International seminar Innovative approaches to education in the private higher education sector Universidad Europea, Madrid, Spain, 28-29 November 2013 LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CONSTRAINTS TO INNOVATION IN UNIVERSITIES Prof. Dr. Atilla Eris (Istanbul Bilgi University)
Here, I am not going to explain what the definition of bureaucracy or the history of bureaucracy or what the Theory on bureaucracy of Max Weber is. Nevertheless, at the beginning of my presentation I would like to stress that the bureaucracy means rules and hierarchy in many cases generally. Certainly, there are positive and as well as negative aspects of the bureaucracy in the management of the state and its institutions. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 2
On the other hand, there is no doubt, creativity and innovation in science and art need independency and freedom and autonomy. In this instance we can ask does the Bureaucracy restrict to Innovation in the universities? In this regard to taking into account some important points would be useful primarily. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 3
Bureaucratic procedures are often perceived as inefficient and frustrating. Bureaucracy includes hierarchy, specific configuration of authority, centralization and contractualization of organizational relationships, formalization of rules, standardization, authorization, officialization, disciplinization and impersonalization of organizational action (1, 2, 3). A. Eris, 28.11.2013 4
In bureaucratic ways, except of the parliament, many institutions play an important role as a rule maker; making their regulations without exceeding of the legal regulations of the parliament. Bureaucracy has the power stemming from laws and regulations. Nevertheless sometimes bureaucrats may show more power than reality!!! That s why sometimes we can define the bureaucracy as the invisible government! (1) A. Eris, 28.11.2013 5
What are we expecting from bureaucracy? Actually, we expect not only to spend maximum effort in solving problems but also to arrange them completely, whether solvable or not. And also, we expect that it makes easy all the frustrating procedures that inhibit the innovation activities. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 6
Let s look at the innovation concept. As we all know, Innovation is the introduction of new ideas, application of better solutions that meet new requirements, inarticulate needs, or existing market needs. That means to find more effective and useful products, processes, services, technologies, or ideas that are readily available to markets and society (5). So, innovation results bring commercialization. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 7
Commercialization of the University Researches is very important in many views because it Provides a return to public investments in research, Justifies new research allocations, Provides a source of new companies, Provides services to companies within the innovation ecosystem (4). And also it Provides powerful budget in the universities Provides ranking priority and honors for the university among others. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 8
According to the classical approaches innovation has a linear process: (4) Basic Research Applied Research Development Commercialization A. Eris, 28.11.2013 9
But in the reality, innovation has a complex process (4): In many times major overlaps can be seen between Basic and Applied Research, as well as between Development and Commercialization; Principal Researchers & Investigators and/or Patents and Processes are Mobile, i.e., not firm-dependent; Many Unexpected Outcomes can be gained; Technological inventions may be preceded as well with basic research. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 10
AND sometimes researches can be Applied, Practical, and Basic together at the same time A. Eris, 28.11.2013 11
As parallel to these approaches, pure research and education are not only the main university roles. Because (4), a) University research related to industry helps generate training and skills necessary for productive lines generally; b) Industry s needs and questions can drive university research and be a source of relevant publications. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 12
After explaining this, can we say, Knowledge- based technologies need basic research, can it be true for our century and the future? Clearly, YES. So, university researches and innovation activities are important instruments of higher education, which has indispensable character. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 13
