Chapter 11 Working With Texts to Develop ESOL Reading Strategies Deoksoon Kim Reading skills are fundamental to English language learners academic success. Proficient readers have access to a wide range of information, which empowers them to excel academically, professionally, and socially. They accomplish all of this by using effective reading strategies to form extratextual connections, such as relating reading materials to themselves, to other texts, and to the world. And they use these same strategies to make intratextual analyses of the rhetorical features of their readings through drawing inferences, distinguishing main and subordinate ideas, synthesizing main ideas, monitoring their comprehension, asking and answering questions, creating sensory images, and evaluating content and their responses to it. Because most reading research has focused on activating schema or the readers prior knowledge, an application of the full range of reading strategies might help teachers improve reading education by using reading materials more effectively. Based on a previous study (Kim, 2005), in this chapter I define and illustrate these reading strategies and offer ways in which they could be applied in reading classes in different English to speakers of other languages (ESOL) contexts. Context I discuss ESOL reading strategies in the context of second- and third-grade language arts/literature classrooms, but these could be implemented in other settings as well. My analysis is based on my study of the ways that ESOL learners use while-reading strategies to construct meaning and make sense of new input from texts that may or may not be culturally relevant (Kim, 2005). Overall, my study was informed by findings that emphasize the importance of ESOL reading 109
Using Textbooks Effectively strategies as learning tools that promote comprehension, improve language performance, and increase student autonomy and learning ability (Oxford, 1990). To understand their reading, I also followed Rosenblatt s (1978) view of reading as an event occurring in a particular environment at a particular moment in the life history of the reader as well as Goodman s (1984) definition of reading as meaning making in which readers use their prior experiences and background knowledge simultaneously. To assist learners in the process of meaning making, I considered Burke s (2000) and Ladson-Billings s (1994) suggestion of the importance of selecting culturally relevant texts that have the potential to empower all, and especially minority, students. I also acknowledged the fact that not all texts are culturally relevant, and students need strategies to approach them all. I propose 10 reading strategies that emerged as significant learning tools when students vocalized their responses to questions such as What comes to mind when you read this? while reading a story (Kim, 2005): 1. relating text to self 2. relating text to other texts 3. relating text to the world 4. making inferences from the text 5. creating mental images of what is read 6. transferring first language (L1) rhetorical skills to second language (L2) text interpretation 7. identifying main ideas in a text 8. monitoring text comprehension 9. summarizing and synthesizing texts 10. responding to texts These while-reading strategies emerged in my study of four English as a second language (ESL) students from four different countries. Of these, three were second graders and one was a third grader; two were at the beginner level, one at intermediate, and one at advanced. In observing them as they vocalized their thinking-while-reading stories, I noticed that they used strategies differently depending on the materials at hand, the level of the task, their language proficiency, and their cultural background. They also used different strategies depending on the cultural relevance of the selected readings. Overall, these students identified with the stories based on their experiences and beliefs, cultural schema and heritage, social and ethical values, and L1. The first three strategies lead students to seek connections outside the text, that is, in themselves, in other texts, and in the world. Everyone s favorite, Strat- 110
Working With Texts to Develop ESOL Reading Strategies egy 1, relating text to self, involved the learners connecting to their prior experiences and to their cultural and background knowledge in order to comprehend and evaluate new information by relating it to their own stories. With Strategy 2, relating text to other texts, students linked the current reading to other texts, thus building a mosaic of intertextual references. Using Strategy 3, relating text to the world, students incorporated their understanding of the world by interpreting the text in the context of their knowledge of the outside world, especially of their native countries. The remaining strategies focus on intratextual analyses of the text s rhetorical features. Students applied Strategy 4, making inferences from the text, to draw conclusions, make critical judgments, and form unique interpretations of the text (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997). The beginners used this strategy sparingly. With Strategy 5, creating mental images of what is read, students visualized what they read to enhance their meaning making. All students invoked this strategy. Strategy 6, transferring L1 rhetorical skills to L2 text interpretation, helped them apply their L1 literacy skills (e.g., awareness of plot structure, character and genre analysis, author s attitude, purpose, setting). Strategy 7, identifying main ideas in a text, helped students grasp essential ideas and important information at the word, sentence, and text levels. With Strategy 8, monitoring text comprehension, students monitored comprehension by determining the author s intention and purpose and by questioning the significance or veracity of the information presented in the text. Strategy 9, summarizing and synthesizing texts, helped students, on the one