Overview of Household Collection Systems in Different Cities and Regions

Overview of Household Collection Systems in Different Cities and Regions Content 1 AUSTRIA, Vienna...8 1.1 History...8 1.2 Status Quo in Vienna...8 1.3 Recommendation...12 2 FINLAND, Region of Tampere...14 2.1 History...14 2.2 Status Quo...15 2.3 Recommendations...19 3 SWEDEN, Gothenburg...21 3.1 History...21 3.2 Status Quo...22 4 GERMANY, Hamburg...25 4.1 Status Quo in Hamburg...25 4.2 Recommendation...27 5 AUSTRALIA, Brisbane...28 5.1 Introduction...28 5.2 History in Respect to Waste Management...28 5.3 Current Services...29 6 ITALY, Forlì...34 6.1 History...34 6.2 Status Quo...34 6.3 Recommendations...36 7 ITALY, Bologna...37 7.1 Past Situation...37 7.2 Present Situation...37 7.3 Destination of Collected Waste...38 8 NETHERLANDS, Region of Drechtsteden...41 8.1 History...41 8.2 Status quo...41 8.3 Recommendations...43 9 DENMARK, Copenhagen...44

9.1 History...44 9.2 Status Quo...44 9.3 Recommendation...47 10 SPAIN, Madrid, Barcelona, Sevilla, Valencia...49 10.1 Madrid...49 10.2 Barcelona...50 10.3 Sevilla...53 10.4 Valencia...54 10.5 Examples of Containers...56 11 Analytical Roundup of the Household Waste Collection Systems...61 11.1 Field of Study...61 11.2 General Data of the Cities and Regions...62 11.3 Conjoint Elements of the described household waste collection systems...63 11.4 Diverse System Elements...72 ANNEX 1 Finland, Turku 75 ANNEX 2 United Kingdom. 82 2

Figures Fig. 1: Recycling Station... 9 Fig. 2: Collection Point for Household Hazardous Waste... 9 Fig. 3: Drop Off Site... 11 Fig. 4: Mobil Vacuum Collection Truck in Operation... 22 Fig. 5: Waste Collection in Hamburg s inner city... 25 Fig. 6: Electric Lifts for Waste Containers... 45 Fig. 7: Ramps for Waste Containers... 45 Fig. 8: Wide Opening of the Vacuum Collection System... 51 Fig. 9: Waste Container of the Vacuum Collection System... 51 Fig. 10: Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste Rural Model. 56 Fig. 11: Fig. 12: Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste Multifraction Model... 57 Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste Multifraction Model... 58 Fig. 13: Platform for Underground Side Loaded Vehicles... 58 Fig. 14: Container for Waste Paper Collection... 59 Fig. 15: Container for the selective collection of Glass... 59 Fig. 16: Container for Solid Waste Collection... 60 Fig. 17: The cities and regions... 61 Fig. 18: Comfort of Waste Collection for the Citizens... 63 Fig. 19: The Use of Containers for Waste Collection... 65 Fig. 20: Use of Bags for Waste Collection... 65 Fig. 21: Use of different collection vehicles for full service waste collection... 66 Fig. 22: Use of different collection vehicles for kerbside waste collection... 67 Fig. 23: Use of different collection vehicles for bring system waste collection... 68 Fig. 24: Different Types of Bring Systems... 69 Fig. 25: Wastes collected in recycling centres... 71

Tables Tab. 1: General Information about Vienna... 10 Tab. 2: Type of Collection Equipment used in Vienna... 10 Tab. 3: Type of Collection Vehicles used in Vienna... 11 Tab. 4: General Information about the Region of Tampere... 17 Tab. 5: Type of Collection Equipment used in the Region of Tampere... 17 Tab. 6: Type of Collection Vehicle used in the Region of Tampere... 18 Tab. 7: Recommendation for waste bin colours in Finland... 19 Tab. 8: General Information about Gothenburg... 22 Tab. 9: Type of Collection Equipment used in Gothenburg... 23 Tab. 10: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Gothenburg... 23 Tab. 11: General Information about Hamburg... 26 Tab. 12: Type of Collection Equipment used in Hamburg... 26 Tab. 13: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Hamburg... 27 Tab. 14: General Information about Brisbane... 29 Tab. 15: Waste Statistics of Brisbane... 30 Tab. 16: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Brisbane... 31 Tab. 17: General Information about Forlì... 35 Tab. 18: Type of Collection Equipment used in Forlì... 35 Tab. 19: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Forlì... 36 Tab. 20: Destination of collected waste in Bolgona... 40 Tab. 21: General Information about Region of Drechtsteden... 42 Tab. 22: Type of Collection Equipment used in Region of Drechtsteden... 42 Tab. 23: Type of Collection Vehicle used in the Region of Drechtsteden... 43 Tab. 24: General Information about Copenhagen... 46 Tab. 25: Type of Collection Equipment used in Copenhagen... 47 Tab. 26: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Copenhagen... 47

Tab. 27: General Information about Madrid... 49 Tab. 28: Type of Collection Equipment used in Madrid... 50 Tab. 29: General Information about Barcelona... 52 Tab. 30: Type of Collection Equipment used in Barcelona... 52 Tab. 31: General Information about Sevilla... 53 Tab. 32: Type of Collection Equipment used in Sevilla... 54 Tab. 33: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Sevilla... 54 Tab. 34: General Information about Valencia... 55 Tab. 35: Type of Collection Equipment used in Valencia... 55 Tab. 36: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Valencia... 56 Tab. 37: General Data of the Cities and Regions, listed from North to South... 62 Tab. 38: Popul. Density of the described cities and regions, listed from North to South... 62 Tab. 39: Colours of Waste Containers in different cities... 73 5

