Cadmium in power tool batteries The possibility and consequences of a ban report 5901 january 2009
Cadmium in power tool batteries The possibility and consequences of a ban THE SWEDISH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Orders Order tel: +46 8505 933 40 Order fax: + 46 8505 933 99 E-mail: natur@cm.se Postal address: CM Gruppen AB, Box 110 93, 161 11 Bromma, Sweden Internet: www.naturvardsverket.se/bokhandeln The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Tel + 46 8698 10 00, fax + 46 820 29 25 E-mail: registrator@naturvardsverket.se Postal address: The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, SE-106 48 Stockholm Internet: www.naturvardsverket.se ISBN 978-91-620-5901-9.pdf ISSN 0282-7298 Digital publication The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2009 Printed by: CM Gruppen AB Coverpicture: Pär Ängerheim
1 Preface In 2006, the EU established a Battery Directive that banned the use of cadmium in batteries when an alternative was available. However at the time they were not able to agree upon if an acceptable alternative for power tools was available which is a condition for replacing NiCd in these batteries. The major part of this report is consequently spent comparing the various types of batteries that can be used in power tools. The report also covers other consequences that a ban on cadmium could be expected to cause. This report has been prepared in response to government instructions for use as background information for the work of the EC Commission on the decision as to whether cadmium is to be allowed in power tool batteries. This process will begin in 2009 and the EC Commission will take a decision on this issue in 2010. Östersund, November 2008 Implementation and Enforcement Department 3
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Contents 1 PREFACE 3 2 SUMMARY 7 2.1 Can NiCd in power tools be replaced 7 2.2 Easier to replace NiCd in power tools today 7 2.3 Arguments for replacing NiCd 8 3 BACKGROUND 9 3.1 The task 9 3.2 Aim 9 3.3 Method 9 3.4 The Battery Directive and positions on cadmium 10 3.5 Scope and delimitations 10 3.6 Terminology 11 4 CONSEQUENCES OF A BAN ON CADMIUM IN BATTERIES FOR POWER TOOLS 12 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of battery 12 4.1.1 NiCd 12 4.1.2 Li-Ion 12 4.1.3 NiMH 13 4.1.4 Facts about batteries 13 4.2 Technical consequences 13 4.2.1 Development 13 4.2.2 Financial situation 14 4.2.3 Energy losses when charging 15 4.2.4 Weight 16 4.2.5 Capacity, memory effect and management 16 4.2.6 Temperature 16 4.2.7 Summary of battery characteristics 17 4.3 Other consequences 17 4.3.1 Stakeholders 17 4.3.2 Consequences of the use of cadmium 19 5 EXPERIENCE FROM SWEDEN AND THE NORDIC COUNTRIES 21 5.1 Environmental charges on NiCd in Sweden 21 5.2 Frequency, use and collection of NiCd batteries in Sweden 23 5.3 NiCd in Norway 24 6 SUMMARY OF INTERVIEWS 26 7 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION 27 5
8 REFERENCES 29 Annexes Summary of questionnaire results 31 6
2 Summary 2.1 Can NiCd in power tools be replaced The Battery Directive (2006/66/EC) contains regulations concerning a ban on the use of cadmium in batteries. The decision as to whether cadmium is to be allowed in batteries for power tools has been postponed till 2010. This report will provide background material on which to base this decision. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has been tasked by government to study whether it is possible, and what the consequences would be to, fully or partially, removing the derogation for cadmium in batteries that applied according to Article 4.3 of the European Parliament and Council s Directive 2006/66/EC, especially for cordless power tools. This study is to be carried out using an EU perspective and must consider the Swedish experience of replacing NiCd (nickel cadmium batteries) with a more environmentally sound alternative. It must be possible to use this report within the review of the Directive that the EC Commission is expected to initiate in 2009. 2.2 Easier to replace NiCd in power tools today EU, UN and WHO are in agreement that cadmium may cause considerable, damaging effects to the environment and to health. The EU has stated in connection with the review of the Battery Directive that if there are alternatives to cadmium for batteries available, the substance should be banned in this context. Swedish experience shows that there are currently competitive alternatives to NiCd batteries for power tools, something that could not be determined when the Directive was initially negotiated. During the last few years developments have moved very rapidly, primarily as concerns Li-Ion batteries (lithium ion batteries) that are low weight, have high capacity level and a competitive price. Today these batteries, together with NiMH (nickel metal hydride batteries), are fully acceptable alternatives to NiCd (nickel cadmium batteries) for power tools. Professional users want lightweight tools that are strong and lie well in the hand. Workers who use cordless power tools on a regular basis often have no idea which type of batteries they have in their tools. For private, hobby carpenters who do not use their tools on a daily basis then NiMH is a good alternative to NiCd. Table 1 below shows a comparison between the different types of batteries available for power tools. 7
NiCd NiMH Li-Ion Purchase price cheapest medium most expensive Price per kwh medium most expensive cheapest Weight heaviest medium lightest Memory effect yes 1 marginal no Capacity least medium greatest For professionals OK OK best For hobby users good good uncertain Temperature best good good Table 1. A comparison of the functions of the different battery types. 2.3 Arguments for replacing NiCd There are currently a handfull manufacturers of NiCd for power tools in Europe. These will be affected by a ban as will the mining companies who supply the primary cadmium raw material. Other stakeholders regard themselves as affected on a secondary level only. Batteries are currently responsible for a little more than 75 percent of the use of cadmium in the world. A considerable amount of this cadmium is used in batteries for cordless power tools. Even if the collection of spent batteries lives up to the requirements of the Battery Directive which is 45 percent collected by 2016, this means that more than half of all the cadmium in portable batteries will not be collected and dealt with in a secure fashion. The consequence of a ban would be that the cadmium leakage into the environment from spent batteries would decrease and would, in the long term, cease. 1 The memory effect is primarily connected to NiCd but not all NiCd batteries are affected by the phenomenon. Modern batteries often have a structure that counteracts the crystal effect and consequently also the memory effect. 8
