Higher Education in Biology in Finland by Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen, University of Oulu 1. Introduction The purpose of this report is to present the biology curricula of Finnish universities to colleagues in the European Community, with the object of developing future cooperation. Mutual Academic recognition through ETCS (European Credit Transfer System) needs evaluation and comparison of education in different fields. The content of biology is perhaps the same in all European countries, but academic organisation, and degrees have evolved in a Darwinian way during the long history of academic freedom. If isolation continues long enough, separation leads to speciation. In the last few years, the Finnish universities have gone through an extensive evaluation process, both external and internal. These national and local evaluation reports have been an important source for this compilation. However this text represents a personal view. Because the reports are for international use and written in English, they are also useful material for more detailed analysis of the Finnish university system. Most faculties of science also have introductory material for foreign students. Biology is defined here in a traditional way. The applied biology taught in the Faculties of Forestry and Agriculture (Helsinki, Joensuu) is not reviewed, nor is biochemistry. Much of the new biotechnology is conducted in departments of biochemistry and in medical faculties, or in specific centres. It has increasing importance in advanced studies of biology. Increasingly, biological dissertations are being produced in such institutions, but defended against biology professors from ordinary universities.
348 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen 2. System of organisation 2.1. General structure of higher education Administration. Universities in Finland are administered by the Ministry of Education. Administration has been heavily centralised in some ways, but not at all in others. The state budgets are prepared by the Government and fixed in Parliament. In the last few years, the universities have gained more freedom in allocating reduced resources, although for example new professional chairs are still dictated by the Ministry. In all Finnish universities, a form of democratic decision making is the rule (one third professors, one third other teaching and non-teaching staff members, one third students).. In many universities power and responsibility have been delegated to academic leaders such as the Rector, Dean and Head of Department. They have a considerable free hand in supporting research projects in special fields, graduate programmes, etc. It has to be stated however that this development of economically sound inputoutput management will not necessarily lead to an emphasis on basic teaching programmes. In spite of centralized control and management of the economy, university departments are extremely independent in matters of educational content. Self-regulation has led to a situation where some of the new and small universities have study programmes only loosely following the traditional division of biology into major topics. Helsinki University, as the oldest and largest is able to continue most if not all the traditions, but it is also able to follow new trends better than the smaller universities. University studies are open to students after finishing high school following twelve years in the school. About half of them have a place in university. The number of students arriving at universities to study biology as a major topic is at present about 300 annually. Social system. The universities are funded by the state. There are no private universities in Finland. For Finnish and foreign students, studies in universities are free of fees. During economic depression, there is discussion about the possibility of collecting money from the students, but it is against the Scandinavian tradition and seems to be an impossible idea. The costs of accommodation, living, books etc. are supported by study grants (maximum amount now 1570 FIM monthly), and study loans, taken from private financial institutions, but supported by the state. A significant proportion of students have access to study apartments, which are
Higher Education in Biology in Finland 349 mostly concentrated in campus areas. Students are included in the normal social security systems, and specific care is taken of their health. The Ministry of Education produces annual guide books for students planning university studies. These guides are very comprehensive and handle all possible aspects of interest to new applicants. In Finnish high schools, a specific teacher tutors the students and helps them to make a choice. For foreign students, each university has an office to help in organising studies and in social questions. Much attention has been paid to helping foreigners participate in studies in Finnish universities. 2.2. Biology Biology is taught in seven different universities in the faculties of natural sciences: the Universities of Helsinki, Turku, Oulu, Jyvaskyla, Kuopio, Joensuu, and Abo Akademi. Classic major topics in biology are zoology, divided into two lines, physiological and morphological-ecological, which also include faunistics and systematics. Similar divisions are found in botany (physiological and systematic-ecological ). Genetics represents the fifth possible major subject. This program is followed in Helsinki, Turku and Oulu. New universities have somehow to develop different programmes, but they have also inherited many traditions. In the following, the departments in all universities are described in brief, including their biological field stations. With these stations, the regional coverage of biological education (and research) is comprehensive. It is a pity that the European Union Network of Biological Stations (EUNBS) does not extend to the coast of the Barents Sea, but we hope that relations with Norway will remain as good as they used to be. University of Helsinki, Faculty of Science Biology education in Helsinki is now being fundamentally reorganised so that even the final names of the two new departments have not yet been decided: Biology 1 is going to include the earlier divisions of Ecology into a Zoological Department, a Laboratory of Systematics, a Botanical Ecology Department, Laboratory of Hydrobiology, and Environmental biology, as well as the Divisions for Swedish-speaking students into both Botany and Zoology. Biology 2 will contain the Department of Biochemistry, Animal Physiology, Plant Physiology, Department of Genetics, and Department of General Microbiology. Biology 2 is moving into completely new laboratories in a new campus.
