is valued in some cultures more than others. (e.g. Tronick et al (1992) found that the Efe children spend up to 60% of their time with women other than their mothers and these multiple attachment bonds are just as strong as those children in the West form with their primary caregivers) EVIDENCE of CULTURE DIFFERENCES in ATTACHMENT Rothbaum et al (2007) Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Looked at the difference between US and Japanese perceptions of a secure attachment with reference to amae (a bond specific to Japanese culture s description of the relationship between parents and infants). Through semi-structured interviews they found that in both cultures children seen as having desirable characteristics were perceived as securely attached. Differences included the desirable characteristics (i.e. Japanese mothers saw social roles as desirable while US mothers looked to individual achievement), Japanese mothers less likely to see exploration as desirable in the SS, and a child being demanding was seen as a reflection of a need for amae in Japanese culture. Reviewed 32 SS studies from 8 countries and found a similar pattern to Ainsworth, with secure being seen most commonly. Insecure-avoidant was not as common in Japan and Israel, but insecure-resistant was. Differences were also seen within cultures and not just across cultures. High rates of insecure-avoidant attachment in Germany were attributed to a greater emphasis placed on independence and self-reliance. Highlights the SS may be an ethnocentric design specific to the US. Past Paper Questions
DISRUPTION OF ATTACHMENTS EFFECTS of SEPARATION PROTEST During the first few hours child will protest at being separated. DESPAIR After a day or two, child will lose interest and become withdrawn. DETACHMENT After a few days the child becomes more alert and interested in surroundings but trust in caregiver may be lost EVIDENCE regarding DISRUPTION Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis Foster Care Premature Birth Explanation Bowlby (1951) failing to form an attachment to mother in a critical period can lead to maternal deprivation and impacts emotional and social stability. Foster care may cause problems to emotional development due to prior experiences causing insecure attachment types or foster care disrupting primary attachment and causing infant to withdraw from forming new attachments. Premature babies are more fragile and less responsive than full-term babies. They are harder to comfort and may need more time in hospital, resulting in regular disruptions to contact with the primary caregiver. Evidence Bowlby (1944) 44 Thieves study found of children referred to behavioural clinic, 85% were maternally deprived and showed signs of affectionless psychopathy. Tyrell & Dozier (1998) found greatest problems were with children fostered after 12 months (critical period?) Dozier et al (2001) the carer s state of mind is important. Autonomous carers more likely to foster secure attached children. DiVitto & Goldberg (1995) mothers behave differently to premature infants (i.e. over-attentive) Plunkett et al (1988) premature babies are more likely to show insecure attachments. SHORT TERM DISRUPTION to ATTACHMENT Robertson Case studies Laura Laura, aged 2, is in hospital for 8 days to have a minor operation. Because her mother is not there and the nurses change frequently, she has to face the fears, frights and hurts with no familiar person to cling to. She settles but at the end of her stay she is withdrawn from her mother, shaken in her trust. Laura alternates between periods of calm and distress. John John was placed in a residential nursery whilst his mother was in hospital. Over the course of 9 days John went from being a happy child to an overly distressed child. For two days John tries to attach himself to a nurse, but because they are not assigned to individual children no nurse attends to John long enough to understand him and answer his needs. He seeks comfort from an oversized teddy bear, but this isn t enough. He breaks down, refuses to eat, stops playing, cries a lot and gives up trying to get the nurses attention. At reunion with his mother, John screams and struggles to get away from her. Jane, Lucy, Jane, Lucy, Thomas and Kate were all under three years of age and placed in foster care with the Thomas and Robertsons while their mothers were in hospital. The Robertsons endeavoured to sustain a high level of Kate substitute emotional care and keep routines similar to those at home. Father visits regularly to maintain emotional links with home. Kate was taken to visit her mother in hospital and was much more settled after this. All the children seemed to adjust well. They showed some signs of distress, for example Thomas rejected attempts to cuddle him but in general they slept well and did not reject their mothers when reunited. Some were reluctant to part with the foster mother demonstrating the formation of good emotional bonds. FAILURE to FORM ATTACHMENTS Deprivation Privation Refers to an attachment that has been formed and then be lost Attachment is never formed