Preamble The present document Overview of Household Systems in different Cities and Regions is the output of the ISWA Working Group of Collection and Transport Technologies (WGCTT) members contributions. It describes the development of collection systems in different countries and the experiences, which have been learnt. The Working Group on Collection and Transport Technologies is the oldest of the twelve working groups of ISWA. The aim of the working group is to exchange information and experience worldwide on aspects of waste storage, collection, transfer and transport. Waste collection and transportation are large cost elements in municipal solid waste management. In countries with sophisticated waste incineration and sanitary landfilling, waste collection and transportation counts for about half of the total waste disposal costs. In developing and transition countries with less sophisticated waste dumping, the collection and transportation costs may rise to up to 90 percent of the total disposal costs. Amongst other reasons waste collection and transportation have received much attention in recent years. Waste collection and transportation are considered as an integral part of integrated and sustainable solid waste management. ISWA s ten year perspective declares that amongst other things concerning the developing countries the following major steps have to be taken in the next ten years: To collect the waste and to clean the streets To remove waste away from drinking water resources To exchange and disseminate information on sound and low-cost technology amongst the developing countries The practical experience of practitioners and planners, regulators and operators, scientists and researchers in waste management must be made more available to developing countries and economies in transition. Immediate support and transfer of know-how are most valuable, as they facilitate the implementation of sound waste management strategies and practices. In many cases, a small amount invested in education and training the trainers can provide efficient help, as local staff and regional regulators gain more capabilities. From a global point of view, the most urgent need is to close the gap between developed and developing countries. The first priority in this context is to make sure that there are collection services available to as large a part of the world s population as possible and to raise the quality of landfill sites. In accordance to the above mentioned points the Working Group decided to provide brief information about the development of the collection systems in different cities and to explain the reason why it developed that way. How waste is separated, especially in cities and which kind of containers and vehicles are used? Which kinds of provisions have to be made, if you decide on the separate collection of a certain kind of waste and how is the collection system influenced? 6

Furthermore the authors give their recommendations for the future. This should help decision makers especially in developing countries to understand the assets and drawbacks of the different kinds of systems. Sincere thanks are given to all members of the ISWA Working Group of Collection and Transport Technologies and the ISWA Secretary, who worked on this brochure. Without their voluntary assistance this document would not exist. Georg Dostal, georg.dostal@argev.at Chair of the Working Group Collection and Transport Technologies ARGEV Verpackungsverwertungs-Ges.m.b.H. Lindengasse 43/13 A-1071 Wien 7

1 AUSTRIA, Vienna Prok. DI Georg Dostal, georg.dostal@argev.at ARGEV Verpackungsverwertungs-Ges.m.b.H. Lindengasse 43/13 A-1071 Wien DI Hans-Jörg Zerz; zer@m48.magwien.gv.at Magistrat der Stadt Wien, MA 48 Einsiedlergasse 2 A-1050 Wien 1.1 History Before 1900 refuse disposal was not high on the agenda. Waste was stored in the houses, emptied out on the street and collected by Waste Collectors with their vehicles. In 1904, the Viennese government already had 104 horse-drawn collection vehicles. These vehicles were announced by ringing bells. The inhabitants brought their waste bins to the vehicle, where they were emptied by the workers. One of the great hygienic problems was dust pollution. To combat this bags and other systems of collection containers, were tried with little success. In those days the waste consisted of ashes and other dusty and very heavy materials. So it was decided to use steel containers because they proved to be more robust and fire resistant. In 1918, some tests were carried out with the so called Colonia system, refuse bins for private households etc. that were deposited in the households. Residents were not willing to make sure they presented their waste bins out into the street at the right time to be collected and then take them back immediately after the bins had been emptied. Therefore most people continued to empty their waste out into the street. The solution was accessible containers with a capacity of 90 l (10 years later they were replaced by 110 l containers) in the yards of the houses, where people could empty their waste bins any time they wanted. The workers of the municipality carried the containers to the street, emptied them and brought them back into the houses afterwards. During 1923, this system was spread all over Vienna. In 1964, 1100 l steel containers were introduced in Vienna for the first time in all Europe. In 1974 the 1100 l steel containers were replaced by plastic containers with capacity of 120 and 240 l. Since 1934, the Viennese have had to pay for the waste disposal service and since 1965, the emptying frequency has been once a week (before it was twice a week). 1.2 Status Quo in Vienna Nowadays the waste is collected in different ways in Vienna. In the spreadsheet below, you can see that nearly every kind of waste is collected in containers. The reason for this system is that Vienna started to collect waste very early in closed steel containers because of the dust pollution and the danger of fires caused by ashes. Another reason why steel containers were used was that they had to be very robust due to the constant taking in and out of the houses. 8

Once a collection system has been introduced, it has an impact on the following systems of separate collection. The application of the same kind of collection vehicles of residual waste and used materials necessitates the same kind of containers (lifting device). Therefore, the introduction of separate collection of recyclables also required containers. It is only the collection of hazardous waste and bulky waste which is done in recycling stations, established for the Viennese people to deliver their waste free of charge. Figure. 1: Figure. 2: Recycling Station Collection Point for Household Hazardous Waste The common collection vehicle in Vienna is a rear loader with five crew (especially for the inner districts). Two workers carry the containers out of the houses, one empties them and two other men bring them back into the houses. 9

Country Name of the Area Size in km² Inhabitants Number of Households Type Describtion Austria Vienna 414,95 km² 1,759,801 about 780.000 Big City with multi-storage buildings Table. 1: General Information about Vienna Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X X X X Paper X X X Glass X X Metal X X Leightweight/Plastic X X Hazardous Waste X Waste X Table. 2: Type of Collection Equipment used in Vienna Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection System Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System 1) Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Residual Waste X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X X X Paper X X Glass Metal X Leightweight/Plastic X Hazardous Waste X X Waste X X 1) Recycling Stations 10

Table. 3: Type of Collection Vehicles used in Vienna 1.2.1 Sizes and Colours of Waste Bins The sizes of the waste bins in Vienna varies from 120 to 4400 litres (residual waste) respectively 120 to 770 litres (recyclable wastes). The corpus colours are black (respectively. silver) for the residual waste bins and green for the recyclable waste bins. The top cover colours for the bins vary as following: Residual waste: Black (respectively. silver), Biowaste: Brown, Paper/board: Red, Glass package (white): White, Glass package (coloured): Green, Plastic package: Yellow, Metals: Blue Figure. 3: Drop Off Site 1.2.2 Funding Residual waste The residual waste fees are taxed according to 36 of the Vienna Waste Management Act. The annual fee is calculated by multiplication of the: Number of residual waste containers, Number of annual pick-ups and Basic amount (dependent on the container size). 11