Under these circumstances, universities in 21 st century need to teach next generations, conduct research and commercialize for the knowledge economy. Here, the key factor is University-Industry Cooperation. From this point of view, especially regional economies need their research universities more than ever before. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 14
That s Why, Innovation in the Universities with its all dimensions (opening of the new programs is also inclusive) needs very tight relations With industry. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 15
The relations between Bureaucracy and Innovation in Universities A. Eris, 28.11.2013 16
As well known, universities with own research capability and capacity all over the world take part in the center of the innovation activities. So, there are very tight relations between bureaucracy and innovation activities in universities. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 17
As shown here; university, society, business world and government affect total innovation capacity in a country. Business world encourages and supports the innovation with the universities together and implements the results of the innovation. Universities lead the innovation with their scientific capacity TOTAL INNOVATION CAPACITY Society encourages the innovation with the demands & needs. Government provides suitable medium and all the necessities for the innovation. Here, instead of bureaucratic state participant state should be targeted. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 18
Without a doubt, the synergy of a hi-tech industrial centers in many developed countries that strengthen the know-how and research potential of university researchers and students, is creating an academia-industry ecosystem suitable for innovation and excellence. It is time to focus on the business of innovation. It is time, especially for some countries, to take a serious look at their dinosaur bureaucracies and related government departments, where the simplest tasks can usually become huge problems. It is time to create a professional environment that efficiently encourages and promotes economic development and innovation activities in the universities. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 19
That s why the 21 st century universities need more autonomy and more partnerships with the business world. For this purpose, the decentralization of the university governance is absolutely necessary, especially in some countries like Turkey. Autonomy, but with heightened external accountability requirements, for example on funding and quality assurance. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 20
Now, let s make a little bit of Devil s Advocacy A. Eris, 28.11.2013 21
Many times we emphasize that innovation needs the proper environment. Theoretically, under less formality, rules, procedures as well as policies; researchers and workers will become more creative. So, institutions / companies are trying to release the creative spirit through fighting bureaucracy and centralization. If the bureaucracy is left aside, creativity and innovation should boom. It sounds so simple. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 22
Actually, according to the necessities needful rules and policies are understood. The true and needful bureaucracy doesn't cause failures in innovation,. but the wrong bureaucracy does A. Eris, 28.11.2013 23
It will be a mistake to think that innovation develops by simply dissolving the bureaucracy. In many times, formal systems and procedures are the identification mark of successful organizations. So instead of completely elimination of existing formal regulations, it would be more effective and productive to re-evaluate the view of bureaucracy and to develop new and innovative ways by using formal systems that promote innovation. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 24
Parallel to this, selection and elimination of the negative factors that inhibit innovation and creative thinking of researchers, would be more effective and realistic. Each country has its own conditions for bureaucratic applications. It depends mainly on their traditional state structure and management approaches and of course their policies. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 25
For all that, absurd, meaningless and meddlesome centralization and bureaucracy is the enemy of innovation. Such kinds of approaches are unacceptable. This point should be explained and admitted clearly. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 26
Meaningless Bureaucracy inhibits and -in many cases- destroys initiative, whereas, Initiative has a vital importance for creativity and innovation activities. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 27
Certainly everywhere there are positive or negative examples about application of bureaucracy and governance. Now I would like to give & explain some examples from Turkish higher Education system very briefly to understand much better the situation of the higher education system and the bureaucratic approaches. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 28