350 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen As the oldest university in Finland (founded in Turku 1640), Helsinki also administers the National Central Museum of Natural History and the Botanical Garden. The botanical and zoological collections are of enormous value for research and education. Helsinki university also runs several biological field stations. They are the Tvarminne Zoological Station (Marine research), Lammi Biological Station, and Kilpisjarvi Biological Station. The Varrio Subarctic Research Station is administered by the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry. The biological libraries of Helsinki University are the best in the country. University of Oulu, Faculty of Science In Oulu, the traditional division of departments into botany, zoology and genetics will remain in 1995, when all subjects will be combined into a single Department of Biology. However, the classic five major topics will remain. There is a Botanical Garden in Oulu, as well as Botanical and Zoological Museums. The Biological library is good. The University of Oulu owns two biological stations, Oulanka Biological Station (Taiga ecosystem) and Perameri Research Station (marine). University of Turku, Faculty of Science In Turku, biology has already been organised into one department, and zoology (physiological and ecological), botany (physiological and ecological) and genetics are taught and studied. Kevo Subarctic Research Station (Tundra ecosystem) and Archipelago Research Institute in the Turku archipelago are the most successful field stations in the country. The biological Museums of Turku are very good. Abo Akademi Abo Akademi is the only exclusively Swedish university in Finland. It is in Turku, which is the Finnish name for the same town. Biology is under the Department of Biology, divided into 1) Cell Biology and 2)Ecotoxicology and Environmental Protection. Huso Biological Station (Marine) belongs to the facility. University of Kuopio, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences. Biology is taught in two departments in Kuopio: Applied Zoology (two professors) and Ecological and Environmental Hygiene (one professor). The emphasis of this rather new unit is on applied sciences, fisheries, fur production, and environmental monitoring. Instead of traditional biological stations, Kuopio has a fur farm: Fur Animal Research station at Juankoski.
Higher Education in Biology in Finland 351 University of Jyvaskyla, Faculty of Sciences The department of biology covers several areas of biology: 1) ecology and environmental management, 2) hydrobiology and limnology, 3) cell biology, molecular biology and biochemistry. Jyvaskyla is a small, new University, where the biology program was started in the sixties. The Konnevesi Research Station belongs to the University of Jyvaskyla. University of Joensuu, Faculty of Sciences This is also a small university, funded for regional reasons. It also has a Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, and there is much cooperation in curricula. Applied biology is one area of study in Joensuu. Mekrijarvi Research Station is the Easternmost in Finland. It is a multidisciplinary station, with strong emphasis on the Karelian Greek Orthodox culture. The following table gives a rough impression of the size of the Finnish units involved in biology higher education. These figures only give the magnitude. As a rough indication of the size of the universities, I give in this list the number of professors and associate professors, the number of other staff members. The number of new students accepted is slightly higher than in normal times, for employment reasons. University Professors Other staff New Students 1994 Helsinki 19 130 85* Oulu 11 75 56 Turku 11 67 38 Joensuu 5 24 34 Jyväskylä 6 38 48 Kuopio 6 30 40 Åbo 3 15 41 * This figure contains 70 Finnish and 15 Swedish-speaking students. In all universities, a small number of foreign students can be accepted in addition to these numbers.