The basic amount for a single pick-up of a 110/120 litre residual waste bin is presently determined to 3,16 EUR (incl. 10 % VAT), larger containers are calculated in relation to the 110/120 litre bin (eg 1100 litres equal 10 times 110/120 litres). Beside the residual waste collection and treatment, the residual waste fees finance the collection and treatment of all recyclable wastes (except package wastes) and hazardous wastes, the operation of recycling stations and some additional services. Packaging wastes: The City of Vienna works as a contract partner of the Austrian Green Dot -system (ARA-System), so the collection and treatment of licensed packaging waste materials are financed by the ARA- System. package wastes and non-package recyclable wastes have to be financed by the residual waste fees. Extra services For bulky waste collection, non-household waste collection and commercial delivery of waste to the waste treatment plants, there exist extra tariffs for individual charging. 1.2.3 3. Operational safety: Based on the legal act for operational safety, a lot of measures have been realized during the last few years to improve operational safety and working conditions within the waste collection and treatment facilities. For example: Extensive analysis and evaluation of possible risks and unhealthy working conditions, Provision and permanent improvement of effective protective clothing for all workers, Continuous instructions to all employees on operational safety, Continuous logging and analysis of all accidents and near accidents, Occupational medicine care, inclusive preventive medical checkups, immunisations etc., Technical improvement of equipment, collection trucks and machines due to operational safety experiences. 1.3 Recommendation According to surveys, the majority of the Viennise people are satisfied with the delivery of the Viennese waste management service. The people generally have a full service system for residual waste, waste paper and a bring system for other kinds of waste. Some considerations about sideloaders have taken place. But they have not been a major success because there is not enough space in the street for that kind of collection. Furthermore, Vienna has two and soon will have three incineration plants in the city area and so the advantage of the removable bodies of the truck (you can remove them and take two or more filled bodies for long distance transportation) doesn t come into operation. 12

One of the still unsolved problems is the ever increasing amount of waste we are facing every year. Although the municipality has started a lot of public relations activities on that topic, this problem remains yet unsolved. 13

2 FINLAND, Region of Tampere Markku Salo, M.Sc.Tech., markku.salo@jatelaitosyhdistys.fi Finnish Solid Waste Association Jätelaitosyhdistys ry, Opastinsilta FIN-00520 Helsinki, Finland 2.1 History Due to hygienic problems in fast growing towns, waste collection and disposal was arranged by municipalities in some major towns in Finland in the later part of the 1800s. The town healthcare boards arranged for horse driven carts to collect night soils and street cleaning. As early as 1904 Helsinki started collecting waste in bins and as early as 1910 the first source separation scheme using two bins was introduced. In Helsinki biodegradable waste; manure, food waste and ashes were collected separately in closed 110 l bins from other garbage. As Helsinki s first source separation scheme it ended in 1928 due to high costs. After that the mixed wastes were collected at dumping sites round the town area. The new town houses were equipped with on site incinerators (smelly and smokey) which were used until the 1960s when they were completely banned. The first national waste law was implemented in the late 1970s and requested more effort to be implemented onto municipal waste management practices. New waste law, harmonised with EU directive was put into force during 1994. Regional waste management and co-operation between municipalities were developed in most parts of the country in the 1990s. Regional municipal waste management companies were introduced around cities and major provincial towns. All the municipal household waste collection was outsourced by the beginning of 1990s and the remaining fleet was sold to private operators. The national waste plan up to 2005 was approved in 1998. The plan distributes tasks and targets to various operators in waste production and treatment. In 2003 the proposal for biodegradable waste management in Finland was introduced. In addition to waste prevention, the biodegradable municipal solid waste to be disposed of to landfill should be limited to 20 % by the year 2010. 14

In Finland the municipalities are responsible for providing waste collection and treatment services for domestic waste and for the treatment facilities dealing with the waste. An exception to this basic rule is that municipalities can tender the private operators to provide their services direct to individual houses. In this case the responsibility of the service remains with the municipality. Some regions and towns still operate on this system even though the municipal control and management on household waste is less effective. Industry and commerce arrange their waste collection and treatment on an individual basis. 2.2 Status Quo The example area presented is Tampere Regional Solid Waste Management Ltd. The company was established to provide the solid waste management services for the region on behalf of its owner municipalities. Tampere town has 200 000 inhabitants and the whole Tampere Regional Waste Management area has 380 000 inhabitants. The company was established in 1994 and is today owned by 23 municipalities including the city of Tampere. In 2001 the number of employees was 59 and the turnover was 16.5 million euro. The company achieved ISO 14001 environmental management system certification. EU and national legislation and targets for municipal waste management implements an obligation for materials recycling and energy recovery. The producer responsibility of packaging and paper waste has withdrawn the responsibility of these wastes from the municipal companies as well as a partial withdraw for the service operations. Paper collection based on producer responsibility covers almost all the apartment houses within town areas and drop off points within the rural areas. Some collectors offer packaging waste collection from the properties at cost, which is not covered by the producer responsibility. Source separation schemes include biowaste (kitchen waste) for biological treatment, dry waste for recovered fuel production and other separately collected recyclables. Source separation requires more collection and transportation work, even though full source separation systems are applied only in buildings with more than 5 flats. In lower density areas the source separation systems are usually carried out by the use of drop off sites. The waste bins are typically collected from the wastebin shed in the house yard. Kerbside collection is not possible mainly due to winter conditions and snow. The drop off sites for producer responsibility recyclables are typically located near markets and retail shops or in rural areas at road junctions. Waste management in Tampere is financed by the waste producers (except for part of the producer responsibility waste) using the polluter pays principle. The households are billed according to the waste volume they produce and they can decide the volume and the collection interval to suit their needs. The regional household waste regulation orders the type of waste bins, maximum collection interval and the level of the source separation. The waste fees also cover domestic hazardous waste management and part of the collection costs of recyclables. Consumer advice on waste management issues are also covered in these fees. Issues of workers safety within waste collection were discussed and have been developed in recent years. Municipal waste regulations order frequent waste bin washing and maintenance. Due 15