THE BUREAUCRACY IN TURKISH UNIVERSITIES A. Eris, 28.11.2013 29
Turkish higher education dates back to the Nizamiye Madrasa, founded by Seljuk Turks in Baghdad during the 11 th century. The Madrasa offered courses in religion and rhetoric as well as in philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and medicine. In 18 th century, the first diversion from the traditional education of the Madrasas was realized by opening of the Imperial Naval Engineering College (1773) and the Imperial Military Engineering College (1795). These two institutions were later merged to form the roots of today s Istanbul Technical University. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 30
By the end of the 19 th century and in the early 20 th century during the last period of Ottoman Empire, several other state institutions of higher education, similar to the Grandes Ecoles, were opened under French influence. Soon after the proclamation of the Republic, Madrasas and other religious schools were abolished. Afterwards, Grand National Assembly of Turkish Republic enacted a law in 1933 and established Istanbul University instead of Darülfünun. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 31
In the meantime, several independent schools and faculties were established in the new capital Ankara such as the School of Law, the Agricultural Institute, the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Medicine, etc. They were amalgamated to form Ankara University in 1936. The established pattern of the Turkish university based on the Continental European model underwent a critical change in the 1950 s, and four new universities (METU, KTU, EU and Atatürk Univs.) were set up as campuses showing the American university model, rather than the urban universities. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 32
After the Military Putsch in 1980, with the new Constitution in 1981, new provisions were made for the higher education. Currently, all universities in Turkey serve under the Higher Education Law enacted in 1981. Afterwards, all higher education institutions were radically reorganized. The new approach of the system makes possible establishing higher education institutions by non-profit foundations. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 33
So, in Turkey non-profit foundation universities have been established after this regulation. As well as this, establishment of profit based universities in Turkey are prohibited by law. First foundation university Bilkent was established in Ankara in 1984. Starting with this date more and more foundation universities increased. The system has been expanding during the recent years. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 34
Higher education institutions can be classified as follows: Universities Public Universities Non-Profit Foundation Universities Institutes of High Technology, Foundation Post Secondary Vocational Schools, Other Higher Education Institutions (Police Academy and Military Schools). A. Eris, 28.11.2013 35
ORGANIZATION & GOVERNANCE IN TURKISH HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM (Bureaucratic Overview) A. Eris, 28.11.2013 36
COUNCIL OF HIGHER EDUCATION (CoHE-YÖK) The Council of Higher Education is an autonomous corporate public body; responsible for the planning, coordination and supervision of higher education. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 37
Bureaucratic Approaches, Main Functions and Duties of the CoHE To prepare short and long-term plans for the establishment, development, and realization of educational activities of the higher educational institutions in Country, To promote continual cooperation and coordination among the institutions of the higher education, To ensure the establishment and development of the higher education institutions in conformity with the objectives and principles set forth by the law. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 38
Universities, faculties, institutes, four-year schools and vocational schools can only be founded by the law after the approval of the Council. Departments and research centers can be established by the Council of Higher Education. The opening of a degree program at any level is subject to ratification by the Council. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 39
Admission to undergraduate degree programs is centralized and based on a nation wide twostage examination, administered by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM). The Council determines the quotas and admissions of students for the universities. Finance Ministry allocates the budgets for the state universities after the confirmation of the Council. All of the academic staff placement in state universities is subject to ratification of the Council. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 40