hand, combine the main ideas in a cohesive and coherent summary of the text and, on the other hand, add an evaluative component through the synthesis of the main ideas from various texts. Beginning-level students summarized stories very simply; intermediate- and advanced-level students synthesized stories critically. With Strategy 10, responding to texts, students evaluated the information from their readings (Revelle, Wellman, & Karabenick, 1985). They expressed opinions based on their sociocultural perspectives and moral values. They also justified their judgments of the text in discussions with others (e.g., peers, teachers, family), which may be referred to as socioaffective strategies in responses to texts. Most students identified with the stories that were based on their cultural experiences and social values, that is, with culturally relevant materials (Bishop, 1993). In particular, synthesizing and responding to texts invoked references to their cultural heritage, L1, moral values, and beliefs. Beginning-level students favored culturally relevant texts, mostly relating the text to their experience, identifying main ideas, monitoring their comprehension, and responding to the text. In contrast, intermediate- and advanced-level students used more advanced strategies to interpret their texts; they favored relating their assigned text to other texts, making inferences from the text, monitoring text comprehension through questioning, synthesizing texts, and offering evaluative and socioaffective responses to texts. They used these strategies to interpret materials that were 111
Using Textbooks Effectively not related to their native cultures before, during, and after reading in order to demonstrate their dialectical thinking skills (Freire, 1970). Curriculum, Tasks, Materials In this section, I discuss sample activities that offer practice in each of the 10 reading strategies described previously. These are based on findings from my study (Kim, 2005) and ideas from other sources (Christensen, 2000; Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; Keene & Zimmermann, 1997); they can be adapted to different course goals and materials or used with different learners. Strategy 1: Relating Text to Self My research shows that this is the most commonly used strategy. Beginning-level ESOL learners in particular connected to their cultural experiences and activated their background knowledge, thus gaining confidence and improving their comprehension (Kim, 2005). Teachers may use this strategy with other learners by incorporating culturally relevant texts. Task: Think-aloud reading culturally relevant texts. The teacher models ways of relating to cultural and background knowledge as well as prior experiences. While students read the text, they are asked to remember prior experiences and background knowledge in response to questions such as Does this story remind you of something in your own life? Or of something that has happened to you? They answer using these prompts: It reminds me of..., I can think of..., I remember..., and This sentence reminds of when I was 10 years old.... Using scaffolding, the teacher first models this activity alone and then models it with a student s assistance. Then a student models it with the teacher s assistance, and finally a student models it alone. Strategy 2: Relating Text to Other Texts My research showed that although beginning-level students tended to avoid this strategy, intermediate- and advanced-level students made good use of it (Kim, 2005). The latter seemed comfortable with a wider variety of genres and text types in which they identified with the fictional characters and life situations. Task: Comparing different texts based on the same story. For beginning-level students, teachers could use several versions of the same story. For example, they could compare several national versions of the Cinderella story, such as Mei Ping and the Silver Shoes (the Chinese version; Wade, 1985), Estrellita de Oro/Little Gold Star (the Spanish-language version; Hayes, 2000), The Korean Cinderella (Climo, 1993), and Cinderella: A Pop-Up Fairy Tale (the U.S. version; Reinhart, 2005). At first, students read their own culture s version of the story and then versions from other cultures. They compare the stories by focusing on specific features (e.g., plots, characteristics, settings) using a Venn diagram or another visual 112
Working With Texts to Develop ESOL Reading Strategies organizer. While developing connections among texts, they can comprehend the stories better. Intermediate- and advanced-level students could try connecting main ideas and themes across texts. They could read Eve Bunting s picture books (e.g., Smoky Night, 1994b; The Wall, 1990; A Day s Work, 1994a; Fly Away Home, 1991) to relate these texts and to understand the characters and the problems depicted in them. They could also compare characters, events, themes, and issues from these stories and investigate the common themes in them (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Questions to ask might include Does this story remind you of other stories? Students guided responses might include This reminds me of... and I can think of.... Strategy 3: Relating Text to the World This strategy is a natural for ESOL students from various countries. They already are aware of the world as a concept, and their world knowledge may be the source of some of their strengths. Task: Creating and sharing stories about world cultures. Students write poems about their native culture and read those written by their peers from other countries. Then they write their own stories titled Where I Come From. Beginninglevel learners may draw pictures instead of writing poems. This activity fosters a learning community in which students deepen their understanding of their cultures as they compare them to their peers cultures, thus learning about each other s sociocultural and historical backgrounds (Christensen, 2000). Sharing cultural knowledge allows students