to this increased maintenance some of the old heavy metal waste bins were taken out of use. The regulations include locations for waste bins and site maintenance on yards (snow and ice removal) to avoid some potential health hazards for collection workers. Concerns over hygiene hazards, especially for kitchen biowaste collection and treatment has arisen but have not been solved yet. 2.2.1 Waste management in practice The company organises the collection of municipal solid waste and hazardous waste from households. The door-to-door collection of waste is contracted out to private transport companies on a competitive tendering basis. The industrial sector is responsible for managing its own waste, but the municipal waste disposal and processing facilities receive large quantities of industrial waste as well. In urban areas inhabitants have their own separate refuse bins for dry residual waste. The bins are emptied on a regular basis anywhere from a 2 day to 2 week interval. Buildings that have at least five apartments must also have bins for paper and biowaste (kitchen waste). In rural areas inhabitants can either have their own separate refuse bins or they can use local drop-off collection points for the residual waste, after paying an annual waste charge. The routing of waste collection vehicles is performed with computerised registers and GPS systems. Households separate at source hazardous waste, dry residual waste and the following recyclable materials: paper, biowaste, cardboard, glass and metal. There are more than 200 drop-off collection points for recyclables around the Tampere region. The domestic hazardous wastes are brought to municipal waste centres or other controlled drop off sites, for example at eco-centres, contracted petrol stations or other service facilities. Old and unused medicines are usually dropped off at pharmacies. The company organises a scheduled collection for household hazardous waste and recyclable metals. Bulky wastes are collected directly from households, on request. 16

Country Name of the Area Size in km² Inhabitants Describtion Finland Tampere Regional Waste management 10 018 km2 population 5,2 million 23 municipalities Annotation Number of Households 370.000 17.000 companies Type 150.000 50 % town, 35 other urban areas, 10 % rural e.g.: Town with multi storage building or one family houses, rural etc. Table. 4: General Information about the Region of Tampere Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection Scheduled coll 2/yr Scheduled coll 2/yr. By order Residual Waste X X X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X X Paper X (X) X X Glass X X X Metal X X X X Leightweight/Plastic X X X Hazardous Waste X Waste, Bulky, WEE X X Table. 5: Type of Collection Equipment used in the Region of Tampere 17

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Residual Waste X X x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X Paper X X x Glass X X Metal X X X Leightweight/Plastic X X Hazardous Waste X x Waste X Table. 6: Type of Collection Vehicle used in the Region of Tampere Finnish Solid Waste Association Recommendation for wastebin colours in Finland MIXED WASTE PMS 431, C:11,5 % M:0 % Y:0 % K:65 % BIOWASTE PMS 168, C:0 % M:56 % Y:100 % K:60 % ENERGY WASTE (dry, combustable) PAPER PMS 361, C:76 % M:0 % Y:91 % K:0 % TAI MUSTA VÄRI CARDBOARD PMS 300, C:100 % M:43 % Y:0 % K:0 % METAL Black 18

GLASS White HAZARDOUS WASTE PMS 032, C:0 % M:91 % Y:87 % K:0 % OTHER RECYCLABLES (Plastic, Milk and juice carton, Textiles) PMS 109, C:0 % M:8,5 % Y:94 % K:0 % SYMBOLS Energy waste Biowaste Hazardous waste Finnish Solid Waste Association 2002 Table. 7: Recommendation for Waste Bin Colours in Finland 2.3 Recommendations The population density in Finland is very low, which requires municipal co-operation to provide the population with a sufficiently and operationally sound waste management service. Public-private partnership with outsourcing of certain basic operations through competitive tendering gives a sound basis for cost effective waste management. In certain areas household waste collection is still operated by private companies directly contracting with the properties. Experiences of this type of direct contracting are not all positive. Due to weak competition in these direct waste collection contracts for private properties between 19

private collectors the prices have in some cases been up to 40 % more expensive than the same area collection costs after competitive tendering by the municipal waste company. With this experience the municipalities and the regional municipal companies are switching to tendered waste collection in many regions. The source separation system of various waste components, widely applied in Finland, requires a lot of transportation. Flexible multichamber vehicles could be used especially in rural areas where the waste volumes are small and the transportation distances are long. Optical and mechanical sorting of the residual waste can be applied in some regions to replace complete source separation. The producer responsibility in packaging materials does not function satisfactorily from the consumer and the municipal waste management point of view. The national recycling targets are too low and as a result producer responsibility is applied only to the easiest or the most profitable sectors of the packaging waste. The national packaging waste collection targets are expected to be changed. The major collection equipment is the 600 l (660 l) plastic bins emptied with 2-4 axle rear loaders. The emptying of the bins, especially during the winter, is an occupational risk for the employees due to the heavy loads. Mechanisation of collection could be a solution if sufficient space could be made available. Developing the operational functionality is necessary for the waste collection sites, both in houses and rural drop off sites. 20

3 SWEDEN, Gothenburg Bo Antoni, bo.antoni@kretslopp.goteborg.se City of Gothenburg, Kretsloppsnämnden S-40424 Göteborg (Gothenburg), Sweden 3.1 History A city-owned cleansing department started in 1885 in Göteborg, due to a bad sanitary situation in the city, with diseases like cholera as a consequence. The cleansing department became responsible for collection of household and latrine waste. A factory was constructed for farming purposes, where manures where produced. In 1907 water closets were introduced in Göteborg and gradually more and more latrine waste was handled via this system. At the end of World War I households were requested to separate their waste into bio waste from the kitchen and residual waste. The bio waste was used as food for pigs in a city-owned pig farm. It turned out to be a costly solution so at the end of the 1920s the pig farm was closed. Currently recycling has been substituted by a getting rid of the waste philosophy. Waste was disposed of at refuse tips. When more and more chemicals were developed in society, increasing volumes of hazardous waste were also deposited at refuse tips. Until the early 1970s this was the general method of handling such waste types then an incineration plant was inaugurated. It was managed by GRAAB, a company owned by the City of Göteborg and some neighbouring cities. In the beginning there was air pollution from the plant, but this has gradually been reduced to a minimum by investments in emission cleaning technology. At the end of the 1980s there was again a shift in the view of waste. There was a renaissance in the view of waste as a resource. The responsibility for waste handling was partially given back to producers and consumers. The Producers Responsibility was introduced in the mid 1990s for packaging and paper. Producers responsibility waste is collected at 440 recycling stations. A large number of householders have local door-to-door collection of materials in-hous At the end of the 1990s a system for the separation of bio waste was introduced. Householders have the opportunity to either compost their bio waste themselves or leave bio waste separately in paper bags for collection for central composting. Sixty percent of households particiapte by leaving bio waste for separate collection. There are economic incentives, which promote separate handling of bio waste. The residual waste is incinerated. In 1998 a buy-sell concept was introduced in waste handling. The former cleansing department was sold to the regional company GRAAB, and changed its name to Renova, and is now a player in a competitive market situation. Transportation of waste is put out for tender by the Recycling Board. This has lead to the situation where several companies transport household waste. 21