352 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen 3. Studies in biology 3.1. University teaching 3.1.1. Basic studies 3.1.1.1. Content Credit unit system. The quantitative measurement of studies in Finland is based on a unit called study week. This is counted as 40 academic hours of work. [Academic lectures in Scandinavia begin 15 minutes late, so an hour is only 45 minutes]. For example, this means 32 hours of laboratory courses, or 26 hours of lectures, in addition to the necessary home work and the obligatory final examination following each period. In library work, 150-250 pages of a textbook are considered to take a week. The textbooks used in Finland are invariably in foreign languages (mostly English). An academic year is counted to contain 40 study weeks. Traditionally, during the summer months (June-August) there is no teaching in the university, but in biology this tradition of course can not be followed. Many field courses are run in the summertime. When Finnish universities translate studies taken abroad into their own curricula, the European Credit Unit has been divided by 1.5 (cu=0.67 weeks). The correspondence of 40 weeks vs. 60 credit ECTS has been tested recently in a programme organised by the Erasmus Bureau. Chemistry was the field most closely resembling biology in that experiment. All Finnish universities have made plans for the extension of ECTS. General studies. University studies begin with some orientation to the new environment and new study habits, as well as an introduction to student organisations and clubs. Language examinations and courses are also held. This material is in most universities organised under the heading of general study. The quantity of general studies included in the degree is 5-10 study weeks. General biology. For the students of the first and second year, some introductory courses are available. In most universities, the following topics may be found in this part of the course, giving a strong basis for further advance: Animal morphology and systematics (about 2 study weeks ) Animal physiology, histology and development (2-3) Plant systematics and anatomy (3)
Higher Education in Biology in Finland 353 Plant physiology and developmental biology (1-2) Principles of ecology (2) Cell biology (2-3) Principles of Genetics (2-5) Principles of Microbiology (1-2) Biogeography (1-2) Plant identification(2) Vertebrate and invertebrate identification (2-3) Field courses of terrestrial and aquatic ecology (7) Some preliminary courses are listed as obligatory, but this is in most cases just to guide the students to more time-efficient working. The time schedule is prepared officially. It is obligatory for biology students to study chemistry (5-20 weeks), statistics (2 or more weeks), and biochemistry (5 weeks). The amount depends on the line of specialisation chosen. Lines of specialization Description He Ou Tu Jy Jo Ku Å Biology teacher education x x x x x Systematic-ecological botany x x x Hydrobiology x x Morphological and ecological zoology x Physiological botany Physiological zoology x x x Genetics x x x General microbiology x Environmental biology x x x x x Applied zoology x x x Cell biology x x x The specifications in the above list are not exclusive, i.e. a student in Oulu can also study cell biology, but it occurs under the general heading of botany, zoology or genetics, and environmental studies can also be taken in all universities. The names are given by the departments themselves to indicate the profile they wish to promote. After general studies, the students participate in more specific courses and lectures. A wide variety of alternatives are offered, less of course in smaller universities. Field or laboratory work for the M.Sc. thesis is normally started in a research group, sometimes funded by the grants of this group. This takes place in the third or fourth year of study. Many students also prepare their M.Sc. thesis in research laboratories or research groups outside the Facul-
354 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen ty of Sciences. In Helsinki, there are several research institutions for this (Alko Research Laboratories, Institute of National Health, Institute of Virology, Institute of Biotechnology etc.). In Oulu, many students work in research groups of the Medical Faculty or the Biocenter Oulu. Turku has a project Biocity Turku, offering similar possibilities. 3.1.1.2. Organisation Entry examination and numerus clausus. In biology, five universities cooperate in recruiting students. All students participate in a joint entrance examination held simultaneously in Helsinki, Turku, Oulu, Jyvaskyla and Joensuu. Using a computer based optimisation process, students are then admitted according to their grades in the high school diploma, points achieved in entrance examination, and their own preference. Many students wish to study biology in any university, but less than 20% of the applicants are accepted. It is normal for students to try to gain admission on several ocassions. Therefore, many students begin their biology studies later than at the optimal age of 19-20 years. The more or less obligatory 8-11 months military service for the Finnish male students also makes them older. The right to study, achieved in the entry examination, is valid for the whole curriculum (until Ph.D level), and no additional limiting examinations are imposed. Of course there is strong competition for the few Ph.D programmes or grants. Foreign students (ERASMUS excluded). Until now, very few foreign students have been accepted to study biology for the whole curriculum in Finnish universities. The number of applicants has been so low, that cases are treated individually. Applicants from European countries are still less frequent, most students coming from developing countries. An entry examination is conducted in English, if necessary. No grants are available to foreign students. Structure and length. The degree programmes in Finland are quantitatively similar in all universities. The quantitative details are regulated by legislation and controlled by the Ministry of Education. The lower basic degree in biology will be the Bachelor s degree (Luonnontieteiden kandidaatti, Candidate of Sciences, minimum 120 study weeks). This degree was abolished at the beginning of the seventies, and is only now being rehabilitated. The degree is planned to take three years, but there are few professions where it is considered to give the necessary competencies. Biology teachers have to take the 5 years M.Sc. degree (including pedagogy) to get employment in secondary schools or high schools. There is a thesis of 10 study weeks in this degree.