Appointments of the Rectors & Deans: In the first stage six Rector-Candidates are elected in the universities; in the second stage three of them selected by the Council of Higher Education; then one of them appointed as the Rector for a university by the President of the Republic. This type of Rector Appointment is for the State Universities. In the Foundation Universities, the Candidate of Rector offered by the Board of Trustees to the Higher Education Council. After the ratification of the Council, the Rector will be appointed by the Board of Trustees. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 41
The Council also appoints the Deans of the State universities. The Board of Trustees appoints the Deans of the Foundation Universities after the confirmation of the Council. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 42
The Minister of National Education represents higher education in the Parliament and can chair the meetings of the Council but has no vote. In addition to YÖK, there is another important academic body in Turkish higher education system named Interuniversity Council. The Interuniversity Council is an academic advisory and a decision-making body in some academic matters and consists of rectors of all universities and one additional member from each university. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 43
The Decisions of the Inter-university Council should be approved by the CoHE. Sometimes CoHE can change the Decisions of Inter-University Council. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 44
THE COUNCIL OF HIGHER EDUCATION 7 MEMBERS APPOINTED BY THE GOVERMENT 7 MEMBERS APPOINTED BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC 7 MEMBERS ELECTED BY THE INTERUNIVERSITY COUNCIL 21 MEMBERS (EACH FOR A RENEWABLE TERM OF FOUR YEARS) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (9 Members) IT IS A 9 MEMBER EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, ELECTED AMONG ITS MEMBERS A. Eris, 28.11.2013 THE PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL IS APPOINTED AMONG ITS MEMBERS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC 45
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According to the Law 2547 hierarchically organizational charts of the universities should be as illustrated here. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 48
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RECTORATE (Rector and Vice Rectors) GENERAL SECRETARY STRATEGY & PLANNING HEALTH CARE HUMAN RESOURCES FINANCE & ACCOUNTING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY STUDENT AFFAIRS LAW OFFICE & ADVISORY CONSTRACTION & MAINTENANCE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LIBRARY & PRINTING HOUSE ADMISSION & OUTREACH ORGANIZATION OF GENERAL SECRETARY & OFFICES
Above illustrated hierarchical organizations show that the main legally authorized and responsible position of the university is Rectorate (Rector and Vice Rectors). General Secretary is the chief of all administrative offices of the university, who accountable to the Rectorate. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 52
ADMISSIONS A. Eris, 28.11.2013 53
For National Students: Admission to undergraduate degree programs is centralized and based on a nation wide two-stage examination administered by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM). Admission to postgraduate programs is directly conducted by the HEIs within the frameworks of the publicly available national and institutional regulations. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 54
For Foreign Students: Admission of foreign students to undergraduate degree programs was used to be centrally managed via an examination called the "Examination for Foreign Students" (YÖS) by 2010. However, since 2010, admission of foreign students to the programs at all levels of HE can be done by direct applications of candidates to the HEIs. The candidates are assessed by the HEIs within the frameworks of the publicly available national and institutional regulations. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 55
Foreign students who wish to pursue their graduate / post-graduate studies in Turkey also apply directly to the universities, which set their own admission requirements. Scholarships are available for some international students from the Turkish Ministry of National Education. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 56
LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTIONS The main language of instruction in the higher education institutions is Turkish; however, some universities use English, French and German as the language of instruction preceded by one-year language preparatory classes. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 57