3 Background 3.1 The task In connection with its Government Directives for 2008, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency was given the following task by the Ministry of the Environment: Cadmium in batteries The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will study whether it possible, and what the consequences would be to, from an EU perspective, fully or partially remove the derogation on cadmium in batteries. This derogation is stated in Article 4.3 of the European Parliament and Council s Directive 2006/66/EC from 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and spent batteries and accumulators and on the cancellation of Directive 91/157/EEC, especially as concerns cordless electrical power tools. The study is to be carried out from an EU perspective, taking into consideration the Swedish experience of replacing nickel cadmium batteries with more environmentally sound alternatives. It must be possible to use this report in the review of the Directive that the EC Commission is expected to initiate in 2009. The report is to be submitted by 31 December 2008 at the latest (Ministry of the Environment 2007). 3.2 Aim In 2009 the EC Commission is expected to initiate a review of the derogation for cadmium batteries in power tools. The aim of this report is to provide background information for this review. Important target groups for this information include consultants and decision-makers within the EU who, in various ways, participate in the work of the review. Consequently it is proposed that this report form the basis of dissemination of results outside Sweden through the establishment of a special Communication Plan. 3.3 Method Information has been primarily obtained from reports and websites (please refer to reference list for further information). In addition a questionnaire was sent to a large number of stakeholders (please refer to Annex 2). The conclusions drawn from the questionnaire have then been further explored via telephone interviews (please refer to Chapter 6). In addition to interviews, discussions have been held with several different stakeholders within this field, often concerning specific issues discussed in the report. 9
3.4 The Battery Directive and positions on cadmium Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries regulates, among other areas, the use of cadmium in batteries. Article 4 of the Directive forbids the use of cadmium in batteries for household appliances. However the decision was postponed as concerns cordless power tools and instead the Directive states that the EC Commission will take a decision in 2010 as to whether cadmium is to be permitted in power tool batteries. For industrial batteries, medical equipment and in emergency and alarm systems, cadmium will also continue to be permitted (the Battery Directive). Certain priorities were made when the EC Commission established this directive. There were alternatives to cadmium batteries that filled the same function for household appliances. As the EU had previously established that cadmium was a metal that was to be limited in use as far as possible, a decision could be taken to ban cadmium in these batteries (European Commission, 2003). For cadmium industrial batteries and for certain other equipment (medical equipment plus emergency and alarm systems) an assessment was made that there were no alternative battery types that could be used as replacements (European Commission, 2003). For cadmium in batteries for cordless power tools, the EC Commission assessed that it was uncertain whether there were fully acceptable alternatives. Consequently the decision on this issue was postponed until 2010 (European Commission, 2003). In November 2004 the EC Council determined that there was no doubt as concerns the following basic factors: Cadmium is dangerous. Batteries form an important source of the cadmium found in the environment. Batteries form a risk factor as far as emissions of cadmium into the environment are concerned (EC Council, 2004). The UN has also taken a position on this issue and has determined that cadmium is the cause of considerable environmental and health problems (UNEP, 2008). The World Health Organisation (WHO) also regards cadmium as an environmental problem (Inchem, 1992). 3.5 Scope and delimitations One point of departure for this report is the position previously adopted by the EU which states that cadmium is an extremely poisonous metal and that its use should be limited as far as is possible. Consequently this report will not describe how cadmium, or the substances in alternative batteries, affect human beings and the environment. 10
The task is limited to reviewing the consequences of extending the cadmium ban to include power tools only. In other words, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has not examined the results of extending the ban on cadmium within any other area except that of power tools. The report focuses on consequences within Europe. Discussing consequences for parts of the world not encompassed by EU regulations would be far too speculative. Areas of use other than batteries, in which cadmium may possibly be used in the future, were not included in the framework of the task. This is due to the fact that these areas should be regulated in other legislation. In this report when different types of batteries are compared, the following are types are intended - nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium ion (Li-Ion), as these are the batteries normally used in power tools. 