The Basics of Confucianism Confucianism is one of the two most important and indigenous philosophies from China - the other one being Taoism. It developed nearly 2500 years ago as a social and political philosophy with religious overtones, and came to influence Chinese life and practice arguably more than any other body of thought. Even in the 20th century, the efforts of Chairman Mao were insufficient to undermine its influence on everyday Chinese life. Chinese religious philosophy as a whole has 4 main influences: - ancient folk religion, including ancestor worship - Confucianism - Taoism - Buddhism The first three are indigenous to China, whereas Buddhism comes to China from India, but mingles with the other three. All four strands are blended in Chinese religious/philosophical thought and practice. Confucianism is named after its founder, who lived in the 6th century BCE. The central ideas he articulated, which were developed by later thinkers, enjoyed imperial patronage during the Han Dynasty (from approximately 200 BCE - 220CE) during which the worldview flourished. Later, Taoism and Buddhism achieved prominence for several centuries until a renewed "neo-confucianism" resurged in the 10th century CE after the fall of the Tang Dynasty. The newer form of the philosophy internalized some of the critiques and ideas of both Taoism and Buddhism. Certain fundamental concepts in Chinese religion are shared by both Confucianism and Taoism. These include: - the Tao, or the Way - the polarity of Yin and Yang - the quest for harmony The two religions differ, however, in how they approach each of these concepts in terms of living them out in communal or individual life. In their differences, these two religions form a sort of "yin and yang" of Chinese religion. Who is Confucius? Confucius is perhaps the most influential of Chinese philosophers. His ideas about creating social and political harmony through good governance, proper human relations and individual moral development shape Chinese thought and history for many centuries.
Very little is known about his life, and most scholars attribute some of what is passed down as "known" to legend. He was born in the mid-6th century BCE in the state of Lu during the waning years of the Zhou dynasty. His name was Kong Qui, and was called Master Kong by his students. The name "Confucius" is a Latinized version of his name given to him by Western scholars. He held low-level government positions and sought for a high-ranking ruler to hire him as an advisor so that his ideas for achieving social and political harmony could be implemented. This never happened. So, he spent the rest of his life studying the classics of Chinese history and teaching his ideas to students. Some of these teachings are found in an important text called The Analects, although others besides him contributed to this book as well. He is also credited by the tradition with authorship of the Five Classics of Confucianism, but most scholars do not find enough evidence to justify this claim. He died in 479 BCE without having had any major influence on China during his lifetime; however, his teachings developed in the centuries after his death and came to prominence during the Han Dynasty, when they enjoyed imperial patronage. After another long period of dormancy, neo-confucianism emerged in the 10th century and came to shape Chinese understandings of social and political life well into the 20th century. No other philosopher rivals him in terms of long-term influence in Chinese religion and history. The Tao, or The Way The Tao is central to all Chinese philosophy and religion. It is often translated as the "way" or "path" - or the way of all things. The symbol that most accompanies it is the yin/yang symbol because the polarities of yin and yang form its essence and dynamism. Click below to the Yin and Yang page for more explanation of this. The Tao is the Supreme Ultimate in Chinese religion. It is not a being or a god - it is higher, deeper, and infinite compared to any deities or such beings. It can be described variously as the force or power of all things, the cosmic force in all reality, the life source - and so on. All things derive from it and return to it. Everything has its existence within it. It is subtle, but ever-present; it is transcendent, but completely immanent in all things. Thus, it is paradoxical in nature. The first line of the most important text in Taoism expresses the difficulty in describing or defining the supreme ultimate. "The Tao that is said to be the Tao is not the Tao; the Name that is said to be the Name is not the Name." In other words, we cannot describe it in language. It cannot be reduced to words or concepts - it is infinite, mysterious, and exceeds all words no matter how poetic. So, when we describe or define it, we are merely approximating it - not encapsulating it in its essence or totality. Thus, we cannot become rigid or dogmatic about it, its qualities, nature or workings. We cannot know it intellectually or analytically; however, we can discern or intuit its presence and workings by developing certain virtues within us and following certain practices in our lives.
Confucianism and Taoism offer complimentary, and often opposing, methods for living in harmony with the Tao; however, both agree that there is no harmony outside it. There is no existence at all outside it. Yin and Yang The concepts of yin and yang are central to Chinese religion and philosophy as a whole, including both Taoism and Confucianism. Moreover, the symbol itself is familiar worldwide to many people regardless of their knowledge of the Chinese traditions. These two principles represent the primal interplay of opposites in life and in the world - known here as the Tao. They form the dynamism of the Tao, or the way of all things. Life is lived inside the interplay of opposites: up and down, hot and cold, male and female, dry and wet, outside and inside, high and low, joy and sadness, peace and war, exertion and rest, life and death, and so on. Yin and Yang symbolize this interplay that is at the center of life's dynamism or energy. They are, thus, the energy of the Tao. About the only oppositional pair that would not be included in this symbol would be Good and Evil, at least not in the ultimate, "capital letter" sense of the words. The Tao and its primal interplay of opposites is all fundamentally Good, according to Chinese philosophy and religion. Things may appear good or bad (lower case letters) in the immediate or short-term sense, in that things are experienced as either good or bad for our lives. However, in the grand scheme of things, even "bad" things are Good; they are not Evil. For example, a volcano may erupt killing many people and animals, and burning large amounts of forest. This is certainly "bad" for those who are killed; however, in the larger scheme of things, the volcano's eruption creates new structures and life forms through the expulsion of the earth's energies. The same is true for wildfires, earthquakes and other natural disasters which are deadly, to be sure, but which also are healthy for the earth in the larger view. Yin and Yang symbolize this primal dynamism and malleability of the Tao, or the way of all things. This is the way of the universe - there are good times and bad, a time to live and a time to die, a time to be happy and a time to be sad, and so on. These are inclusive of and complementary to each other. Harmony in life comes when we accept the working and rhythms of these polarities. Other sacred texts and teachings express this theme as well - it is not unique to Chinese religion. The Yin and Yang symbol, however, is distinctly Chinese. Jen & Li - Confucian Virtues Jen and li are central concepts in Confucian ethics and form the first two of what are commonly called the "Five Constant Virtues" of Confucianism. Confucian philosophy emphasizes the role of moral development in determining who is fit to govern and lead society. As such, it focuses not only on adherence to rules and principles, but also the proper cultivation of moral character in all who would be governors.