Renova also developed the mobile vacuum collection system during the 1990s. There was a need to introduce vacuum systems for residential areas with lower density of the population (see photo), and the combination of a refuse truck equipped with a vacuum system and a compactor tank solved the problem. The product was sold later to the Swedish company Centralsug (now Envac), which today is the world leader for automated collection systems. Figure. 4: Mobile Vacuum Collection Truck in Operation 3.2 Status Quo Country Name of the Area Size in km² Inhabitants Number of Households Type Describtion Sweden Gothenburg 45 023 ha 475 000 230 000 Second largest city in Sweden with 80% muli-storage buildnings Annotation Table. 8: General Information about Gothenburg 22

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste Paper Glass Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste x x x x x x Waste x Table. 9: Type of Collection Equipment used in Gothenburg Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System (1) Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System (2) Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Type of Household Waste Residual Waste x x Organic Waste x x Paper Glass Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste Waste x x x x x (1) Vacuum collection systems; (2) Recycling stations and gaz stations for hazardous waste. Table. 10: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Gothenburg 3.2.1 Sizes and Colours of Waste Bins For household waste 150 litre bins 1000 litre bins are used. There are also compacting bins with capacities of 400 litres. Bio waste is collected in sacks or bins, with capacities of 120 litres 190 litres. The householder uses paper bags for collecting bio waste prior to placing into the sack or bin. 25-30 000 households are connected to vacuum systems. Both stationary and mobile systems are used. 23

The colour of bins is generally green. 3.2.2 Funding The fees are decided by the City Council after proposal from The Recycling Board. The householder pays different fees depending on a. type of bin b. frequency of collection c. type of service There are incentives for the separate handling of bio waste. A villa household with its own compost and collection of residual waste every 14-day pays around 150 euros per year. A villa household which leaves mixed waste every week pays 170 euros per year. 24

4 GERMANY, Hamburg Bernd Leowald, b.leowald@srhh.de Stadtreinigung Hamburg Bullerdeich 19 D-20537 Hamburg 4.1 Status Quo in Hamburg Today in Hamburg waste is collected in different ways. In the spreadsheets below, you can see that nearly every kind of waste (except paper) is collected in containers. The reason for this system possibly is that Hamburg started to collect residual waste very early in closed steel containers because of dust pollution and the danger of fire caused by hot ashes. Today we use plastic containers (80l, 120l, 240l, 1100l) because of the light weight and low price. Only in households with ovens do we still use steel containers (this accounts for less than 10%). Once a collection system is introduced it has an impact on any following systems for separate collection. The application of the same kind of collection vehicle s lifting device for the collection of residual waste and recycled materials necessitated the same kind of containers to be used. The collection of hazardous waste and bulky waste takes place in recycling stations, established for the population of Hamburg to deliver its waste free of charge. The common collection vehicle in Hamburg is a rear loader with 2 to 4 workers (especially in the inner districts with full service). Figure. 5: Waste Collection in Hamburg s Inner City 25

Country Name of the Area Size in km² Inhabitants Number of Households Type Describtion Germany Hamburg 755,32 km² 1,715,392 about 750.000 Big City with multi-storage buildings Table. 11: General Information about Hamburg Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste X X X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X X X X Paper X X X X X Glass X X Metal X Leightweight/Plastic X X X X Hazardous Waste X Waste X Table. 12: Type of Collection Equipment used in Hamburg 26

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System 1) Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Type of Household Waste Residual Waste X X X X Organic Waste X X X Paper X X X X Glass X X Metal X Leightweight/Plastic X X X X Hazardous Waste X Waste X X 1) Recycling Stations Table. 13: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Hamburg 4.2 Recommendation Surveys of the population of Hamburg have shown that most householders are satisfied with their waste management service. A full service is provided for residual and paper waste and there is a bring system for other kinds of waste. Some consideration was given to using side loaders and a test commenced in November 2002, in the outer regions of Hamburg. Hamburg has four waste incineration plants within the town unfortunately 40 foot container transportation is required to fulfil the existing contracts with these plants. Regarding the traffic situation Hamburg has some hot spots (especially the Elbe Tunnel) so collection vehicles are not driven to our incineration plant in the South. Waste is transported through the tunnel at night in closed containers. 27

5 AUSTRALIA, Brisbane Max Spedding, mspeddin@bigpond.net.au 5.1 Introduction Brisbane is the state capital of Queensland and is located on the Brisbane River in the south-east of the state. Brisbane is unusual in comparison to other state capitals in Australia as it is not broken into several local government areas but is a single city council. Brisbane is a commercial/administrative city without significant heavy industry. Brisbane is located in a sub-tropical climate. 5.2 History in Respect to Waste Management Household waste management infrastructure and services are the responsibility of local government in Australia. Since the mid-eighties contracting out of collection services has increased. In the case of Brisbane all current operations are undertaken by contractors. In respect to the developments leading to the current systems the relevant history is: 1970s Collection with rear-loaders operated by council staff Unlimited 80L steel bins supplied by the household Bins placed at kerbside by householder 1980s Collection with rear-loaders operated by contractor s staff Introduction of 240L cart (MGB) supplied by council MGB placed at kerbside by householder (only one service per week) 1990s Collection by single operator side-loaders operated by contractor s staff Replacement of 2401 MGB with a: 120L MBG for refuse 240L split MGB for recyclables 28