3.6 Terminology List of concepts and abbreviations used in the report: NiCd: Nickel cadmium batteries, please refer to Chapter 4.1.1. Li-Ion: Lithium ion batteries, please refer to Chapter 4.1.2. NiMH: Nickel metal hydride batteries, please refer to Chapter 4.1.3. Li-P: Lithium polymer batteries are a type of batteries currently under development. These batteries do not yet form a viable alternative for power tools. Capacity: The amount of current (Ah) that can be stored in a battery. Ah: Ampere per hour is a unit of measurement for electrical charge. Somewhat simplified it can be said that a battery is able to deliver a certain number of amperes for a certain period of time. A battery that has 75 Ah is able to deliver current of 75 A for one hour. kwh: Kilowatt hours is a unit of energy. 1 kwh is the equivalent of 1 000 Wh or 3.6 MJ (mega joules) and may, for example, be used to power a light bulb of 60 W for 16 hours Memory effect: Batteries that are recharged several times without ever being empty may suffer from the memory effect. They then lose the ability to be charged up to full level. Please refer to Chapter 4.2.5. Energy density: How much energy it is possible to store in a battery per weight unit. Power tools: Cordless electrical power tools are portable apparatus that are powered by a battery and that are intended for use in maintenance, construction and industrial operations or for gardening activities. Portable battery: Batteries that are sealed, portable and are not defined as industrial or automotive batteries. 11
4 Consequences of a ban on cadmium in batteries for power tools In order to clarify the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of batteries, each type is separately described in Chapter 4.1. A comparison of the different types of battery divided according to function is given in Chapter 4.2. 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of battery 4.1.1 NiCd 4.1.1.1 ADVANTAGES NiCd is a well-proven technology that is established and well developed. These batteries can survive rough treatment. For example they can be totally exhausted without any negative effects in contrast to, for example, Li-Ion. NiCd has a longer lifetime as they can be charged up more times than other types of batteries. NiCd work well at temperatures down to -40 C while alternatives work only down to -20 C. Additional NiCd advantages are that they are the cheapest batteries to buy and that they can be charged up more quickly than other batteries (Battery University 2008). 4.1.1.2 DISADVANTAGES One decisive negative factor of NiCd is that cadmium emissions lead to large scale environmental and health damage when the spent batteries are not processed in a satisfactory manner. Other negative factors include the NiCd s memory effect, high weight levels and low energy density (the Swedish Battery Association 2008, the Battery University 2008). 4.1.2 Li-Ion 4.1.2.1 ADVANTAGES Li-Ion is the latest type of batteries for power tools, which indicates that there is still development potential for these batteries. Li-Ion batteries are lightweight with high energy density. There is no memory effect and self-discharging is less than for other types of batteries. Li-Ion is not regarded as environmentally dangerous (the Swedish Battery Association 2008, the Battery University 2008). 4.1.2.2 DISADVANTAGES Li-Ion batteries are more expensive to buy than the alternatives, among other reasons because they have to be equipped with safety circuit to protect from overheating and total discharging. Other disadvantages include the fact that the 12
batteries must be used regularly and that they age even if they are not used (Battery University 2008). 4.1.3 NiMH 4.1.3.1 ADVANTAGES One of the major advantages of NiMH is that they possess a greater energy density than the alternatives. For example the NiMH has an approximately 50 percent longer operational period than NiCd. NiMH has improved its performance level since its introduction onto the market at the end of the 1980s. Its lower weight in combination with higher capacity and longer operational period are the reasons why the NiMH has generally replaced the NiCd. NiMH is not considered to be environmentally dangerous (the Swedish Battery Association, 2008). 4.1.3.2 DISADVANTAGES One disadvantage of NiMH is that it takes longer to charge than the alternatives. This is partially dependent on the fact that they are sensitive to overheating which means that it is not possible to charge these batteries to the same effect as NiCd. The longer charging up time is also dependent on the fact that the NiMH has a greater energy density than the NiCd. The NiMH batteries also self-discharge to a greater extent than the alternatives and can manage a smaller number of charges (the Swedish Battery Association, 2008). 4.1.4 Facts about batteries Table 1 shows the differences between the different types of batteries. NiCd NiMH Li-Ion Energy/weight (Wh/kg) 45 80 60 120 150 190 Self-discharge (percent/month) 10 30 5 10 Number of charging cycles 2 000 500 1 000 1 200 Cell voltage (V) 1.2 1.2 3.6 Temperature interval ( C) -40 +60-20 +60-20 +60 Charge efficiency 2 (percent) 70 90 66 99.9 (Battery University 2008). 4.2 Technical consequences 4.2.1 Development NiMH, and especially Li-Ion, have been developed during the last few years and currently enjoy considerably more competitive edge than five years ago. This is also reflected in sales as both Li-Ion and NiMH are capturing increasingly large market shares at the cost of the NiCd batteries which is illustrated in Figure 1 (Pillot, 2006). 2 Charge efficiency is defined as how the share of energy supply is utilised by the battery 13
In contrast, the development of cadmium batteries has tailed off dramatically, which is due to the fact that even the industry regards the NiCd as a type of battery that is on its way out. This has led to alternative types of batteries within several areas already surpassing the NiCd as far as performance is concerned. One reason for using NiCd could be merely habit (interview with power tool manufacturer). Figure 1. The number of million cells in the world of the various types of battery from 1995 and calculated levels for 2015. Li-P, lithium polymer is a new type of lithium battery that is currently not used in power tools (Pillot, 2006). Another sign that the development of the Li-Ion has been rapid during the last few years is that their price has decreased by approximately 70 percent between 1999 and 2006 (Figure 2). 4.2.2 Financial situation It is difficult to assess which types of batteries are cheapest or most expensive for the user. Of the three types (NiCd, Li-Ion and NiMH) Li-Ion costs more to buy as compared to the alternatives. This is partially due to the fact that the Li-Ion must be 14
