The French Revolution

1 The French Revolution Syllabus French Revolution: (a) The Ancient Regime and its crises (b) The social forces that led to the revolution (c) The different revolutionary groups and ideas of the time (d) The legacy Facts that Matter 1. In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France. Upon his accession he found an empty treasury. It posed problems before the new king. 2. The state was forced to increase taxes to meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices, etc. 3. In the 18th century, the French society was divided into three estates. The clergy and nobility which formed the first two estates were the privileged classes. They were exempted from payment of state taxes. The third estate formed the majority of the population and was the unprivileged class. It bore the burden of taxes with no political rights and social status. 4. The population of France increased drastically during the period 1715-1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains. But the production of grains didn t increase. 5. Peasants and workers were highly dissatisfied. They revolted every now and then against increasing taxes and food scarcity. They wanted to bring about a change in the country s social and economic order. 6. During the 18th century, social groups, also known as the middle class, emerged. They were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. 7. Philosophers like John Locke, Montesquieu and Rousseau enlightened the middle class people with their revolutionary ideas. They set them on path of revolution. 8. Louis XVI planned to increase further taxes. He called together an assembly of the States General on May 5, 1789 for this purpose. 9. The members of the third estate participated in the assembly but walked out of it when their demand of voting rights was rejected by the king. 10. On June 20, they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the king. 11. The rest of France was seething with turmoil. On July 14, they stormed and destroyed the Bastille. 15

12. Their agitation proved to be fruitful. Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be checked by constitution. 13. On August 14, 1789 the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. 14. The National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution in 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. 15. The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. 16. The Constitution began with a declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as natural and inalienable rights. 17. Louis XVI, no doubt had signed the Constitution, but he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia. 18. The National Assembly acted swiftly. It declared war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers thronged from the provinces to join the army. 19. The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people of France. In spite of that large sections of population wanted to carry the revolution further. 20. Political clubs came into limelight. The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins. The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society. 21. Maximillian Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobin club. 22. On August 10, 1792 the Jacobins stormed the palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king s guards and held the king himself as hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held. 23. The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On September 21, 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France, a republic. 24. Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. On January 21, 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met the same fate shortly after. 25. Robespierre remained the centre image from 1793 to 1794. This period is referred to as the Reign of Terror. During this period, he followed a policy of severe control and punishment. 26. Soon he became unpopular. Even his supporters began to demand moderation. Finally, he was arrested and executed in July 1794. 27. After the fall of the Jacobin government, the wealthier middle classes seized power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society. It provided for two elected legislative councils. 28. These legislative councils appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members. 29. However, the directors often clashed with the legislative councils. As a result, political instability took place which paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who was a military dictator. 30. In 1804, he crowned himself the emperor of France. In the beginning, people saw him as a liberator who would bring freedom for them. But soon the Napoleonic armies came 16 Social Science IX

to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. 31. Many of his measures that carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern laws to other parts of Europe had an impact on people long after Napoleon had left. 32. The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the 19th century. Words that Matter 1. Old Regime: This term is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789. 2. Livre: Unit of currency in France, discontinued in 1794. 3. Clergy: Group of persons invested with special functions in the church. 4. Tithe: A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce. 5. Taille: Tax to be paid directly to the state. 6. Subsistence crisis: An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. 7. Anonymous: One whose name remains unknown. 8. Chateau: Castle or stately residence belonging to a king or a nobleman. 9. Manor: An estate consisting of the lord s lands and his mansion. 10. Marseillaise: A patriotic song sung for the first time by volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris. It is now the national anthem of France. 11. Sans-culottes: Literally meaning those without knee breeches. 12. Treason: Betryal of one s country or government. 13. Guillotine: A device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. 14. Pain d égalite: A French word meaning, equality bread. 15. Citoyen: French men are called Citoyen. 16. Citoyenne: French women are called Citoyenne. 17. Negroes: A term used for the indigenous people of Africa, south of the Sahara. 18. Emancipation: The act of freeing. Dateline 1. 1774 Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within society of the Old Regime. 2. 1789 Convocation of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, peasants revolts in the countryside. 3. 1791 A Constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all human beings. 4. 1792-93 France becomes a republic, the king is beheaded. Overthrow of the Jacobin republic, a Directory rules France. 5. 1804 Napoleon becomes emperor of France, annexes large parts of Europe. 6. 1815 Napoleon defeated at Waterloo. The French Revolution 17

