Child development theories

Child development theories 1) Psychoanalytic child development theories Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson 2) Cognitive child development theories Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg 3) Behavioural child development theories Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner 4) Social child development theories J. Bowlby, M. Ainsworth Sigmund Freud What is psychosocial development? According to Freud personality develops through a series of childhood stages, the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. If the psychosexual stages are completed successfully healthy personality not completed successfully fixation can occur Fixation = persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual state Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud The id present from birth, unconscious, includes instinctive and primitive behaviours, driven by the pleasure principle, strives for immediate gratification of all desires, ensures that an infant s needs are met. The ego operates based on the reality principle which strives to satisfy the id s desires in realistid and socially appropriate ways

Sigmund Freud The superego aspect of personality that holds internalized moral standards and ideals which are acquired from environment, sense of right and wrong, acts to suppress all unacceptable urges of the it 1) Oral stage (0 12 months) During the oral stage the infant s primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important primary conflict weaning process 2) Anal stage ( 1 3 years) During the anal stage the primary focus of the libido is on controlling bladder and bowel movements. (anal-expulsive personality vs. anal-retentive personality) 3) Phallic stage (3 6 years) During the phallic stage the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals; children discover the differences between males and females; (Oedipus complex, castration anxiety; Electra complex, penis envy) 3) Latent period (6 years to puberty) The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellctual pursuits and social interactions. 4) Genital stage (from onset of puberty) During the genital stage the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite of sex.

Erik Erikson s Theory of psychosocial development Personality develops in a series of stages and the impact of social experience last across the whole lifespan. The socialization process consists of eight phases the eight stages of man. Each stage is regarded as a social crisis. One of the main elements of the theory is the development of ego identity which is constantly changing due to new experience. If the stages are handled well ego strength If it is managed poorly sense of inadequacy Erik Erikson s Theory of psychosocial development psychosocial stage 1 Learning basic trust versus mistrust (hope) (occurs between birth and 1 year) psychosocial stage 2 Learning autonomy versus shame and doubt (will) (occurs during early childhood, between about 2 3 years) Erik Erikson s Theory of psychosocial development Erik Erikson s Theory of psychosocial development psychosocial stage 3 Learning initiative versus guilt (purpose) (4-6 years) psychosocial stage 5 Learning identity identity diffusion (fidelity) (adolescence) psychosocial stage 4 Learning industry versus inferiority (competence) (from 6 - puberty) psychosocial stage 6 Learning intimacy versus isolation (love) (early adulthood)

Erik Erikson s Theory of psychosocial development psychosocial stage 7 Learning generativity verus stagnation (care) (adulthood) psychosocial stage 8 Learning integrity versus despair (wisdom) (old age) Cognitive theories of development Key concepts - Schemas the category of knowledge that helps to interpret and understand; as experiences happen these informations are uwed to modify, add to or change previously existing schemas - Assimilation the process of taking new information into existing schemas - Accomodation the changing or altering of existing schemas in light of new information - Equilibration the mechanism of balance between assimilation and accomodation Cognitive theories of development: Jean Piaget Cognitive theories of development: Jean Piaget A) Sensorimotor stage (0 2) Substages 1) Reflexes (0 1 month) 2) Primary circular reactions (1 4 months) 3) Secondary circular reactions (4 8 months) 4) Coordination of reactions (8 12 months) 5) Tertiary circular reactions (12 18 months) 6) Early representional thought (18 24 months) Object permanence describes the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.

Cognitive theories of development: Jean Piaget B) Characteristics of the preoperational stage (2-6) one hallmark is the development of language the child becomes increasingly adept using symbols - Egocentrism the child is not able to take another person s perspective Cognitive theories of development: Jean Piaget C) Characteristics of the concrete operations (7-11) - Logic inductive logic - Reversibility understanding that actions can be reserved - Conservation Cognitive theories of development: Jean Piaget D) Characteristics of the formal operational stage (+ 12) - Logic ability to involve hypothetical situations Cognitive theories Piagets two-stage process vs. Kohlbergs 3-level process of moral development 1. Stage: moral realist (Piaget) 2. Stage: moral subjectivist (Piaget) - Abstract thought the child starts to consider possible outcomes and consequences - Problem-solving the ability to solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges

Cognitive theories moral realist: judges moral acts according to the physical consequences (extent of damage) moral subjectivist: judges moral acts according to the intention behind the act Cognitive theories Kohlbergs 3-level process of moral development Piagets test of moral reasoning: the child who had good intentions creates a large mess, but the child who was just naughty only creates a little mess. Who was naughtier? 1. Level: preconventional morality 2. Level: conventional morality 3. Level: postconventional morality Cognitive theories Cognitive theories the Heinz dilemma Moral dilemma arising from conflict between two moral codes A big lazy boy with a large paintbrush paints a lot more of the fence than a little boy with a small paintbrush. Wimmer et al. asked children which boy deserves the greater reward.