equipped with a safety circuit to ensure that they do not overheat and explode. NiCd is currently somewhat cheaper to buy than NiMH. There are several factors that need to be considered in order to be able to provide a picture of which batteries are cheapest when their entire lifecycle is examined. This concerns how many times it is possible to recharge the battery, its capacity per charge, how robust it is if used wrongly and so on. How the battery is used is also extremely important for its length of life, which in turn affects its cost. Aspects to consider are whether the batteries are to be used on a daily basis or more irregularly and if the batteries are totally or partially emptied before a new charging process is initiated (Battery University 2008). Figure 2 illustrates price development for batteries in Japan stated in $/kwh for the period 1999 2006. The figure shows that Li-Ion prices have changed from being almost twice as expensive in 1999 to being somewhat cheaper that the alternatives in 2006. NiMH and NiCd prices follow each other quite well although that NiMH is generally somewhat more expensive than NiCd. The costs reported in the figure are influenced by different factors. For example costs for the safety circuit that is essential for the Li-Ion (please refer to Chapter 4.1.2.2 or 4.2.5) have not been included. Costs to the final consumer may therefore differ from what is stated in the figure below. The conclusion is that Li-Ion is also currently competitive as far as price is concerned. Figure 2. Price trends for small rechargeable battery cells for the period 1999 to 2006 (Scrosati, 2008). 4.2.3 Energy losses when charging When a battery is charged there will be a certain loss of energy e.g. in the form of heat. The level of loss varies between the different types of batteries. NiMH have the highest losses while those of the Li-Ion are almost negligible. Please refer to Facts in Chapter 4.1.4 (Battery University, 2008). 15
4.2.4 Weight Li-Ion is lighter than both the other alternatives. NiMH is somewhat lighter than NiCd, but the difference in this case is not as great. When choosing batteries for tools, the user considers ergonomics or how well it lies in the hand to be an important factor (Nordic Council of Ministers 2005). The weight of the power tools, and consequently also the batteries, should therefore form an important part of this assessment. 4.2.5 Capacity, memory effect and management NiMH possesses a higher capacity than NiCd. In two equally sized batteries there is room for approximately 50 percent more energy in NiMH than in NiCd. Li-Ion has the highest capacity (Battery University, 2008). The memory effect is defined as the fact that batteries maintain a memory of how many times they have been changed and emptied. If a battery is only charged up to 50% capacity for a couple of charges then the battery will remember this and it may then be difficult to charge to higher than this level later. However this effect is reversible if the battery is then fully charged and emptied repeatedly. Other effects that are caused by older batteries or by poor management of batteries (overcharging, wrongly charging, exposure to overly high temperatures etc.) are sometimes termed, somewhat erroneously, memory effect (Linden 2002). NiCd are the batteries that experience the greatest problems with memory effect, while Li-Ion do not have this problem at all. NiMH show certain memory effects problem. These problems occur because crystals form within the NiCd. Modern NiCd have a structure that decreases susceptibility to memory effect and many users of power tools never even notice this effect (Linden 2002). Li-Ion provide full effect until they are spent. Other types normally lose effect as they empty and must consequently be charged before they are totally empty (Battery University 2008). Li-Ion has a characteristic that means that batteries age even if they are not used. In addition, the Li-Ion batteries must be used regularly and equipped with a safety circuit to protect against overheating and total emptying (Battery University, 2008). In summary Li-Ion possesses great capacity but is also more sensitive to poor management. NiCd has a smaller capacity and may experience problems with memory effect but otherwise requires little attention. NiMH has a fairly large capacity and minimal requirements for management. 4.2.6 Temperature For working in extreme temperatures there is a distinction between the different types of batteries. NiMH and Li-Ion can be used in temperatures down to -20 C and NiCd in temperatures down to -40 C (Battery University 2008). These differences, however, may be disregarded if the batteries are taken inside for charging overnight (Interview with the Swedish Power Tools Association, July 16
2008). In hot environments all types may be used in temperatures up to 60 C (Battery University, 2008). In a survey (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2005) a limited number of professional users were questioned, some living in Kiruna in northern Sweden, and it could be observed that most of them were not aware of the type of batteries they had in their power tools. Rather they choose tools of a certain brand, a brand that they had already used with good results. The tool had to be strong and had to lie well in the hand as well. The professional users in the survey primarily used tools with NiMH batteries, even if some still had older tools with NiCd. The study also proved that all of them had had good experiences with NiMH and that they could not observe any performance drop between NiMH and NiCd. 4.2.7 Summary of battery characteristics The three different types of batteries all have their advantages and disadvantages. Table 2 shows the differences. NiCd NiMH Li-Ion Purchase price cheapest medium most expensive Price per kwh medium most expensive cheapest Weight heaviest medium lightest Memory effect yes 3 marginal no Capacity least medium greatest For professionals OK OK best For hobby users good good uncertain Temperature best good good Table 2. A comparison of the functions of the different battery types. 4.3 Other consequences 4.3.1 Stakeholders Different groups will be affected in different ways by the ban on cadmium in batteries for power tools. The groups examined here are mining companies, recycling companies, battery manufacturers, agents, power tool manufacturers, professional users and private users. All groups except the users and manufacturers regard themselves as secondary stakeholders. 4.3.1.1 PROFESSIONAL USERS We have asked professional users about their experience and use of NiCd. As cold has been stated as a competitive advantage for NiCd they are not affected in the 3 The memory effect is primarily connected to NiCd but not all NiCd batteries are affected by the phenomenon. Modern batteries often have a structure that counteracts the crystal effect and consequently also the memory effect. 17