Jen Jen (pronounced "ren") is translated into English as "humanity" or "humaneness." It is the highest Confucian principle. People cultivated by it are humane individuals who exhibit benevolence and care toward others. They are motivated by a deep empathy for others - what might be called "human-heartedness." According to Confucius, all people have the capacity to be people of jen or humaneness mainly because all people are intrinsically good. This is a fundamental assumption of the Confucian worldview - that all people are inherently good and, thus, capable of operating in a way that is empathetic, humane and full of care for others. When people are not educated or developed properly, this intrinsic quality breaks down - people become hateful, rash, uncaring, undisciplined - and chaos comes into life at every level. Through cultivation of jen - of the capacity for empathy, humaneness, deep humanity - a truly "superior" human being emerges. Confucianism gives the term junzi to such superior human beings - a truly perfected person. Junzi are not perfect in the sense that they never make mistakes, but in the sense that their moral character is true, their intentions are pure, and their actions are disciplined and aligned with that moral character. Li Li is a companion virtue to jen in many respects - the other side of the same coin, so to speak. It is translated as "ritual" "propriety" or "etiquette." It is this dimension of Confucian philosophy and ethics that makes it "religious" more than anything else - the element of ritual. Confucius was a conservative - he believed in tradition and in conserving and respecting tradition. Therefore, respect for rituals, traditional practices and conventional mores became important in his thought for restoring and maintaining order in society. And these rituals extend throughout all of life - the imperial palace, the marketplace, and the home. Li is the mechanism by which all of life is ritualized and declared "sacred" in a sense. Through it, life is properly ordered and harmony is established. Although the concept of li existed in ancient ritualized ancestor worship in a limited and narrowly religious form, Confucius broadened it to apply to all activities in life so that all of life takes on the air of religiousness or seriousness. Bowing in greeting to someone, wearing certain colors of clothing on certain days, behaving in certain ways around those older than you, observing proper manners at a meal or meeting, and so much more - all these are examples of li in everyday life. Jen & Li Combined "To master and control the self and return to li, that is jen." (Analects 12.1) Together, these two virtues create a highly cultivated and disciplined person who behaves properly in every situation and who is motivated by deep care and empathy for people. This person is the junzi, or superior person, mentioned above. They control their actions, impulses and desires in accordance with the demands of li and jen. As such, they exhibit a strong sense of personal power - called te in Confucianism - that compels people to follow their example.
This exceptional quality, combined with other knowledge and skill, makes them the ideal people to create and govern a harmonious society. For this reason, the entire corpus of Confucian teaching, texts and traditions in focused on the cultivation of moral character in people who have the intellectual capacity to learn the things necessary for government. Intellectual capacity alone for leaders and governors is not sufficient; moral character must accompany it, otherwise these governors and leaders will drive society into lawlessness and chaos. Xiao, or Filial Piety Xiao, or filial piety, is an important component of Confucius' overall vision of societal harmony. Because his main concern was achieving harmony in life at the social and political levels, he focused on proper social relations, as well as the moral cultivation of leaders and governors to achieve this vision. Governors were to be highly cultivated people of jen and li (click below to the Jen & Li page to learn more). Xiao refers to the important dimension of social relations, and the proper ordering of all relationships in the social hierarchy. Confucius called for the reinstitution of what he called the Five Relations that are central to all society. These relations are: - ruler and the people - husband and wife - father and son - elder brother and younger brother - older friend and younger friend Each of these relations includes a hierarchy in which one submits to the other: people to the ruler, wife to the husband, son to the father and so on. However, also assumed in these relations is the proper moral character of the person to whom the other is submitting - the ruler, husband, father - such that everything they do or ask in relation to the one submitting to them is in the latter's best interest, or in the interest of society as a whole. In other words, rulers demand from the people only what is good for the people and for society as a whole. Parents demand from the children what is good for the children as well as for the family as a whole, which itself is good for society. So, in a properly designed society according to Confucianism, people find themselves in these fundamental social relations and play their roles accordingly - submitting if they are a wife, younger brother or whatever, and leading if they are a father, ruler or husband. Moreover, people at the top of the hierarchy care for those "beneath" them as a good parent cares for a child. Filial piety is the expression of this parental care for those lower in the hierarchy, as well as for the respect those on the lower side pay for those "above" them in the hierarchy. Filial piety was an ancient concept tied to the worship of deceased ancestors that Confucius revived and broadened to apply to fundamental relations in society. In essence, he brought a sense of religious reverence or piety to the relationships of everyday life.