NCERT IN-TEXT QUESTIONS SOLVED Q1. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 5. See fig. 3. Textbook page 5. Then explain why the artist has portrayed the nobleman as the spider and the peasant as the fly. The figure clearly depicts the vicious social set up that existed in France during the 18th century. A spider feeds on the fly. Just like the spider, the nobles in the 18th century France lived on the labour of the peasants. The peasants had to pay feudal dues to these nobles. They also rendered all kinds of services to them. Q2. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 6. Fill in the blank boxes in fig. 4. given on textbook page 6 with appropriate terms from among the following: Food riots, scarcity of grain, increased number of deaths, rising food prices, weaker bodies. Bad Scarcity of Rising food The poorest can no harvest grain prices longer buy bread Increased Disease Weaker Food number epidemics bodies riots of deaths Q3. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 7. What message is Young trying to convey in source A? Whom does he mean when he speaks of slaves? Who is he criticising? What dangers does he sense in the situation of 1787? A social set up which is based on inequalities and injustice is bound to collapse soon or later. When Young speaks of slaves he means the unprivileged class of people. He is criticising those who belonged to privileged class i.e. clergy and nobles. He senses dangers of violence or riot. Q4. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 8. Representatives of the Third Estate take the oath raising their arms in the direction of Bailly, the President of the Assembly, standing on a table in the centre. Do you think that during the actual event Bailly would have stood with his back to the assembled deputies? What could have been David s intention in placing Bailly (fig. 5) the way he has done? No, I don t think that Bailly would have stood with his back to the assembled deputies during the actual event. David, through his painting, wants to make it clear that the Constitution of 1791 did nothing in the favour of the common mass. Inspite of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, the right to vote was not given to the common people of France. They were still the passive citizens. The wealthy class of people continued to avail all the privileges. Q5. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 13. (i) Identify the symbols in Box 1 (page 12) which stand for liberty, equality and fraternity. 18 Social Science IX

Symbols stand for liberty The broken chain stands for the act of becoming free. Red Phrygian cap was worn by a slave on becoming free. Symbols stand for equality The winged woman is the personification of the law. The Law Tablet refers to the fact that the law is the same for all and all are equal before it. Symbols stand for fraternity The bundle of rods or fasces refers to the fact that strength lies in unity. (ii) Explain the meaning of the painting of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen (fig. 8, page 11) by reading only the symbols. The figure on the right represents France. The figure on the left represents the law. The Law Tablet symbolizes equality before law. (iii) Compare the political rights which the Constitution of 1791 gave to the citizens with articles 1 and 6 of the Declaration (Source C, page 11). Are the two documents consistent? Do the two documents convey the same idea? Yes, the two documents are definitely consistent. They convey the same idea, i.e. human beings are born equal and all citizens are equal before the law. (iv) Which groups of French society would have gained from the Constitution of 1791? Which groups would have had reason to be dissatisfied? What developments does Marat (Source B, page 11) anticipate in the future? The propertied class of French society would have gained from the Constitution of 1791. Peasants, workers and women would have had reason to be dissatisfied. Marat anticipated that the common mass of France would show its dissatisfaction by taking retaliatory action in future. Q6. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 15. Look carefully at the painting (fig. 10, page 15) and identify the objects which are political symbols you saw in Box 1, page 12 (broken chain, red cap, fasces, Chapter of the Declaration of Rights). The pyramid stands for equality, often represented by a triangle. Use the symbols to interpret the painting. Describe your impressions of the female figure of liberty. The scroll that the woman is holding in her hand is probably the declaration of rights of women and citizens. The female figure of liberty signifies that women are equal to men. Hence, they should enjoy the same rights. Q7. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 16. Compare the views of Desmoulins and Robespierre. How does each one understand the use of state force? What does Robespierre mean by the war of liberty against tyranny? How does Desmoulins perceive liberty? Robespierre justifies his reign of terror. He believes in the policy of severe control and punishment. He poses himself as the saviour of the ideals of the revolution and the republic by adopting severity. Desmoulins on the other hand views liberty as freedom to do anything which does not harm anyone. He believes in the principles of reason, equality and justice. Q8. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 18. Describe the persons represented in fig. 12, page 18 their actions, their postures, the objects they The French Revolution 19