FINANCE OF THE HE IN TURKEY: Public financing is mainly for public universities, Private financing is adopted for foundation universities. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 58
The major source of income of public universities is the funds allocated through the annual state budget. In addition to the annual budget, provided by the state, each university has three more sources of income: 1.Income from the services provided by the university, (such as patient care in university hospitals, and contract research, which is called a floating capital fund); 2. Income from Student tuitions; and 3. Research fund made up of a lump sum grant from the state-provided budget plus a portion of the income from the floating capital fund and from earmarked projects given by the State Planning Organization. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 59
Foundation Universities have three different sources of funding: Contribution of founding foundation, Student tuitions, Government aids. The proportional shares of these sources of funding vary from university to university. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 60
Until the beginning of autumn semester in 2012, Tuition Fees in State Universities were determined each year by the Government. Last year the Government abolished tuition fees. However, students who are unsuccessful in regular period of their education will pay tuition fees. The Board of Trustees of each foundation university determines Tuition Fees in Foundation Universities separately. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 61
SOME STATISTICAL DATA ON TURKISH HIGHER EDUCATION A. Eris, 28.11.2013 62
NUMBER OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN TURKEY* STATE UNIVERSITIES 104 FOUNDATION UNIVERSITIES* (Non-Profit) 71 FOUNDATION POSTSECONDARY VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS (Non-Profit) 8 OTHER HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS (Police Academy and Military Schools) 11 TOTAL 194 A. Eris, 28.11.2013 63
A. Eris, 28.11.2013 NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES IN YEARS YEARS NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES 1933 1 1957 6 1978 19 1982 27 1984 28 (27+1) 2001 76 (53+23) 2007 115 (85+30) 2011 165 (103+62) 2012 167 (103+64) 2013 175 (104 + 71) 64
THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN TURKISH HIGHER EDUCATION (2012-2013 academic year) Postsecondary Vocational Schools* 1 527 706 Undergraduate* 3 148 860 Graduate 278 941 Medical Interns 20 183 TOTAL* 4 975 690 *) Including distance education Source: ÖSYM Statistics 65
INCREASING OF STUDENTS IN YEARS 5000000 4500000 4353542 4000000 3500000 3000000 2500000 2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0 695730 1503981 1303188 1143083 1918843 2532622 2453664 2342898 2924281 3529334 3817086 497181 398185 237369 1981 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 A. Eris, 28.11.2013 66
THE NUMBER OF ACADEMIC STAFF FOR THE 2012-2013 ACADEMIC YEAR Professor 17 807 Assoc. Professor 10 962 Assist. Prof. 27 385 Research Assistant and Other academic staff (Instructors, Experts, Translators, Education & Training Planners) 74 499 TOTAL 130 653 Source: ÖSYM Statistics 67
NUMBER OF STAFF INCREASING OF ACADEMIC STAFF IN YEARS 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 65204 84785 100504 118839 40000 20000 20917 34469 0 1981 1991 2000 2006 2009 2012 Y E A R S A. Eris, 28.11.2013 68
GENDER OF ACADEMIC STAFF (2012-2013 Academic year) ACADEMIC STAFF NUMBER RATIO (%) FEMALE 54 306 42 MALE 76 347 58 TOTAL 130 653 100 Source: ÖSYM Statistics 69
RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS A. Eris, 28.11.2013 70
Considering the number of scientific publications in EU member and candidate countries, Turkey ranked 7 th among 27 countries. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 71
NUMBER OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS IN ALL FIELDS 0F 27 EUROPEAN COUNTRIES (Ranking has been made according to the statistics of 2010) Countrıes** YEARS 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 1 Germany 44 736 55 893 68 453 80 181 76 320 87.433 89.545 90.070 2 England 41 660 55 145 62 857 71 167 70 991 70.399 79.780 82.126 3 France 32 101 43 525 49 363 57 214 54 208 64.515 65.301 64.751 4 Italy 17 258 26 227 31 421 42 287 43 598 50.367 51.606 51.805 5 Spain 9 356 16 204 22 627 31 980 34 299 41.990 44.324 45.719 6 Nederland 12 985 17 460 19 381 25 043 24 797 28.438 30.204 31.704 7 Turkey 982 2 502 5 321 15 093 15 932 20.806 22.037 22.623 8 Sweden 10 341 13 220 15 136 18 036 17 503 19.135 19.611 20.110 9 Poland 5 662 7 849 9 787 14 671 13 647 19.532 19.513 19.291 10 Belgium 5 975 8 510 10 129 13 907 13 827 16.198 16.865 17.461 11 