Continued weekly collection of refuse Introduction of fortnightly collection of recyclables MGB s placed at kerbside by householder plus Re-organisation of waste management infrastructure with the closure and rehabilitation of the city s numerous local landfills and the construction of: a central landfill two major transfer stations two community drop-off centres two material recovery centres 2000s 1990s program but with the elimination of the split in the bin for recycling Introduction of a twin chamber single-pass side-loader trucks for collection of refuse and recyclables Construction of third material recovery centre Conversion of one community drop-off to a full transfer station 5.3 Current Services Country City Australia Brisbane Area (km 2 ) 1220 km 2 Inhabitants 898,000 Type Major city with majority living in single family detached houses: Dwellings 338,349 / Units 46,192 / Flats 5,729 / Commercial 26,731 Table. 14: General Information about Brisbane 5.3.1 Services Brisbane City Council renewed its refuse and recycling collection contracts commencing 1 July 2002. The contracts accommodate the provision to householders and commercial premises of a 29

weekly refuse collection service utilising existing 120 and some 240 litre bins to householders and a fortnightly recyclable materials collection service utilising 240 litre bins. A recycling bin is available to each residential property. Multiple attached housing (unit blocks) and town house developments generally receive one recycling bin per four units, but may receive on request, additional bins up to the total number of units. Additionally some community based organisations including schools, child care centres, nursing homes etc. who wish to participate in the recycling program can, on request, receive a 240 litre recycling bin. Four combined refuse and recycling collection contracts were offered to tender. One contractor (Sita) won all four contracts. Refuse collected is delivered to one of the Council s refuse transfer stations ie Nudgee, Willawong and Chandler. The collected recyclable materials are delivered to any one of three Materials Recovery Facilities (MRF) ie Rocklea, Nudgee and Gibson Island. The operation of those MRFs for processing of recyclable materials is covered by a separate contract (Visy). The bulk bin refuse collection service also is provided under a separate contract. Commercial and industrial businesses and multiple attached housing (unit blocks) and town house developments can elect to utilise the services available under the Council s programs. 5.3.2 Statistics Of approximately 365,000 rateable properties in Brisbane, about 300,000 are residential and 30,000 are commercial/industrial. Approximately 360,000 refuse bins and 298,000 recycling bins are currently in use in the City. The following table contains information based on the best available statistics or data available at the time of production of this document and no guarantee is given as to the accuracy. North South- West South- East Central Total Presentation Rate Weight Collected Number of Refuse- Entitled collection Services 115,800 88,000 97,800 60,400 362,000 90-95% 250,000T Number of bins at Recycling-Entitled Properties 95,300 72,400 80,600 49,700 298,000 70-80% 44,000Tps Number of In-Home Services* 870 530 970 490 2,860 * In Home Services are offered to residents who because of disability cannot take their MGB to the kerbside. Table. 15: Waste Statistics of Brisbane 30

The Annual Property Growth Rate is 2 3 %. 5.3.3 Equipment Refuse (only) Refuse/Recyclables Garden Waste Hard Waste Apartment Blocks* Side-loader (with rear-loader in central business area) and 120L MGB Twin chamber single-pass side-loader for household collection and 120L (refuse) & 240L (recyclables) MGB s Delivered to the transfer station by householders in open trucks/trailers Rear-loader collected form the kerbside or delivered to the transfer stations by householders in open trucks/trailers Front-lift collection and 3m 3 steel containers Table. 16: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Brisbane 5.3.4 Colour of Bins There is no uniform colour standard for bins in Australia. Generally, however, the following combinations are used: Co-mingled recyclables - green with yellow lid Paper - blue Infectious medical waste - yellow Organics and garden 'green' waste - green with red lid Residual waste - green, grey or black 5.3.5 Safety Occupation Health and Safety (OH&S) is regulated by State governments in Australia and varies from State to State. Generally, however, core standards are fairly uniform. 31

Major issues at this time are: Operators crossing the road (the trend is for collection from one side of the road at a time only). Operators riding on the rear of the vehicle (the plan is to eliminate this altogether). Operators manually lifting bins (the move is towards eliminating all manual lifting and to utilise mechanical lifting for all MSW collections). Drivers operating lifting equipment within 1 metre of overhead powerlines. Except in inner-city areas most MSW collection is now undertaken by driver-only side load vehicles. 5.3.6 Funding In most cities in Australia (including Brisbane) collection is managed by the local municipality. Generally charges for MSW collection and disposal are based on a user-pay approach, eg in the City of Kingston in Melbourne residents have a choice of the following services/costs: 120lt waste/240lt green org/240lt split recyclables 80lt waste/240lt green org/240lt split recyclables 120lt waste/120lt green org/240lt split recyclables 80lt waste/120lt green org/240lt split recyclables 120lt waste/240lt split recyclables 80lt waste/240lt split recyclables At this time no services are charged by weight. Charges are recovered together with property taxes. As most MSW collection is performed by private contractors funding for capital items such as trucks and containers is via financial leasing. 5.3.7 Compliance with Strategy Over the past fifteen years most Australian States have encouraged their municipalities to divert waste from landfill. This encouragement has generally been voluntary but strong public opinion in favour of resource recovery has driven significant change. 32

In Victoria the State government has recently released a broad-based waste strategy that sets targets for MSW of 45% diversion by 2008 and 65% by 2013. Future issues to be considered by the Brisbane City Council are: Reduction of greenhouse emission by the collection fleet 1 Overall reduction in waste generated as this is continuing to rise Better use of green waste Separate collection of organics (when these can be viably processed) Introduction of energy-from-waste infrastructure 1 Council seriously considered moving to CNG powered trucks at the last tender but elected to go with the single-pass truck as a step towards reduced traffic and greenhouse emission. 33