to investigate basic social concepts, such as the importance of family, the use of time, attitudes to skin color and food, and beliefs. They can interview family members, bring photos and other artifacts to class, and share their reports in class. When reading such stories, they are encouraged to respond to questions such as Does this story remind you of other events or experiences? Strategy 4: Making Inferences From the Text Making inferences indicates that readers are actively participating in meaning making. They formulate inferences to understand the text using prior knowledge and experience and to make predictions about what might follow. Inferences result in the creation of personal meaning. Making inferences is a learned skill, so an absolute beginner may be unable to use this strategy. Intermediate- and advanced-level learners interpret texts by drawing conclusions and making reasonable predictions that may lead to forming analytical judgments. Task: Using inferences to make predictions. Students participate in guided reading, shared reading, or reading aloud of texts, trying to predict what comes next. They may look at a book s cover, its pictures, and its text to guess what the story might be about. As they read, they test and revise their initial predictions. Before, 113
Using Textbooks Effectively while, and after reading the story, they might stop at appropriate times to discuss what is happening or to predict what will happen next. This strategy might be appropriate for all students, but is best used with learners at intermediate or advanced levels who might answer questions such as What do you predict will happen in this story?, How will the story end?, and What do you expect to happen in this story? using prompts such as I think that..., I predict..., and That happened because.... Making inferences may develop into a critical analysis of a text that engages readers background knowledge in a dialogue with the author for the negotiation of discourse. Strategy 5: Creating Mental Images of What Is Read Readers who create visual images while reading enhance their comprehension. While reading challenging texts, such as the Harry Potter novels, learners at the beginning level do not generally engage in image creation, whereas intermediateand advanced-level learners form mental images spontaneously and purposefully. Task: Evoking images while reading. The teacher could model this process by demonstrating image making in a short text. Then students could read poems or short stories, such as What Does Peace Feel Like? (Radunsky, 2004), and draw images of what they read. Students could also create mental images; for example, they might imagine that peace looks like a baby sleeping in a crib. Further, reading picture books can help beginning-level students form mental images while reading. Using nonfiction texts could help with mental images based on size, space, time, and other relevant factors. Possible questions to consider include While reading the story, what pictures or images come to mind?, What images or pictures did you see?, and Do the pictures help you understand the story? Why or why not? The answers that students offer might begin with I see..., I hear..., I feel..., I smell..., and I taste.... Strategy 6: Transferring L1 Rhetorical Skills to L2 Text Interpretation Rhetorical skills are more pronounced with intermediate- and advanced-level learners who extended their understanding of L2 texts by applying literacy skills that they mastered in L1 reading. For example, students in my classes applied their awareness of the author s intention and purpose, and of genre and setting characteristics. Even beginning-level learners with strong L1 literacy skills transferred those to enhance their L2 reading comprehension by making short, often single-word character descriptions (e.g., nice, good, happy). Task: Transferring L1 rhetorical skills in interpreting L2 films. The teacher encourages students to use L1 literacy skills to interpret films on familiar topics. To prepare for this, they may be asked to read relevant content in their L1 first. As they watch the film, they consider questions such as Does this story remind you of what you read in your native language? Their guided responses may begin with This reminds me of... or I can think of.... 114
Working With Texts to Develop ESOL Reading Strategies Strategy 7: Identifying Main Ideas in a Text Experienced readers can identify key ideas and important information while reading. This is an essential reading strategy, especially regarding the purpose for which they are reading. Task: Identifying main ideas at several text levels. In a think-aloud process, the teacher could model how, why, and when he or she determines the main ideas in a text. Working in pairs or small groups, students may follow this model by identifying the main ideas in a text and explaining why they think so. They could begin by identifying the most important words, then sentences, and finally larger text chunks. Using texts that contain the same themes may enhance practicing this strategy. To identify the main ideas in a text, students may ask various questions: What parts of the story are most important? Why do you think they are the most important? Do you notice any important themes? What did you learn from the story? What are some key words from the story? Students may begin their responses with phrases such as I think this is really important because..., This is an important word/sentence/paragraph because..., and I learned something new. Strategy 8: Monitoring Text Comprehension My study revealed that students monitor their text comprehension by asking questions about the vocabulary, main ideas, and overall meaning of the text and its author s message. Task: Using guided monitoring of text comprehension. The teacher could begin by modeling each of the previously mentioned questioning techniques. Then, working in small groups, students may share their interpretations of words, text messages, and