are carrying. Look carefully to see whether all of them come from the same social group. What symbols has the artist included in the image? What do they stand for? Do the actions of the women reflect traditional ideas of how women were effected to behave in public? What do you think: does the artist sympathise with the women s activities or is he critical of them? The persons represented in the figure are Parisian women. Their actions and the objects they are carrying all show that they are in violent and aggressive mood. All of them come from the same social group with the same objective. The artist has used the symbols like pitchforks as weapons. The drum indicates proclamation of war. The balanced scale on top signifies that both men and women are equal. No, the activities of the women do not reflect traditional ideas about them. The artist, so far I think, sympathises with the women and their cause. Q9. Refer to Activity, Textbook page 20. Compare the manifesto drafted by Olympia de Gouges (Source F, page 20) with the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen (Source C, page 11). The manifesto drafted by Olympic de Gouges talks about women and their rights to be treated equally with men. On the other hand, the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen talks about men only. NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED Activities Q1. Find out more about any one of the revolutionary figures you have read about in this chapter. Write a short biography of this person. Olympic de Gouge was born to working class parents but was regarded as one of the most-talked about French intellectuals who contributed significantly to the French Revolution. She was a well-known playwright at the time of the French Revolution. She strongly advocated the rights of French women. After the publication of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen she wrote Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen. She also wrote Social Contract immediately after coming through Rousseau s Social Contract. In her book, she proposed gender equality in marriage. She supported the French Revolution and wrote more than 30 political pamphlets to further its cause. Her act of moral courage cost her dearly. She was ultimately guillotined. Q2. The French Revolution saw the rise of newspapers describing the events of each day and week. Collect information and pictures on any one event and write a newspaper article. You could also conduct an imaginary interview with important personages such as Murabeau, Olympic de Gouges or Robespierre. Work in groups of two or three. Each group could then put up their articles on a board to produce a wallpaper on the French Revolution. Students are suggested to do this activity themselves. Questions Q1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France. The following circumstances led to the outbreak of the revolutionary protest in France: (i) Louis XVI was an autocratic ruler who could not compromise with his 20 Social Science IX

luxurious life. He also lacked farsightedness. (ii) Upon his accession the royal treasury of France was empty. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles. (iii) Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from Britain. The war added more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres. Leaders who gave the state credit, now began to charge 10 per cent interest on loans. So, the French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone. (iv) The state finally increased taxes to meet its regular expenses such as the cost of maintaining an army, running government offices or universities. (v) The French society was divided into three estates but only members of the third estate (peasants, artisans, workers, etc.) had to pay taxes. The members of the first two estates, i.e. the clergy and the nobility, were exempted to pay state taxes. They belonged to privileged class. Thus, the burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone. (vi) The middle class that emerged in the 18th century France was educated and enlightened. They refuted the theory of divine right of kings and absolute monarchy. They believed that a person s social position must depend on his merit. They had access to the various ideas of equality and freedom proposed by the philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, etc. Their ideas got popularised among the common mass as a result of intensive discussions and debates in salons and coffee houses and through books and newspapers. (vii) The French administration was extremely corrupt. It didn t give weightage to the French common mass. All the above circumstances paved the way for revolutionary protest in France. Q2. Which groups of French society benefitted from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcomes of the revolution? (i) The wealthy class of the third estate which came to be known as the new middle class of France benefitted the most from the revolution. This group was comprised of big businessmen, petty-officers, lawyers, teachers, doctors and traders. Previously these people had to pay state taxes and they did not enjoy equal status. But after the revolution they began to be treated equally with the upper sections of the society. (ii) With the abolition of feudal system of obligations and taxes the clergy and the nobility came on the same level with the middle class. They were forced to give up their privileges. Their executive powers were also taken away from them. (iii) The poorer sections of the society, i.e. small peasants, landless labourers, servants, daily wage earners would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution. Women also would have been highly discontented. Q3. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the The French Revolution 21

world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The French Revolution proved to be the most important event in the history of the world. (i) The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These ideas became an inspiring force for the political movements in the world in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. (ii) The French Revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity spread from France to the rest of Europe, where feudal systems were finally abolished. (iii) Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation state. (iv) The idea of nationalism that emerged after the French Revolution started mass movements all over the world. Now, people began to question the absolute power. (v) The impact of the French Revolution could be seen on India too. Tipu Sultan and Raja Ram Mohan Roy got deeply influenced by the ideas of the revolution. In nutshell, we can say that for the first time after the French Revolution, people all over the world became aware of their rights. Q4. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution. The list of democratic rights that we enjoy today is given below: (i) Right to equality (ii) Right to freedom of speech and expression (iii) Right against exploitation (iv) Right to religious freedom (v) Cultural and educational rights (vi) Right to vote (vii) Right to live (viii) Right to get education Q5. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain. (i) The message of universal rights was definitely beset with contradictions. Many ideals in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen were not at all clear. They had dubious meanings. (ii) The French Revolution could not bring economic equality and it is a fact that unless there is economic equality, real equality cannot be received at any sphere. The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen laid stress on equality but a large section of the society was denied to it. The right to vote and elect their representatives did not solve the poor man s problem. (iii) Women were still regarded as passive citizens. They did not have any political rights such as right to vote and hold political offices like men. Hence, their struggle for equal political rights continued. (iv) France continued to hold and expand colonies. Thus, its image as a liberator could not last for a long time. (v) Slavery existed in France till the first half of the nineteenth century. Q6. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon? (i) The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon had achieved glorious victories in wars. This made France realize that only a military dictator like Napoleon would restore a stable government. (ii) In 1804, he crowned himself as the emperor of France. He set out 22 Social Science IX