6 ITALY, Forlì Massimo Vienna, UNICA S.p.A. Via Balzella 24 I-47100 Forli 6.1 History The history of household waste collection in Forlì from the first years of the 1900s is still in progress, by the research of data and the collection of testimonies. Only the situation from the 1960s is available. The waste was stored in bags (about 1 000 l) in the house. The collectors took them from the house and emptied them in their vehicle. In 1977 containers along the road were introduced in Forlì, along the periphery. They were 1 100 1 300 l containers, made of steel or fiberglass/resin compound, and collected with rear loader vehicles. For each vehicle there was 2 3 operators. In 1985 waste collection was still with bags carried from the houses by the waste collectors, in some inner areas. In 1990 the container system along the road was established all over Forlì. From 1990 the container size increased gradually, up to 2 800 3 200 l, made of plastic or steel. 6.2 Status Quo Today in Forlì the waste is collected in different ways. The situation in summarised in the tables below. Most of the waste is collected via kerbside collection, but there is some separate collection. For residual waste collection 1 300 1 800 l containers (in some inner areas) and 2 800 3 200 l containers are used. The common collection vehicle in Forlì is the side loader with a single operator. In inner areas rear loader vehicles with one or two operators are used. For separate collection there are some little stations along the road (about one for each 900 inhabitants) with some 2 400 l containers to collect paper, plastic, glass and one multimaterial box to collect aluminium, batteries and medicines. Moreover there are bring systems with two stations where the people can bring separated waste and weigh it free of charge. Citizens will be awarded for their delivery. 34

Country Name of the Area Size in km² Inhabitants Number of Households Type ITALY FORLI' 228,2 Describtion population 5,2 million 23 municipalities 108.000 17.000 companies 43.772 Town with multistorage buildings and rural Annotation e.g.: Town with multi storage building or one family houses, rural etc. Table. 17: General Information about Forlì Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection Scheduled coll 2/yr Scheduled coll 2/yr. By order Residual Waste X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste Paper Glass Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Waste, Bulky, WEE Table. 18: Type of Collection Equipment used in Forlì 35

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Type of Household Waste Collection Vehicle Residual Waste Organic Waste Paper Glass Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste Waste Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Table. 19: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Forlì 6.3 Recommendations The waste collected in Forlì is increasing every year. The percentage of separately collected waste is around 24%, but an improvement of the system is expected by increasing the number of containers and stations. In two years the percentage of separately collected waste will be around 35%. In Forlì one solid waste incinerator plant is operating with a capacity of around 60 000 t/year. In the next few years a new solid waste incinerator plant with a capacity of 120 000 t/year will be completed. 36

7 ITALY, Bologna Ing. Valentina Cipriano, cipriano@federambiente.it Federambiente Servizio Tecnico Via Cavour 179/a I 00184 Roma 7.1 Past Situation Waste production has always gone hand in hand with human evolution and, as a consequence, it has always been necessary to arrange for its disposal. MSW collection and disposal service had to adapt to society s development which, in the last fifty years, has been growing at an extremely fast pace. For a good many years everyday objects were produced with some difficulty and at high costs, so families used their own for a long time before discarding them. More recent times have seen the arising of the so called consumer culture, characterised by the production of a great many articles at very low costs, so that one can afford to buy a lot of objects which have, however, a very short life cycle and very quickly become waste to be disposed of. In Bologna, this kind of evolution involved and it still involves a continuous adaptation of the waste collecting service. The problem was tackled by adopting an industrial-like system which, at the beginning of the fifties, was characterised by the use of dustbins for families and rubbish skips with a capacity of 90-100 l. for blocks of flats, emptied by vehicles especially equipped for nonseparate collection and landfilling. At the beginning of the seventies, in order to meet the growing waste production - both in weight and in volume - it was necessary to adopt a new system. This meant using 1 500 l. fibreglass street containers, while the disposal of non-separate waste was carried out both at the new incineration plant and at the landfill. MSW quality is characterised by the presence of valuable, or in any case recyclable, materials. So, starting from 1980, new containers for separate collection of some MSW fractions (glass, paper and plastic, etc.) were placed next to non-separate collection containers made of metal and with an ever increasing capacity, to be emptied by means of automated vehicles. Waste separation before collection calls for a more complex system. In fact it requires an ever growing awareness and commitment on the part of the citizens who do not limit themselves to discard all their waste in one container, but have to make a selective delivery according to the kind of waste they are disposing of. 7.2 Present Situation The increase in waste production and the development of separate collection both as collected amounts and number of separately collected fractions gave rise to a proliferation of containers. Coming in different shapes and colours, they have, by now, become part of the urban landscape, but they also produce some drawbacks, such as taking up space in the ever more jammed streets, or creating more difficulties for citizens who have to separate waste before disposing of it. 37

In 1998 it was decided to further increase the number of fractions to be separately collected, including the collection of the organic fraction contained in MSW. For this kind of collection, citizens interested in the service are given a kit consisting of a bin and respective biodegradable bags, as well as a key to open the street container dedicated to this kind of waste. On the occasion of the introduction of this service to the various districts of Bologna, it was also arranged to rationalise some separate collections by launching the separate collection of multimaterial, made up of paper, plastic and tins. This collection provides for the disposal of all the above mentioned materials in one single container and it replaces previous single collections, thus reducing the types of containers on the streets and simplifying citizens separation. The adoption of this system that will be completed by the beginning of 2003 will limit the presence on the streets of containers for glass, organic waste, multimaterial dry fraction and clothes, in addition to those dedicated to non-separate collection. Waste collection service in Bologna is not limited to street container collection, but it is supplemented by some specific collections at waste production points, such as drug collection at chemists, printer ink cartridges at offices, or paper in schools. There are also two ecological stations where citizens can deliver waste that is difficult for collection and disposal, such as used tyres, vegetable and mineral oils, and all hazardous waste in general. 7.3 Destination of Collected Waste Disposal of non-separate waste is carried out partly at the first class landfill (certified ISO 14001: 1996 and EMAS II) and partly at the Bologna incineration plant. This plant has been working nonstop since 1973 and, with its waste disposal potential of about 140,000 ton/year, it produces 41,000,000 kwh electric power, as well as 45,000,000 MCal thermal energy, yielded as steam for district heating. Destination of the various kinds of separately collected waste is related in the following table: DESTINATION OF COLLECTED WASTE Typology of waste Disposal or recovery Referents Description of recovery or disposal procedure Paper and cardboard Paper mills COMIECO National consortium for recovery and recycling of cellulose-based packaging Seabo, delegated by the Municipalities served, drew up a convention with COMIECO. COMIECO identified four platforms (Olga Fini, CBRC, Passerini, Marchesini) and a paper mill (Reno de Medici). Paper and cardboard collected by Seabo are therefore delivered to the COMIECO platforms to be treated and then sent to the pertinent paper mill 38