PRIVATION EVIDENCE regarding PRIVATION Koluchova (1976) Hodges and Tizard (1978) Goldfarb (1943) Czech twins. Cruelly treated by step mother. Discovered at age 7; underdeveloped physically, lacked speech and scared of adults. Adopted at 14 and their social, emotional, physical and intellectual functioning was normal and continued to adulthood. Privation effects not always permanent. Longitudinal study of children placed in institutional care at an early age. Those who had institutional care and did not return home demonstrated poor peer relationships compared to normal controls and others in institutional care who were adopted. Those who were fostered from institutional care at birth were more social skilled in later life than those who experienced three years of care first. EVIDENCE regarding PRIVATION in ROMANIAN ORPHAN samples O Connor et al (2000) Rutter et al (1998) The ERA (English and Romanian Adoptees) study looked at 165 Romanian orphans adopted between 1990 and 1992. Cognitive performance at ages 4 and 6 were related to the amount of time the orphans had spent in institutions before adoptions. Children adopted before 6 months scored similarly to UK adoptees. Between 6 and 24 months showed slightly below average scores and those adopted after 24 months showed greatest problems. Length of time in institutional care also affected attachment quality. Many of the Romanian children demonstrated inattention/over-activity disorders. Longitudinal study following 111 Romanian orphans, who experienced early months and years in extreme physical and emotional privation. They were adopted by British families before the age of 2 and by the age of 4 had apparently recovered. This shows that the effects of even extreme privation can be reversed with appropriate care; although they were adopted within Bowlby s critical period. Past Paper Questions
DAY CARE THE IMPACT of DAY CARE on SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT QUALITY Centre care. Child given some independence. These children interact more with peers (Clarke-Stewart et al, 1994) Home care. Child given more attention by caregiver. Caregiver is main source of interaction, developing child s social skills. QUANTITY Centre care. Children spending most amount of time in centre care develop poorest social competence. Home care. The more home care the better the social competence. AGGRESSION and DAY CARE POSITIVE EFFECTS Borge et al (2004) argued that findings of aggressive behaviour in day care were due to home circumstances. Doherty (1996) found lower levels of aggression in children attending regular day care, although specifically high quality day care, including low staff-pupil ratios, trained staff and wide range of materials. NICHD study (2004) found through observation that children with higher levels of day care had lower levels of aggression. NEGATIVE EFFECTS Belsky et al (2007) suggested longer time spent in day care led to problem behaviour in their early teens. Kopp (1982) suggested that day care disrupts cognitive development and as a result the child is unable to regulate (control) their own behaviour. This is particularly true for those in high quantity, low quality day care. Belsky et al (2001) found that the more time a child had spent in day care, the more likely they were to be aggressive in their primary school years. PEER RELATIONSHIPS and DAY CARE POSITIVE EFFECTS Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) found that children in groupbased day care over home care had heightened ability to negotiate with peers. Vandell et al (1988) Longitudinal study found that higher quality day care resulted in more friendly and less unfriendly peer interactions than those in lower quality day care. Anderson (1989) the more high quality day care a child receives, the greater their social competence. NEGATIVE EFFECTS Vandell et al (1990) found that children receiving day care from untrained staff with high staff to child ratios, developed inferior peer relations. Violata and Russell (1994) found that day care had a negative effect on social development and this was most pronounced in those that received over 20 hours of day care a week. Vliestra (1981) found that children attending half day care had better peer relations than those in full day care. FEATURES of GOOD QUALITY DAY CARE Well Trained Teachers Low staff turnover Spacious accommodation Lower numbers of children Lower adult-child ratios Lots of activities and materials A day care worker should have adequate training. A consistency of staff should be in place to minimise disruption to the child s attachments. There should be lots of room for the child to move, run and explore. Too many children could result in difficult group dynamics and crowding. Depending on the age of the child, they should have a keyworker and share them with a small group of peers (e.g. a staff ratio of 3:1 is ideal, but varies with age). Good provision of toys, books and interactions etc. Taken from Vandell and Powers (1983)
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