author intentions. As they do this, they may circle key words and underline main points and important passages while writing their observations in the margins. They may ask these questions: What does this word mean? What does this story mean? What is the author s intention? Why did the author write this story? Their guided responses follow the same cues as in the previous task in which they identified main ideas in a text. Strategy 9: Summarizing and Synthesizing Texts This strategy also could be used as a follow-up to the identification of main ideas in a text. It engages students in connecting these key points in cohesive texts (e.g., writing summaries, which simply represent a text s main points; composing syntheses of the main ideas from several texts). Task: Turning reading logs into summaries. Students may begin by discussing their choices and then create reading logs of the main ideas of the multicultural texts they read. In their summaries, they may first try to put together only the main ideas as stated in the original text and, after that, add their personal responses to these main ideas. Furthermore, they could use their summarizing 115
Using Textbooks Effectively skills to synthesize ideas from several texts, first without stating their personal opinions and then by adding evaluative comments. Whether writing summaries of one text or synthesizing the main ideas of several texts, they might benefit from being introduced to lists of cohesive devices, such as first, second, finally, moreover, furthermore, however, therefore, in addition to, in conclusion and other connectives that may help them logically organize the information they retrieved from their readings. Teachers may also explain the use of and and but as coordinating conjunctions and differentiate them from their frequent misuse in run-on sentences. Questions that might guide students in this activity include the following: Can you tell me the main points? Why is this point important? Why do you think the author wrote this? Is there any other important point? In their responses, they might begin with This story is about..., What s important here is..., or In this story, the author.... Strategy 10: Responding to Texts Students respond to texts in independently formed arguments by expressing their opinions in oral or written reports, logs and journals, and interpersonally shaped socioaffective discussions. They do this by debating their positions on important text aspects with peers, teachers, friends, and chat room members. They also evaluate texts based on their knowledge and critical thinking skills. Task: Structuring responses to texts. Students may begin preparing for formal responses to texts by discussing their opinions in small groups. Do they like the story? Why or why not? Advanced readers may also attempt reading a text from different perspectives, after which they could begin organizing their positions by creating a three-column table for their notes: Column 1 is Content/Facts, what the story is about; Column 2 is Author s Position, what the author wants readers to believe; Column 3 is Author s Ways of Expression, the way an author communicates a message through his or her writing. As students fill in their comments, they respond to each of these three sets of notes separately. With advanced-level readers, teachers could use the two versions of a story about Christopher Columbus, Follow the Dream (Sis, 1991) and Encounter (Yolen, 1996). They could answer questions such as these: Why do the two books talk about Christopher Columbus differently? One treats him as a hero who discovered America, and the other one as an invader. What do you think about that? Who is the real Christopher Columbus, according to you? Why? Do you like the story? Why or why not? What is this book about? What did you learn from the story? Students guided responses could start with I believe..., I learned..., I think the story is about... because..., According to me he is..., or The author seems to say that.... 116
Working With Texts to Develop ESOL Reading Strategies Reflections Teachers could adapt the reading strategies discussed in this chapter by bearing in mind that students perform better in critical thinking tasks when the following general principles are met: 1. Provide a safe and friendly environment in which students, working as a multicultural community, share and explore their interests, ideas, and cultural knowledge. 2. Design tasks that are based on an evaluation of ESOL learners English proficiency, cultural orientation, and interests. 3. Develop an atmosphere of multicultural sharing through the creation of a multicultural library, projects, and events. 4. Build a bridge between texts that are and are not culturally relevant by leading beginning-level learners from one to the other, that is, from what is familiar to what is unfamiliar. 5. Offer scaffolding for students through teacher modeling that gradually involves students, first as participants and then as models themselves. 6. Use ESOL learners strengths, such as L1 ability, L1 literacy skills, and background knowledge. Make connections between students existing strategies and new strategies. 7. Offer rich opportunities for practice in different contexts, for different purposes, and with different tasks. Reading literacy is vital to all other areas of ESOL education, which is why it is important to implement appropriate reading strategies at all levels of ESOL. In this chapter, I have recommended 10 basic strategies for the interpretation of texts and suggested ways to apply these in the reading classroom to enhance learners L2 literacy skills. Deoksoon Kim is an assistant professor at the University of South Florida, in Tampa, in the United States. She teaches second language acquisition and literacy. She has also taught and worked in professional development and research in South Korea and Canada. Her foci include TESOL, second language reading and literacy, and instructional technology in teacher education. 117