Denmark 4 850 6 680 7 952 9 553 9 563 10.877 11.200 12.373 12 Austria 3 793 5 525 7 202 9 414 9 314 11.085 11.347 11.798 13 Greece 1 977 3 344 4 905 8 042 9 165 10.558 10.598 10.467 14 Finland 4 070 5 910 7 558 8 769 8 685 9.790 9.971 10.133 15 Portugal 873 1 667 3 162 5 561 6 129 7.812 8.819 9.354 16 Czech Rep. 189 3 572 4 340 6 387 6 791 8.635 8.822 9.239 17 Ireland 1 412 2 037 2 779 4 385 4 824 5.872 6.125 8.748 18 Romania 621 1 223 1 961 2 622 2 962 5.833 6.510 6.934 19 Hungary 2 667 3 313 4 143 5 230 4 936 5.910 5.767 5.240 20 Slovenia 21 858 1 626 2 212 2 346 3.294 3.366 3.357 21 Slovakia 56 2 099 1 978 2 332 2 405 3.180 2.899 2.938 22 Bulgaria 1 535 1 530 1 561 1 861 1 960 2.470 2.422 2.075 23 Lithuania 275 320 459 925 1 082 2.512 1.972 1.851 24 Estonia 257 418 584 800 914 1.115 1.236 1.363 25 S. Cyprus 22 111 180 311 391 529 668 743 26 Luxemburg 36 62 103 188 229 359 464 547 A. 27 Eris, 28.11.2013 Malta 21 41 42 75 81 129 120 179 72
TECHNOPARKS & INNOVATION CENTERS A. Eris, 28.11.2013 73
In recent years, techno-parks have been added among the institutions which are established around the universities. Today, in Turkey, techno-parks have obtained special privileges and increased the critical importance of universities among the national innovation systems. Currently, 43 universities have technoparks initiatives in Turkey. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 74
There are some supports and encouragements provided by government for incubation centers and technoparks in order to make research and development activities easier. Tax exemptions & discounts can be emphasized among these incentives primarly. To establish an innovation center in the universities, like a technopark, a consortium together with the municipality, the chamber of commerce, the governorship of the city, etc. can be formed. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 75
To start the procedures and to get these supports, every institution/company should prepare infrastructural and organizational necessities principally and apply to the Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology. Nevertheless, like marketing activities; quality control; researches on social sciences; oil, natural gas and minerals exploration and drilling activities; clinical works; regular and repeated activities; etc. are not supported. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 76
ACTIVE TECHNOPARKS Name of the University City Established Year 1 Middleeast Technical University ANKARA 2001 3 Bilkent University ANKARA 2002 4 Izmir Institute of High Technology IZMIR 2002 5 Sabancı University KOCAELI 2002 6 Hacettepe University ANKARA 2003 7 Istanbul Technical University ISTANBUL 2003 8 Anadolu & Osmangazi University ESKISEHIR 2003 9 Selcuk University KONYA 2003 10 Kocaeli University KOCAELI 2003 11 Akdeniz University ANTALYA 2004 12 Erciyes University KAYSERI 2004 13 Karadeniz Technical University TRABZON 2004 14 Cukurova University ADANA 2004 15 Mersin University MERSIN 2005 16 Süleyman Demirel University ISPARTA 2005 17 Uludag University BURSA 2005 18 Gaziantep University GAZIANTEP 2006 19 Gazi University ANKARA 2007 20 Trakya University EDIRNE 2008 21 Fırat University ELAZIG 2007 22 Atatürk University ERZURUM 2005 23 Pamukkale University DENIZLI 2007 24 Yıldız Technical University ISTANBUL 2003 25 Ankara University ANKARA 2006 26 Istanbul University ISTANBUL 2003 27 Sakarya University SAKARYA 2008 28 Bogazici University ISTANBUL 2009 29 Cumhuriyet University SIVAS 2007 30 Dicle University DIYARBAKIR 2007 31 Izzet Baysal University BOLU 2009 A. Eris, 28.11.2013 Foundation Universities 77
TECHNOPARKS IN INFRUSTRUCTURE WORKS IN PROGRESS Name of the University City Established Year 1 Gaziosmanpasa University TOKAT 2008 2 TOBB University ANKARA 2008 3 Dumlupınar University KUTAHYA 2009 4 Ondokuzmayıs University SAMSUN 2009 5 İnönü University MALATYA 2009 6 İstanbul Ticaret University ISTANBUL 2009 7 Harran University URFA 2010 8 Düzce University DUZCE 2010 9 18 Mart University CANAKKALE 2011 10 Gebze Institute of High Technology KOCAELI 2011 11 Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University KAHRAMANMARAS 2011 12 Namık Kemal University TEKIRDAG 2011 Foundation Universities A. Eris, 28.11.2013 78
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION... A. Eris, 28.11.2013 79
REFERENCES Anonymous. 2012. www.longovt.com/bureauracy_2012.ppt. Sawyer, C. 2006. Max Weber Bureaucracy. www.uvm.edu/~tpatters/pa302/weber.ppt. Weber, M. 1978. Economy and society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1470s. Wessner, W.C. 2005. The Twenty-First Century University Innovation & the Commercialization of University Research. Knowledge Economy Forum IV, Istanbul, Turkey, March 23, 2005. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/innovation. A. Eris, 28.11.2013 80