Higher Education in Biology in Finland 355 A master s degree is the higher basic university degree (Candidate of Philosophy, Filosofian kandidaatti, 160 study weeks). It includes studies in a major subject (minimum 75 weeks), minor subjects (at least two, 45 weeks) and general studies. A central part of the studies is the Master s thesis. Twenty weeks are required for this, but it frequently lasts much longer. During the last twenty years, the grades approbatur, cum laude approbatur and laudatur have been forgotten, but they will now be used again. Approbatur is a package containing 15 weeks principal studies in one subject. Cum laude approbatur contains 35 weeks, and laudatur is 75 weeks, including a thesis of 20 weeks. A master s degree has to contain one laudatur, and at least three approbaturs, or two cum laudes [just as in the golden sixties!]. An continuing problem in the Finnish education system is that although an M.Sc. is calculated to take 5 years (and theoretically, could be passed in four), many students spend 7-8 years getting the degree. This is a headache for the administration and the Ministry of Education, although less for the students themselves. Modalities of control From lectures credited with one study week, to a practical course lasting 5 weeks, almost all the study units are terminated by a formal examination, held by the teacher. The last part of each grade from approbatur to laudatur consists of a final examination, with textbooks allowed, and worth 2 to 10 study weeks. This examination is presented to the Professor of the subject and is of an official nature. There is no concluding examination for the whole degree, only for major topics. The master s thesis has to contain empirical laboratory or field work. It is normally written in Finnish (or Swedish), but students conducting their laboratory or field work abroad can also use other languages. It is read by two teachers (usually from the same university), and formally accepted by the Faculty. 3.1.1.3. Impact of European Community Programmes. Biology departments of Finish universities were actively participating in the Erasmus program even before Finland had decided to become a member of the European Union. All biology departments belong to one or several ICPs, some of which are active, others less so. So far, ERASMUS exchange has been out of balance. Finland has been sending out more students than it has accepted. The main problem for foreigners is, of course, the language. In most biology departments, a specific biology programme has recently been tailored for short-term exchange students (ERASMUS and others). In Helsinki, the program has a title Boreal Biota and Ecology, and it is given in English and contains about 50 study weeks, (ecology, zoology and bota-
356 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen ny). In Oulu, the corresponding program is titled Northern Nature and Environment Studies. Other universities have built up similar packages, where the special and exotic features of Finland, e.g. the north and wilderness are emphasised. These programmes also try to put the dense network of biological field stations to good use. It should be mentioned that most, if not all, university teachers are able to teach in English, so that foreign students can be accepted and are welcome in any course. 3.1.2. Post-Graduate studies 3.1.2.1. Content. The Finnish educational system included (and still includes as an option) a postgraduate degree Licentiate of Philosophy (Filosofian lisensiaatti) which contains 40 study weeks advanced studies in the major topic, and also a thesis of 60 weeks, which can be written in Finnish or Swedish. It also contains an examination. For postgraduate studies, a student must participate in advanced courses, seminars, conferences, etc., to collect altogether 40-50 study weeks. The study plan has to be accepted by the faculty, and it should contain as large an international component as possible. 3.1.2.2. Organisation Graduate school programmes are now a new level of organisation (and attract a new type of financing) for these studies. The licentiate thesis is considered less and less important. Until the era of European Union, the advanced courses were frequently organised in cooperation with other universities from Finland or Scandinavian countries e.g., Nordisk Kollegium for Ekologi supported important summer schools. In the near future, the European dimension will certainly become more and more important. Graduate research work is sometimes a continuation of the M.Sc. thesis topic, and in most cases is conducted in a research group. However, membership of a research group is not obligatory, it is more a question of getting finance. Solitary students have no chance. Research work directed to Licentiate of Philosophy degrees will invariably be a part of the Ph.D thesis, anyway. 3.1.2.3. Impact of European Community programmes It is expected that the Science and Education programmes of the European Community will significantly influence the curriculum of postgraduate studies. Studying abroad is not yet obligatory, but strongly recommended.
Higher Education in Biology in Finland 357 3.1.3. Ph.D studies Because all studies after M.Sc. are considered to lead through the licentiate degree to the Ph.D, I describe here only the Ph.D thesis. The necessary advanced courses etc. were mentioned above at 3.1.2. and should comprise at least 40 study weeks. Biological Ph.D theses in Finland consists of four to six published papers, which may be coauthored. Publishing in international, refereed journals is strongly preferred. In addition, the thesis contains a summary of the topic, which is refereed (together with the original publications) by two specialists, preferably from other universities in Finland or increasingly frequently abroad. The summary is not effectively published, but after getting printing permission from the Faculty, it is printed in local series or privately. The thesis is then defended in public, the opponent being from another university. There are no other forms of examination. The thesis is evaluated by the Professor, the two referees and the opponent (sometimes two), and the grade and degree are given by the faculty. The grades are laudatur, eximia cum laude approbatur, magna cum laude approbatur, cum laude approbatur, lubenter approbatur, non sine laude approbatur, and approbatur. The ideal age to defend a Ph.D thesis is under 30, but it still frequently happens much later. The main reason is that the grants are not sufficient to allow the young people to work only on the thesis, many have to do something else, such as teach in the university. Lack of guidance is another important reason for delay. 3.1.2.3. Impact of European Community programs Until now, the ERASMUS program has been used mostly for undergraduate studies, but the importance of European exchange programs will increase in the nearest future also for Ph.D. research (and teaching, hopefully). 3.2. Professional education After getting a degree, a Finnish student is considered as mature to do his job. Because very many are concerned with research and/or education, the continuous development is clear. No formal ways exist. 3.2.1 Job recruitment In biology, no specific system for finding jobs exist. The officials of Employment in general also take care of biologists. At least, the universities of Oulu and Helsinki have now special Job Recruitement Units.