to conquer neighbouring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. Napoleon viewed himself as a moderniser of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system. But his rise did not last for a long time. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS SOLVED I. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Choose the correct option: 1. Who was the king of France at the time of the French Revolution? (a) Napoleon Bonaparte (b) Louis XVI (c) Louis XV (d) Nicholas I 2. What was livre? (a) A unit of currency in France (b) A tax levied by the church (c) A group of priviledged people (d) A tax to be paid directly to the state 3. What was taille known as? (a) Indirect tax (b) Direct tax (c) Agricultural produce (d) Extreme poverty 4. Who is the author of Two Treatises of Government? (a) Jean Jacques Rousseau (b) Montesquieu (c) Mirabeau (d) John Locke 5. For what purpose did Louis XVI call together an assembly of the Estates General on 5 May 1789? (a) To pass proposals for new taxes (b) To pass proposals for abolishing the feudal system (c) To pass proposals for new price index (d) To give the poor their due rights 6. Who constituted the third estate? (a) Philosophers and authors (b) Clergy and nobility (c) Peasants and artisans (d) Illiterate men and women 7. Whose name is associated with the pamphlet called What is the third estate? (a) Mirabeau (b) John Locke (c) Montesquieu (d) Abbé Sieyès 8. What did Bastille symbolise as? (a) Military strength of France (b) Humanity (c) Despotic rule of Louis XVI (d) Louis XVI s cowardice act 9. When was Bastille destroyed? (a) 14 July 1789 (b) 14 July 1798 (c) 2 July 1789 (d) 5 August 1879 10. What was the main objective of the Constitution of 1791? (a) To dethrone the king (b) To limit the powers of the clergy and the nobility (c) To limit the powers of the king (d) To make the king more powerful 11. Who were active citizens? (a) They were entitled to vote. (b) They were not entitled to vote. (c) They were entitled to protest. (d) They were entitled to accumulate wealth. 12. What was Sceptre? (a) Symbol of strength (b) Symbol of eternity (c) Symbol of deep knowledge (d) Symbol of royal power 13. What are the national colours of France? (a) White-red-purple (b) Blue-red-black (c) Blue-white-red (d) Red-yellow-green 14. By whom was phrygian cap worn and on what occasion? (a) By a man on becoming a slave (b) By a slave on becoming free The French Revolution 23

(c) By a slave on becoming victorious (d) By a soldier on accepting defeat 15. What was the Marseillaise? (a) A slogan (b) A type of hat (c) A patriotic song (d) A romantic song 16. When was France declared a republic? (a) On 21 September 1792 (b) On 21 May 1792 (c) On 21 September 1793 (d) On 5 August 1793 17. Whose name is associated with the reign of terror? (a) Robespierre (b) Mirabeau (c) Napoleon Bonaparte (d) Dr Guillotin 18. Which right was given to the French women in 1946? (a) Right to hold political offices (b) Right to get education (c) Right to divorce (d) Right to vote 19. Which among the following was not introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte? (a) A uniform system of weight and measures (b) A law for the protection of private property (c) Decimal system (d) Slavery 1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (d) 5 (a) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8 (c) 9 (a) 10 (c) 11 (a) 12 (d) 13 (c) 14 (b) 15 (c) 16 (a) 17 (a) 18 (d) 19 (d) II. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q1. Upon his accession in 1774, Louis XVI found an empty treasure. What were the reasons behind the financial crisis in France? Mention one reason. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Q2. French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates. Name them. (i) First Estate (clergy). (ii) Second Estate (nobility) (iii) Third Estate (big businessmen, merchants, peasants, artisans, landless labour etc.) Q3. The members of which estate had to pay taxes? The members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state. Q4. What was tithe? Tithe was a tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce. Q5. What led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains in 1789? The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains. Q6. Mention two characteristics of the middle class who emerged in the eighteenth century. (i) They were educated. (ii) They believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Q7. Who wrote Two Treatises of Government? How did the author express himself in this book? John Locke wrote Two Treatises of Government. In his book, Locke sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. Q8. Who wrote The Spirit of the Laws? What did the author propose in this book? Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the Laws. In his book, he proposed a division of power within the government between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. Q9. What was the Estates General? The Estates General was a political body and was controlled by the French monarch. 24 Social Science IX