same way as other batteries we have primarily interviewed professional users in the north of Sweden where temperatures are amongst the lowest in Europe. These interviews show that the use of batteries in power tools varies, but that the professional users surveyed currently use NiMH and Li-Ion. None of them select a tool based on the type of battery in them; the battery is something that is included in the purchase. The factors that influence the purchase or selection of tools are the brand name, its performance or capacity and the weight of the hand tool. They have previously worked with a certain tool and the experience they gained from that tool affects their further choices. Whether the price is higher or lower depending on battery type does not make a great deal of difference according to those interviewed. Quality is decisive and what is important is whether the tools last well. However price is of importance if a private person is buying the tool. Interviews of professional users proved that they do not consider the specific battery that the machine contains when they buy it. Professional users are unanimous about the fact that NiCd are heavy to work with which is a disadvantage. In addition, NiCd has problems with its memory effect: if they are not totally empty they do not give optimal effect when next charged. One professional user indicated that Li-Ion can be difficult to charge when it is cold but that NiMH are just as easy to charge as NiCd when it is cold. 4.3.1.2 BATTERY MANUFACTURERS There are a total of six NiCd battery producers in Europe (interview with the Swedish Power Tools Association). Not all of these manufacture batteries for power tools. Producers in Japan, or those that are owned by Japanese companies, are responsible for more than 60 percent of NiCd production (Noréus, 2000). A clearly dominant proportion of the world s Li-Ion batteries are produced in Japan. A ban on NiCd in Europe will probably mean that NiCd batteries, which are currently produced to a certain extent in Europe, will be replaced by Li-Ion batteries produced in Japan. 4.3.1.3 MINING In a telephone conversation with the professional association of the mining industry a statement was made that the industry was a secondary stakeholder and consequently will not be significantly affected by a ban on cadmium in batteries for power tools (telephone interview with mining industry association, 8 September 2008). 4.3.1.4 RECYCLING COMPANIES Recycling of NiCd often occurs in the same facility as recycling of NiMH. The aim of recycling is primarily to remove the nickel that is found in both types of battery. In Europe there are three companies who recycle NiCd and all of these facilities also receive NiMH. In a telephone conversation with NiCd recyclers it was stated that they do not regard a possible ban as a problem and that at this stage it would not be useful to place too much emphasis on a secondary stakeholder business area 18
such as the recycling business (telephone interview with NiCd and NiMH recycling company, 13 October). 4.3.1.5 MANUFACTURERS AND AGENTS Manufacturers and agents of power tools have been contacted with questionnaires and interviews. Several said that a ban on Cadmium would be positive for them, partially because a ban would speed up the development of other types of batteries, especially the Li-Ion, partially because goodwill is enhanced when cadmium is removed from their product range. Arguments given for future sales of NiCd are primarily concerned with the need to replace batteries in older machines run on NiCd and that NiCd manages extreme temperatures better. The problem of replacement batteries for older machines can be solved by the application of interim regulations. 4.3.2 Consequences of the use of cadmium A considerable amount of the cadmium used in the world is used for battery manufacture, please refer to Figure 3. (Batterier = Batteries, Pigment = Pigment, Ytbehandling = Surface Treatments, Stabilisering = Stabilisation, Legeringar/övrigt = Alloys/Other) Figure 3. Use of cadmium in the world by manufacturing area (ICdA 2005). Of the cadmium used in batteries, a considerable share was used in batteries for cordless power tools between 2000 and 2004 (Figure 4). Even if these figures are not completely up-to-date there is no doubt that a considerable part of the cadmium market is batteries for power tools. As a point of information for Figure 4 it can be stated that all other types of equipment there are included in the household appliances product group and have consequently already been banned from using cadmium batteries in the Battery Directive of 2006. 19
Cadmium is currently not mined as an individual metal but is a by-product, primarily of zinc mining. Consequently the production of cadmium will probably not decrease in the same manner as the demand for it is expected to do. So what is going to happen to the cadmium that is currently used in batteries for power tools if the ban is implemented? There is reason to believe that the price of cadmium will decrease with reduced demand. It is, however, important to remember that there is already a surplus of cadmium on the market and that when mining zinc, companies normally look for ores with the lowest possible levels of cadmium (information from mining company, 12 June 2008). Most machines using cadmium were banned a long time ago; however it is impossible to foresee any new areas of use that may occur in the future. It is, however, a reasonable point of departure to assume that new areas of use for cadmium will be covered by other legislation and consequently are not affect the terms of reference of this project. (Videokameror= Camcorders, Mobiltelefoner= Mobile phones, Bärbart ljud/bild = Portable sound/image, Hushåll/hobby = Household/hobby, Trådlöstelefoni= Cordless telephony, Sladdlös handverktyg = Cordless power tools) Figure 4. Distribution of use of NiCd batteries in the world by apparatus, stated in million cells. (ICdA 2005). If cadmium is to continue to be used in batteries, a good collection system is decisive. The cadmium that is not collected and recycled in an acceptable manner could cause considerable damage to health and the environment. The collection targets for the Battery Directive - 25 percent in 2012 and 45 percent in 2016 - means that more than half of all batteries will not be collected in the long-term. 20