358 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen 3.2.2.Continuing education See 3.2. 3.2.3. Preparation of teachers Biology teachers for secondary school and high school are educated in six universities (not in Kuopio). Students are selected after being accepted onto the biology curriculum in general, as a result of their success in study and a specific psychological test. There is less biology (minimum 75 study weeks) and more didactic and educational training in the teachers curriculum. A biology teacher has to have other subjects (geography, chemistry, psychology), which are included in the degree. The M.Sc. thesis in major subjects should be more limited (10 weeks). A student teacher can undertake a longer thesis (20 weeks), which opens the possibility of continuing biology studies after the M.Sc. to a Ph.D. 3.2.4. Role of national scientific associations/ societies Several learned societies exist in Finland, and stimulate contact between scientists in a given field. Some are general (Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica and Biologian Seura Vanamo), many others are specific. They have a quantitatively small but important role in education at the advanced level. 3.2.5.Others 4. New needs in studies of biology (eventually taking into account the European construction) 4.1. Shortcomings and gaps 4.1.1. From the point of view of changes in biological topics The programs should be flexible enough to include rapidly developing new areas. Small institutions are surprisingly more conservative in changing their focus to new fields in biology, than the big universities. Genetics for example, is not growing as fast in biochemistry and medicine than it is within the departments of biology.
Higher Education in Biology in Finland 359 European cooperation between universities is the best possible way of increasing the diversity of locally limited resources. One intensive term abroad will constitute quantitatively a significant proportion of a student s curriculum. 4.1.2. From the point of view of new professional situations. Most Finnish biology departments have been careful in focusing on basic research and a good theoretical background in education. New professional needs have been well catered for. Society is not always ready to react to new needs. In matters concerning the environment, society is frequently reluctant to take the right medicine, and an engineer is recruited in a job needing a biologist. All biology departments in Finland are well aware of this, and students interested in environmental questions get enough education as a part of their biology curriculum to cope with the conflicting interests of society. Whilst a university degree gives rather good competence for teachers and for beginning a university career, many other possibilities remain rather obscure. The present spectrum of professions for which biology students prepare themselves is not wide enough, and it should be made broader, probably by European means. 4.1.3. From the point of view of European structures. One problem for Finnish biology within the European dimension is that it is strongly directed intellectually to the U.S.A. and Canada. Knowledge of European languages other than English is not wide enough. 5. Ways to satisfy these new needs 5.1. At the level of the universities: In Finland, the attitude of the universities to the new opening to Europe is already very positive. 5.2. At the level of government A reform of the structure and the content of the degree programs has started. In biology, as in all natural sciences, the reform has meant the return of the lower university degree (i.e. the Bachelor s) after more than a
360 Jaakko Lumme and Marja Karjalainen decade s reign of the Master s degree as the first degree. In biology, however, students will most probably prefer to go directly for the Master s degree. The structural change will be paralleled with a continuous reform in the content of the degree programs. As mentioned earlier, doctorates are taken in Finland at a later stage than in many European countries (the problem of old doctors). The Ministry of Education and the Academy of Finland have recently launched a funding scheme for doctoral programs (called graduate schools ) to encourage and facilitate postgraduate education. The different programs are run by several Finnish universities in cooperation. An increasing number of international links will be included in the programs to facilitate the mobility of doctoral students. Internationalisation through exchange programs has been very successful in Finland. Numbers of exchange students are growing rapidly in all universities due to the support of both the Ministry of Education and the individual universities. Many universities have a separate international budget to promote exchanges. The Ministry allocates funds to the universities based on their achievement in exchange programs. 5.3. At the level of E.U. in terms of cooperation Continued support to exchange programs (Erasmus etc.) is important. Student mobility has proved to be an essential tool of Europeanisation both for the students and the departments involved. Mobility schemes influence the teaching practice and the curricula of the teachers involved. However, attention should be paid also to internationalising the curriculum of the non-mobile students. This is a challenge of the near future. New technologies, open and distant learning will be important tools in this respect.