Q10. Who were denied entry to the assembly of the Estates General, called by Louis XVI on 5 May 1789? Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assemly of the Estates General. Q11. What did the representatives of the third estate demand in the assembly of the Estates General? They demanded that voting be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. Q12. What happened when Louis XVI rejected the proposal of the third estate? When Louis XVI rejected their proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly on protest. Q13. What was the main objective of the National Assembly? Its main objective was to limit the powers of the monarch. Q14. Who were entitled to vote under the Constitution of 1791? Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer s wage were entitled to vote. Q15. Why were images and symbols used in the eighteenth century France? The majority of men and women in the eighteenth century France could not read or write. So images and symbols were frequently used instead of printed words to communicate important ideas. Q16. What idea did the Law Tablet convey? It conveyed the idea that the law is the same for all, and all are equal before it. Q17. Who were the members of the Jacobin Club? Shopkeepers, artisans such as shoe-makers, pastry cooks, watchmakers, printers as well as servants and dailywage workers were the members of the Jacobin club. Q18. Who was the leader of the Jacobin Club? Maximilian Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobin Club. Q19. What happened in France on 21 September 1792? On 21 September 1792, the newly elected assembly, called the convention, and abolished the monarchy and then declared France a republic. Q20. What consequences did Louis XVI and his queen face after France became a republic in 1792? Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. On 21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after it. Q21. Mention the period that is referred to as the Reign of Terror in France. The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror in France. Q22. What is a guillotine? The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was invented by Dr. Guillotin. Q23. What did Robespierre s government do to bring equality in France? Mention any two points. (i) The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden, all citizens were required to eat the pain d égalite (equality bread), a loaf made of whole wheat. (ii) All French men and women were now Citoyen and Citoyenne (citizen) respectively. Q24. What was one of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime? The French Revolution 25

One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. Q25. When was slavery finally abolished in French colonies? Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848. Q26. What did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaim? The Declaration of the Right of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech or expression to be a natural right. Q27. When was censorship abolished in France? What was its immediate effect? Censorship was abolished in 1789. Soon afterwards, the newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside. Q28. How did people initially view Napoleon Bonaparte? Why did their opinion change soon afterwards? Initially, many people viewed Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for them. But soon their opinion changed because his armies emerged into an invading force. Q29. What was the impact of the French Revolution on the colonised people in different countries of the world? They reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation-state. III. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q1. How can you hold Louis XVI responsible for preparing the background of the French Revolution? (i) Louis XVI ascended the throne of France in 1774. He was just twenty years old at that time and was quite unaware of the problems of the common mass. (ii) Upon his accession, the royal treasury was empty. Instead of curtailing his own extravaganza, he increased taxes. This brought severe dissatisfaction among the French people. Being pleasure-loving, he misused money on wasteful festivities. (iii) His wife Marie Antoinette constantly interferred in the administration but the king never objected her. He lacked far-sightedness. This drawback of his personality made him a quite unpopular king. (iv) He never took heed to the common man s demands. As a result, the French Revolution occurred and he and his wife were guillotined. Q2. Describe all the three estates into which French society was divided in the 18th century. (i) The French society was divided into three estates in the 18th century: the first estate was comprised of the clergy, the second estate was comprised of the nobility and the third estate was comprised of the common mass, i.e. big businessmen, merchants, lawyers, peasants, artisans, landless labour, etc. The members of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by birth. They were exempted from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. Then came the third estate which was very far from any such privileges. The members of this estate had to pay taxes to the state. They also had no political rights and social status. Q3. Give a brief description of the third estate. 26 Social Science IX