Cognitive theories Cognitive theories Level 1 preconventional morality Stage 1: obedience and punishment the rules are fixed and absolute, obeying the rules means avoiding punishment Stage 2: individualism and exchange the children account for individual points of view and judge abctions are based on how they serve individual needs Level 2 - conventional morality Stage 3: interpersonal relationships good girl/good boy -orientation Stage 4: maintaining social order focus on maintaning law and order Cognitive theories Level 3 postconventional morality Stage 5: social contract and individual rights beginning of accounting for differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people Stage 6: universal principles based upon univeral ethical principles of justice "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977)

Bandura believed that direct inforcement could not account for all types of learning. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other people. basic social learning concepts 1) people can learn through observation 2) mental states are important to learning 3) learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour 1) People can learn through observation Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning a) A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour. b) A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour. c) A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in books, films, television programs, or online media. 2) Mental states are important to learning Environmental reinforcement is not the only factor to influence behaviour. Bandura described the importance of intrinsic reinforcement a form of internal reward such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. 3) Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour The modelling process a) Attention b) Retention c) Reproduction d) Motivation

Attention anything that detrachts attention negative effects Retention Ability to store information; the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning Reproduction Performing the observed behaviour leads to improvement and skill advancement. Motivation Reinforcement/punishment plays an important role in motivation Self-efficacy Self-system is known as a person s attitudes, abilities and cognitive skills. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy is the belief in one s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations Self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached People with a strong sense of self-efficacy: - view challenging problems as tasks to be mastered - develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate - form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities People with a weak sense of self-efficacy: - avoid challenging tasks - believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities - focus on personal failings and negative outcomes - quickly lose confidence in personal abilities (Bandura, 1994). - recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments

Sources of self-efficacy Develops in the early childhood as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks and situations. The growth of self-efficacy continues throughout life. 1) Mastery experiences 2) Social modelling 3) Social persuasion 4) Psychological responses Mastery experiences The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences. (1994) Social modelling Seeing people similar to onseself succeed by sustained effort raises observers beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed. (1994) 3) Social persuasion 4) Psychological responses Abraham Maslow s Hierarchy of needs Social persuasion Geting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task. Psychological responses Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about the personal abilities in a particular situation. It is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perciefed and interpreted. (1994) Selfactualizing needs Esteem needs Social needs Security needs Physiological needs

Abraham Maslow s Hierarchy of needs 1) Physiological needs 2) Security needs 3) Social needs 4) Esteem needs 5) Self-actualizing needs Self-actualization "What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call selfactualization It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." (A. Maslow) Abraham Maslow s Hierarchy of needs Characteristics of Self-actualization Acceptance and realism Problem-centering Spontaneity Autonomy and solitude Continued freshness of appreciation Peak experiences Karen Horney the view of the real and the ideal self Learning theories of development Ivan Pavlow Behaviourism assumes that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Classical Conditioning Is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Learning theories of development Ivan Pavlow - conditioned stimulus A previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a condittioned response. - unconditioned stimulus one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response - unconditioned response unlearned response

Learning theories of development Ivan Pavlow - conditioned response is the learned response to the previous neural stimulus. Learning theories of development Burrhus Frederic Skinner Operant Conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour (reward or punishment). Skinner used the term operant to refer any active behaviour that operates upon the environment to generate consequences. (1953) Learning theories of development Burrhus Frederic Skinner 1) Reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows. Positive reinforcers: favourable events presented after the behaviour Negative reinforcers: removal of an unfavourable event after the display of a behaviour Behaviour increases Learning theories of development Burrhus Frederic Skinner 2) Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows Positive punishment means punishment by application Negative punishment means punishment by removal Behaviour decreases