5 Experience from Sweden and the Nordic countries The main argument against expanding the ban on NiCd batteries to include power tools has been that there was no fully satisfactory alternative. Based on the Swedish experience it is, however, possible to draw another conclusion, namely that there are acceptable alternatives to NiCd in power tools. This conclusion is based on the results of the environmental charges that were introduced on NiCd in Sweden in 1997, in combination with the information presented in previous sections of this report. This chapter describes how the Swedish environmental charge has affected sales of NiCd in Sweden. The chapter also reports on the NiCd market in Norway. 5.1 Environmental charges on NiCd in Sweden In 1997 an environmental charge the equivalent of SEK 300/kg on NiCd was levied in Sweden, a charge which still remains in force. Producers and companies who manufacture or import batteries containing NiCd pay this charge into a fund administered by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. This charge is intended to cover the costs society pays for collecting, sorting, transporting and removing NiCd. This charge has radically affected the sales of NiCd in Sweden. Sales statistics indicate a dramatic reduction in sales the same year the charge was introduced. The following year sales continued to decrease and are still doing so today. At national level sales of NiCd decreased to one third of previous levels between 1997 (328 tons) and 2004 (87 tons) (Figure 5). In 2007, 56 tons of NiCd batteries were sold in Sweden. Collection of NiCd has been maintained at a reasonably stable level since 1997, even if it is continuing to increase (1997: 141 tons, 2007: 168 tons). NiCd has an extremely long lifetime and collection of these batteries will continue for a long period into the future. In 2007 three times more NiCd batteries were collected in comparison to what were sold in Sweden (Source: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency statistics). 21
Försäljning NiCd 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 (Försäljning = Sales) Figure 5. Sales of cadmium batteries in tons between 1997 and 2006. There is a clear, major decrease in sales between 1997 and 1998 when the charge was radically increased (Source: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency statistics). The example of the environmental charge on NiCd batteries in Sweden and its national effects indicates that it is possible to replace them. When sales of a product are reduced by two-thirds over the course of a few years then it is probable that there are alternatives that are able to replace the product, or that it was already surplus to requirements from the start. In the case of NiCd batteries, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has made the assessment that sales of NiCd decreased dramatically due to the fact there were acceptable substitutes available; otherwise the environmental charge on them would not have had such a significant impact. Where the tipping point lies as concerns influencing behaviour patterns is concerned, i.e. how large the price increase needs to be to result in the product losing market shares, varies from product to product. The Swedish environmental charge on NiCd batteries exerted a major effect. At the end of the 1990s a charge was levied on NiCd batteries in Denmark which was at a considerably lower level than that in Sweden. This Danish levy never exerted the same effect as its equivalent in Sweden. Another interesting example of Swedish environmental charges is the one levied on lead in batteries which was introduced at the same time as the charge on NiCd. This charge disappeared in connection with Battery Directive 2006/66/EC on 1 January 2006. The lead environmental charge did not have nearly the same effect as the one on NiCd. Its level was considerably lower which is probably why it never had the same result. Another reason could be the fact that there were no competitive alternatives to lead in (start) batteries when the charge was first levied. 22
5.2 Frequency, use and collection of NiCd batteries in Sweden The conclusion is that the use of NiCd has decreased drastically in Sweden for two reasons: there are alternatives to NiCd for power tools and the environmental charge in Sweden proved to be a successful financial control mechanism that has spurred on technical developments. In the case of NiCd it is clear that it was the financial incentive that was decisive for the radical reduction of sales over the course of a few years. However, if there had been no viable alternative to NiCd when the environmental charge was introduced in 1997 then the situation would have been different. Until recently the use of NiCd in Sweden primarily occurred in cordless apparatus such as drills, electric screwdrivers, dust busters, grass strimmers, electrical tooth brushes and various types of shavers (Göteborg Municipality 2005). When Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries was introduced on 1 January 2006, NiCd batteries were banned in some of these products, but not in power tools. In a survey carried out in Göteborg in 2005 it was observed that a transfer from NiCd to the less environmentally hazardous NiMH or Li-Ion had already occurred within many areas of use e.g. in the home electronics business. The transfer was clearly observable for mobile phones, digital cameras and computers (Göteborg Municipality 2005). The same survey showed that there were, within the same type of machine e.g. electric screwdrivers, integrated batteries of all three types - NiCd, NiMH and Li- Ion. This should mean that it is possible to achieve the same functional level with batteries other than the NiCd, assuming that the tools are of the same quality. However, considering the