(i) The third estate was on the last rung of the French society. This estate was constituted of big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants, artisans, landless labour and servants. (ii) However, peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population and only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. (iii) The members of this estate had no political rights and social status. They were always under the burden of taxes. Here, it is worth mentioning that within this state one could see gross disparities. Some were very rich while others were very poor. (iv) The rich, i.e. big businessmen, merchants, professionals, etc. had access to education but the poor were always worried about their existence. They were victims of food scarcity. Q4. What role did the philosophers play in the French Revolution? HOTS Or Describe the role of the French philosophers in the French Revolution. (i) The philosophers played an important role in the French Revolution. They inspired the common mass of France with their revolutionary ideas and prepared them to fight against injustices. (ii) They did not believe in the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. In his Two Treatises of Government John Locke refuted this doctrine strongly. (iii) Rousseau carried the idea forward proposing a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. (iv) In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. (v) The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in saloons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who were illiterate. Thus, the philosophers contributed a lot in bringing of the French Revolution. Q5. What drastic changes were brought about by the National Assembly in 1789? HOTS The following changes were brought about by the National Assembly: (i) The powers of Louis XVI were reduced. He was now king only in name. (ii) On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. (iii) The members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges. (iv) Taxes were abolished and lands owned by the church were confiscated. Q6. What were the main features of the Constitution of 1791? The main features of the constitution of 1791 are given below: (i) France became a constitutional monarchy. The powers of the king were reduced to a great extent. (ii) These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now separated and assigned to different institutions the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy. (iii) The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected, i.e. citizens voted for a group The French Revolution 27

of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly. (iv) Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer s wage were given the right to vote. It means they were active citizens. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. (v) To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the assembly a man had to belong to the highest bracket of tax payers. (vi) The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law could now be availed by each human being by birth. Q7. Why were images and symbols used in the eighteenth century France? What do the following symbols stand for? (i) The broken chain (ii) The eye within a triangle radiating light (iii) The Law Tablet (iv) The bundle of rods or fasces Literacy was very low in the 18th century France. Majority of men and women could not read or write. So images and symbols were frequently used instead of printed words to communicate the content of the Declaration of Rights. The following symbols conveyed different ideas: (i) The broken chain: Chains were used to fetter slaves. A broken chain stands for the act of becoming free. (ii) The eye within a triangle radiating light: The all-seeing eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance. (iii) The Law Tablet: The law is the same for all and all are equal before it. (iv) The bundle of rods or fasces: One rod can be easily broken, but not an entire bundle. This implies that strength lies in unity. Q8. Give a brief description of the reign of terror led by Maximillian Robespierre. Or Which period is known as the Reign of Terror in the history of France? Give reasons. HOTS After the execution of Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette in 1793 started the reign of terror which continued till 1794. Its leader was Maximillian Robespierre. He followed a policy of severe control and punishment. All those whom he saw as being enemies of the republic ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his method were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If the court found them guilty, they were guillotined. Thus, in Robespierre s policies there was no scope of moderation. Even his supporters got tired of them in due course. Finally, he was convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine. Q9. What were the salient features of Robespierre s government? Robespierre tried his best to bring equality among French people by all means. The salient features of his government are given below: (i) Robespierre s government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. (ii) Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government. (iii) The use of more expensive white 28 Social Science IX

flour was forbidden. All citizens were required to eat the pain d ègalite (equality bread), a loaf made of whole wheat. (iv) Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and address. (v) Instead of the traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne (citizen). (vi) Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices. Q10. What happened after the fall of Robespierre s government? Or Write a short note on the Directory. After the fall of Robespierre s government, the wealthier middle classes came forward to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to nonpropertied sections of the society. It provided for two elected legislative councils. These then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members. This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins. However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. Thus, the Directory became the victim of political instability which paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Q11. What was the condition of women in France before the revolution? Describe briefly. Women in France did not avail respectable status in society. They were considered much inferior to men before the Revolution. Most of them of the third estate had to work for a living. They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at the market or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of wealthy people. Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only daughters of nobles or wealthier members of the third estate could get education. Working women had to take care of their families. They had to cook, fetch water, queue up for bread and look after the children. Their wages were always lower than those of men. Q12. What did the revolutionary government do to improve the condition of women in France? HOTS The revolutionary government in the early years introduced several laws to improve the condition of women in France: (i) State schools were created and schooling was made compulsory for all girls. (ii) Women could no longer be forced to marry against their wishes. (iii) Marriage was made into a contract, entered into freely and registered under civil law. (iv) Divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both women and men. (v) Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses. Q13. Describe in brief about Napoleon s rise and downfall in the history of France. After Napoleon became the emperor of France in 1804, he set out to conquer neighbouring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. He introduced several laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of The French Revolution 29

weight and measures provided by the decimal system. Thus, he began to be viewed as a liberator in the beginning. But very soon the Napoleonic armies lost their trust in people. They came to be regarded as an invading force and in 1815 he was finally defeated at Waterloo. Q14. What was subsistence crisis? Mention two factors responsible for this crisis. Subsistence crisis is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. The factors responsible for this type of crises: (i) The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So, the gap between the poor and the rich widened. (ii) Things became worse whenever drought or haul reduced the harvest. This led to a subsistence crisis. Q15. Which laws were introduced by revolutionary government to improve the condition of women in France? See Q.No. 12 (Short Answer Type Questions). Q16. What was the importance of the Tennis Court Swearing in the French Revolution? This was an important event in the French Revolution (i) On 20 June, the representatives of the third estate assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. (ii) These representatives declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that limit the powers of the Monarch. (iii) The National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution in 1791 as a result of which France finally became a republic in 1792. Monarchy was abolished for ever. Q17. Discuss the effects of the abolition of censorship in France. (i) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right. (ii) Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside. They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France. (iii) Freedom of press also meant that opposing view of events could be expressed. Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print. Q18. Write three chief characteristic features of the Constitution of 1791. (i) The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly. (ii) Not all citizens had the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. 30 Social Science IX

(iii) The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as natural and inalienable rights, that is they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. Q19. Describe the importance of the declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen in France. or Mention any five values which are associated with Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The five values associated with Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen are: (i) Right to Life: Everyone has the right to live in his/her own way. There would not be any restriction from the state. (ii) Freedom of Speech: Every citizen is entitled to speak whatever he/she thinks right. (iii) Freedom of Opinion: Every citizen is entitled to write or express his/ her own opinion freely. (iv) Equality before Law: Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it. (v) Liberty: It consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others. IV. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS Q1. Why did Louis XVI call together an assembly of the Estates General on 5 May 1789? What was its outcome? HOTS (i) On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes. The Estates General was a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives. (ii) The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were seated in rows facing each other on two sides, while the 600 members of the third estate had to stand at the back. (iii) The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly. iv) Louis XVI wanted voting to be conducted on the old principle each estate having one vote. But the members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the Assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. (v) The king rejected their demand as a result of which they walked out of the Assembly in protest. (vi) The members of the third estate declared themselves a National Assembly and began to draft a Constitution for France which would limit the powers of the monarch. (vii) While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a Constitution, the rest of France seethed with turmoil. They were facing acute food scarcity. Finally, the agitated common mass stormed and destroyed the Bastille, the symbol of the king s despotic and tyrannic rule on 14 July 1789. (viii) The condition of the countryside was also not good. Peasants looted hoarded grains and burnt down documents. A large number of nobles fled from their houses. (ix) Louis XVI finally accorded the recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that The French Revolution 31

his powers would from now on be checked by a Constitution. (x) The feudal system of obligations and taxes was also abolished. Members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges. Q2. France abolished monarchy and became a republic finally. How did it all happen? Describe in brief. (i) Although Louis XVI signed the Constitution of 1791, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the developments in France and made plans to send troops to suppress the events that had been taking place since the summer of 1789. (ii) But before this could happen, the National Assembly declared war against Prussia and Austria in 1792. Thousands of volunteers came from the provinces to join the army. They saw this as a war of the people against the king and aristocrats all over Europe. (iii) The revolutionary war brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. Despite that large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society. (iv) As a result, political clubs emerged. The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, who belonged to the less prosperous sections of society. Their leader was Maximillian Robespierre. (v) In the summer of 1792, the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angry due to by the short supplies and high prices of food. (vi) On August 10, they stormed the palace of the Tuileries, killed the king s guards and held the king himself as a hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. (vii) Elections were held. The newly elected assembly, called the Convention, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic on 21 September 1792. (viii) Louis XVI was executed publicly at Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after it. Q3. How was slavery finally abolished in France? or Describe the triangular slave trade that was carried on in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. (i) In order to overcome the shortage of labour on the plantations, a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas began in the 17th century. (ii) French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains. Branded and shackled, the slaves were packed tightly into ships for the three-month long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. There they were sold to plantation owners. Thus, slave trade was deeply rooted in France. (iii) Throughout the 18th century there was little criticism of slavery in France. The National Assembly held long debates about whether the rights of man should be extended to all French subjects including those in the colonies. But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from businessmen whose incomes depended on the slave trade. It was 32 Social Science IX