discussion in a previous section concerning the functioning of the different types of battery, the issue is a little more complex than that. According to Swedish Environmental Protection Agency statistics, in 2006 approximately 870 tons of batteries were not collected. Of all the batteries sold in Sweden, around 8 percent consisted of rechargeable batteries containing cadmium and 8 percent of 870 tons is 70 tons. It is not possible to state with certainty that 8 percent of the uncollected batteries are NiCd type; however this estimate may give an indication of how many NiCd batteries that are never collected. Neither can it be stated with any certainty that all batteries that are not collected end up in household garbage as it is known that end users often store their batteries for some time before getting rid of them. On the other hand these batteries have been used for such a long period of time that this storage effect is really not a good explanation as to why a proportion of them are not collected. The batteries that have been stored the longest should have been left for collection. Even if recycling of NiCd from collected batteries is at a high rate, all NiCd should be collected in order to avoid this substance from spent batteries being emitted into the air when, for example, garbage is incinerated. 23
The only partial collection of NiCd batteries contributes to emissions of cadmium to air, primarily through garbage incineration. Sweden has among the best track records in Europe as far as collection of spent batteries is concerned. In spite of this there are many batteries that are never brought to municipal collection points. 5.3 NiCd in Norway Norway levies no environmental charge on NiCd batteries the equivalent to the Swedish system. Even if there are certainly other differences between Sweden and Norway, for example Norway is not a member of EU, possible differences between the countries sales of NiCd in relationship to alternative batteries does depend to a great degree on the environmental charge. In Norway the trend over the last few years is that sales of alternative batteries such as NiMH and Li-Ion are increasing. The NiMH market share is currently greater in Sweden than in Norway. The Li-Ion share is also greater Sweden than in Norway, even if the trend is towards an increase of Li-Ion in both countries. Below are figures provided by the Swedish Power Tools Association who, according to their own information, represent approximately 70 percent of the market in Sweden and somewhat more in Norway. 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 Cd NiMH Li 50000 0 Swe06 Nor06 Swe07 Nor07 Figure 6. Distribution of battery types in power tools sold by members of the Swedish Power Tools Association in Sweden and Norway, 2006 and 2007. The figures state number of batteries. The figure above demonstrates that sales of NiCd in Norway are approximately three times as high as in Sweden. Between 2006 and 2007 the NiCd market share in Norway decreased by around 5 percent and in Sweden by approximately 8 percent. In spite of the fact that sales of NiCd in Norway were three times as high, the decrease was greater in Sweden. 24
So what is the significance of the Swedish environmental charge to the sales of NiCd today? Difficult to say but as battery technology develops and is refined it is probable that the environmental charge will become less important as NiCd loses market share. There is much that indicates that alternatives to NiCd simply perform better. 25
6 Summary of interviews During the course of the project, interviews have been carried out in order to provide more in-depth information than is possible to obtain using questionnaires alone. In total six people were interviewed who represent manufacturers of power tools and professional associations within the battery and power tools businesses. Interview questions concerned the effects of a ban on cadmium in batteries for power tools may have on: 1) The performance of power tools. 2) The business, i.e. the companies who use or sell power tools or batteries. 3) Other actors. Interviews were of a discussion character, consequently an exact compilation of answers cannot be provided. Below is a general summary. There were different answers concerning the performance of power tools. Most of the interviewees were in agreement that there are suitable alternatives to NiCd on the market today for professional users. Generally the users representatives were more negative towards a ban than the producers representatives were. Those who opposed the ban said that they wanted freedom of choice for the consumer and that the focus should be on increasing collection rates instead. One producer felt that hobby users would be harder hit than professional users. Respondents were totally in agreement on the fact that a ban would be a temporary problem for the business which in all probability would not lead to any decisive damage. There were varying views on other effects, for example that Li-Ion batteries were still too expensive to fully replace NiCd. One respondent felt that NiCd is a more sturdy technology than the alternatives, that can be charged more quickly than competitors at the same time as NiMH possesses greater energy density, which means longer period of use per charge. One respondent thought that a ban on NiCd would be totally positive as it would speed up the development of alternative batteries. 26
7 Conclusions and discussion The most important conclusions: The EC Council, UN and WHO all state that cadmium is a problem for health and the environment. In connection with the preparation of the Battery Directive it was observed that as soon as there were fully acceptable alternatives, cadmium would be banned for these products. Batteries are responsible for a considerable part of cadmium use in the world. There are currently competitive alternatives to NiCd batteries for power tools, both as concerns price and performance. Swedish experience of levying an environmental charge proves that it is possible to replace NiCd in power tools. The development of the Li-Ion has progressed extremely rapidly over the last few years. These batteries possess low weight and a high level of capacity. Professional users want light tools that are strong and lie well in the hand. Many users are not aware of the type of batteries they have in their tools. There are a