finally the Convention which in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions. This, however, did not last for long. After a decade, Napoleon re-introduced slavery in 1804 which was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848. Q4. How did the revolution affect everyday life of the people of France? HOTS (i) The revolutionary ideas of the French Revolution, i.e. equality and liberty changed the clothes people wore, the language they spoke and the books they read. Laws were passed to translate these ideals into everyday practice. (ii) One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in 1789 was the abolition of censorship. In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the king. (iii) Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right. As a result, newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside. They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France. (iv) Freedom of press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed. Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print. (v) Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people. The visual and oral art forms became very popular among the common mass which could not read and write in the 18th century. (vi) The majority of men and women could now easily understand the ideas of equality, liberty and justice. Thus, the everyday life of the French people was deeply affected by the revolution. V. SOURCE-BASED QUESTIONS Q1. Read the following extract (Source F) taken from NCERT Textbook, page 20 and answer the questions that follow: Some of the basic rights set forth in Olympe de Gouges Declaration. Some of the basic rights set forth in Olympe de Gouges Declaration. 1. Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. 2. The goal of all political associations is the preservation of the natural rights of woman and man: These rights are liberty, property, security, and above all resistance to oppression. 3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation, which is nothing but the union of woman and man. 4. The law should be the expression of the general will; all female and male citizens should have a say either personally or by their representatives in its formulation; it should be the same for all. All female and male citizens are equally entitled to all honours and public employment according to their abilities and without any other distinction than that of their talents. 5. No woman is an exception; she is accused, arrested, and detained in cases determined by law. Women, like men, obey this rigorous law. (a) How did Olympe de Gouges, view women? (b) What should be the goal of all political associations according to her? (c) What was her opinion about law? The French Revolution 33

(a) Olympe de Gouges opined that woman was born free and, therefore, she should remain equal to man in rights. There should not be any dispartly between both the sexes. (b) According to Olympe de Gouges, the goal of all political associations should be the preservation of all the natural rights (liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression) of woman and man. (c) She was of the opinion that the law should be the expression of the general will. All female and male citizens should have a say either personally or by their representatives in its formulation, it should be the same for all. VI. PICTURE-BASED QUESTIONS Q1. Try to recognise the picture given below taken from NCERT Textbook, page 19 and answer the following questions: (i) Who has been shown in the given picture? (ii) How did she contribute to the nation and woman s rights? (i) The above picture is of Olympe de Gouges, one of the most important of the politically active women in revolutionary France. (ii) She protested against the Constitution and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen as women were excluded from basic rights that each human being was entitled to. In 1791, she wrote a Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen, which she addressed to the Queen and to the members of the National Assembly, demanding that they act upon it. VII. VALUE-BASED QUESTIONS Q1. In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. Give any three values which can be reflected from this proposal. The three values which can be reflected from this proposal are (i) Power sharing: This arrangement would refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. (ii) Equality: The enforcement of equality would bring all the people of France on the same platform. There would be no special privileges for the clergy or the nobility. Everyone would enjoy equal status. (iii) Expansion of peace and prosperity: A good administration is always a harbinger of peace and prosperity. In France if the government valued Montesquien s proposal, there would be peace everywhere. People would prosper day by day. Q2. Analyse the given table. Which values you think were disturbing the balance of a country like France. Active Citizens Passive Citizens Entitled to vote. About 4 million of a population of 28 million. No voting rights. About 3 million men, women, children and youth below 25. 34 Social Science IX

A large section of the people in France was not entitled to vote in elections. Such an arrangement would definitely make the country weak and imbalanced. When people are marginalised, there occur hopelessness and dissatisfaction on a large scale. This is a highly negative point for a country. Q3. The following is an extract for Robespierre s speech at the conversation on 7th February 1794. To establish and consolidate democracy, to achieve the peaceful rule of constitutional laws, we must first finish the war of liberty against tyranny.. We must annihilate the enemies of the republic at home and abroad, or else we shall perish. In time of Revolution, a democratic government may rely on terror. Terror is nothing but justice, swift, severe and inflexible;. and is used to meet the most urgent needs of the fatherland. To curb the enemies of liberty through terror is the right of the founder of the Republic. Now give any three values which can be reflected from the speech. The three values reflected from the speech are: (i) Nationalism (ii) Patriotism (iii) National integration Robespierre believed in the policy of severe control and punishment to establish the above values firmly in the society. TEST YOUR SKILLS 1. How was the system of estates in French society organised? Give a brief description. 2. Describe the emergence of the middle class in the 18th century French society. 3. Who was Mirabeau? How did he oppose the feudal system in France? 4. Describe some of the features of the Constitution of 1791. 5. What role did the women play in bringing about important changes in French society? The French Revolution 35