handfull manufacturers of NiCd batteries intended for power tools in Europe. Other stakeholders consider themselves to be secondary stakeholders only. The task that forms the basis of this report was to study whether it was possible, and what the consequences would be, of removing the derogation at EU level concerning permitting cadmium in batteries for power tools. The consequences of banning cadmium in these batteries can be divided up into consequences for professional users and consequences for other actors. For professional users the primary task is to study if power tools are perceived as performing less well as the result of a ban. The other actor group consists mainly of actors in the battery and power tool markets. The conclusion of this project is that the consequences for both professional users and other actors will be limited in scope and temporary in nature. An examination of consequences for actors on the battery market shows that all actors, with the exception of battery producers, regard themselves as secondary stakeholders. Consequences for battery producers should be regarded in a broader perspective. Companies who wish to survive in the long term must follow developments and adopt new technologies as they appear. A ban on cadmium in batteries for power tools probably means that the three or four producers in Europe will be forced make new investments in order to adapt production or will have to close down their operations. Retaining cadmium in a product because it affects a handful of producers in the short term can, however, not be a reasonable point of 27
departure for modern, European environmental legislation. As the EC Council, UN and WHO have all stated that cadmium may cause major health and environmental damage then the focus should instead be on these consequences and the consequences for the end users of the power tools. The list of advantages and disadvantages of the different types of batteries shows that they all have both. However the conclusion must be that Li-Ion and NiMH are today fully competitive alternatives to NiCd, both as concerns price and performance. Experience of Swedish environmental charges has proved that there are fully competitive alternatives to NiCd batteries on the market today with just as high performance rates. The decrease in sales experienced by NiCd in Sweden during the years after the environmental charge was introduced in 1997 prove that, given sufficient financial incentives, NiCd batteries could have already been replaced then. 28
8 References The Battery Directive, Directive issued by the European Parliament and European Council. Directive 2006/66/EC from 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and spent batteries and accumulators and on the cancellation of Directive 91/157/EC. The Swedish Battery Association, www.batteriföreningen.se, 2008-10-28 Batteriprojekt del 1 cadmium i varor med laddbara batteries, PM 2006:4, Göteborg Municipality, 2005 Battery University, http://www.batteryuniversity.com/, 2008-10-28 Commission staff working paper, Directive of the European Parliament and the Council on batteries and accumulators and spent batteries and accumulators, extended impact assessment, EC Commission 2004. Council of the European Union, Interinstitutional file 2003/0282 (COD) p. 7 Cordless Power Tools in the Nordic Countries, Tema Nord 2005:535, Nordic Council of Ministers 2005 European Union Risk Assessment Report, Cadmium Metal, http://ecb.jrc.ec.europe.eu/documents/existing- Chemicals/RISK_ASSESSMENT/REPORT/cdmetalreport303.pdf Inchem, International programme on chemical safety, Environmental health criteria 134, Cadmium, 1992 http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc135.htm Linden D, Reddy, T. Handbook of Batteries, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill 2002 Noreus D, Substitution of rechargeable NiCd batteries, Aug 2000 ICdA 2005, Cadmium and Trends (p. 5), 16 June 2008, http://www.chem.unep.ch/pb_and_cd/sr/files/submission%20ngo/icda/ MARKET%20Review%20Sept2005-1.pdf Ministry of the Environment, Government directives for the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2008, 2007 Pillot, C. Batteries 2006, Paris, June 2006 29
Scrosati, B. New chemistries in Lithium Ion batteries, International Conference on Battery Recycling, Düsseldorf, September 2008 United Nations Environment Programme DTIE/Chemicals, Interim Review of Scientific Information on Cadmium, March 2008 Van Assche, Frank, 1998, The relative contributions of different environmental sources to human exposure and the EU cadmium risk assessment, in Session II Regulatory, Health and Environmental Issues, International Nickel Cadmium Conference, 8 th Prague, September 21-22, 1998, Proceedings, p 12. 30
Annex. Summary of questionnaire results Annex. Summary of questionnaire results In connection with a commission from government concerning cadmium in batteries for power tools, a questionnaire was distributed to the actors involved. The aim of this questionnaire was to gain in-depth knowledge of how the business and the various stakeholders regarded the issues that had arisen in connection with this project. In total 75 people responded to the questionnaire on three different forms. The standard questionnaire in Swedish (SWE) was answered by 65 people, the standard questionnaire in English (ENG) was answered by 3 people and the special questionnaire for TAC 1 representatives (TAC) was answered by 7 people. The questionnaire was distributed in the form of an e-mail with a link to a unique page for each respondent. The respondents were given around two months to answer the questionnaire. During this period two reminders were also sent to people who had not responded. The respondents played different stakeholder roles as one of the objectives of the questionnaire was to achieve as wide a spread as possible. The roles were distributed as in Figure 1. 50 40 30 20 10 0 Producer User Govt. Agency Bus. Org Other Figure 1. Role distribution among respondents Below the answers to the TAC questionnaire will be discussed in a separate chapter while the standard questionnaires in Swedish and English will be dealt with together. 1 TAC means Technical Advisory Committee and the TAC Group, consisting of representatives from all the EU countries, meets twice annually to discuss technical issues as concerns the new Battery Directive 2006/66/EC. 31