Glass and tins Glassworks, metallurgical industry Emiliana Rottami San Cesario sul Panaro (MO) The consignee divides glass and tins from scrap. Glass is processed and sent to glassworks, while tins are delivered to CIAL and CNA consortia to recover raw material. Scrap, for a maximum of 13% of recovered amounts, are disposed of in Seabo s landfills. Plastic bottles Selection plants and chemical industry COREPLA National Consortium for Collection, Recycling and Recovery of Plastic Packagingderived Waste Seabo, delegated by the Municipalities served, drew up a convention with COREPLA. COREPLA identified a platform - Plastinova di Portomaggiore (FE), - where plastic packaging is delivered to be selected and recycled at specialised plants appointed by COREPLA Aluminium and steel tins Aluminium foundries and steel foundries CIAL Aluminium Packaging Consortium CNA National Steel Consortium Seabo, delegated by the Municipalities served, drew up a convention with CIAL and CNA consortia. CIAL e CNA pick up the tins at the Emiliana Rottami and multimaterial selection plants, taking upon themselves the subsequent delivery to foundries for raw material recovery. Wood Grinding and recycling plants Sandei Vignola (MO), SIA (MN), Silla (MN) Wood, delivered to Sandei, is selected, ground, and made into chipboard panels used to produce furniture components Organic waste Composting plants Nuova Geovis S. Agata Bolognese and Ozzano Emilia The contract provides for waste composting and transfer to Nuova Geovis landfill of aftersieve residues, and of waste itself during technical shutdowns of the composting plant Vegetable waste from public areas Composting plant Nuova Geovis Ozzano Emilia Natural compost production, after-sieve residues are disposed of at the Seabo landfill at Baricella Dry multimaterial waste Exhausted batteries T and/or F labelled containers, out- Selection plants Selecta Coriano (RN), CIR Secco Lugo (RA), Dirama Imola, Bandini Casamenti (FC) Disposal plants AREA Ravenna Disposal plants Energy-from-waste plant - Frullo Contracts provide for treatment of dry fractions: plastic, cellulosic and metallic. Waste now belongs to the consignees, who deliver recovered packaging to their respective consortia, bring out single recovered separated materials, and dispose of nonrecyclable fractions. Contract provides for batteries disposal in a landfill specifically authorised for this type of waste. Waste is disposed of in waste-to-energy plants with both electrical and thermal energy recovery. Waste is landfilled in an authorised landfill for special 39

of-date drugs and used syringes Energia Ambiente waste. Electronic materials Recovery plants TRED Carpi (MO) Material recovery. Contract does not provide for return of processing waste. Disused refrigerators Recovery plants TRED Carpi (MO), Ecoltecnica Livorno, SEVAL Sondrio Waste is treated at the mentioned companies for a correct disposal of CFC and for recovery of valuable materials. Cast-off clothes Collection centres Handicap project - Caritas diocesana, Recovery of reusable clothes. Non-reusable clothes are sent to specialised companies for the recovery of textile fibres to be used in new fabrics. Lead Accumulators Recovery plants COBAT- National Consortium for Exhausted Batteries Seabo drew up an agreement with COBAT, which identified Rimondi as the delivery platform. The agreement provides for the collection of exhausted batteries for the recovery of lead, functional acid and casing materials, besides a correct disposal of whatever cannot be recovered. Ferrous Waste Collection centres and foundries RIB, Italmetalli, Tondini, Specialtrasporti Contracts provide for collection and transfer to foundries for the recovery of all ferrous materials other than packaging. Waste abandoned in public areas Recovery/ disposal plants Alfarec, Teseco Seabo carries out the analyses of liquid waste abandoned on public areas and, according to results, sends them to suitable treatment/disposal/ recovery plants. Tyres Recovery plants Rimondi, Montieco Contract provides for collection and transfer of tyres to recovery or disposal plants. Printer ink cartridges Recovery plants Eco Recuperi, Gamma Service Consignees take care either of regeneration and refilling of reusable cartridges, or of recovery of recyclable components and disposal of what cannot be recovered. Table. 20: Destination of Collected Waste in Bolgona 40

8 NETHERLANDS, Region of Drechtsteden Ing. Jan P.V.M. Laurijssens Managing Director of NETWERK Baanhoekweg 38 NL-3313 LA Dordrecht 8.1 History After WW II a standard steel waste bin (33 litres) was introduced for household waste collection, with an emptying frequency of twice a week. The crew per vehicle amounted to three collectors and a driver. There was hardly any bulky waste at that time. In the seventies the plastic waste sack (40 litres) replaced the waste bin, which was collected once a week with a maximum of three sacks per household. There was a growing demand for bulky waste collection, which was collected by the newly introduced compaction vehicle, often simultaneously with the waste sacks. In the eighties the mini container was introduced and waste separation became an environmental issue. In the beginning households got one plastic container (240 litres) that was emptied once a fortnight, now people have two containers (one for organic waste) that are emptied alternatively within a fortnight. With containers for glass (colour separation) with a density of 1:500 households the bring system was introduced, as well as a waste paper collection system via a concession system for (sports) clubs. The realisation of recycling stations initiated the change from kerbside collection to highly successful bring systems. 8.2 Status quo The Drechtsteden area operates the disposal of a mechanised waste collect system with underground storage in the city centre and apartment buildings and mini containers for family houses. The collecting vehicles are OMB side loaders for the underground system and Haller side loaders and Geesink rear loaders for mini containers. Bulky waste is collected via separate routes. Paper, glass, hazardous waste, reuse articles, white and brown goods are collected separately. 41

The recycling stations have a density of 1:100 000 inhabitants and satisfy an enormous need. Country Name of the Area Size in km² Inhabitants Number of Households Type Netherlands Drechtsteden unknown Describtion 300.000 Annotation 136.000 e.g.: Town with multi storage building or one family 55% one family houses and 45% multi storage buhouses, rural etc. Table. 21: General Information about the Region of Drechtsteden Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection Scheduled coll 2/yr Scheduled coll 2/yr. By order Residual Waste X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X Paper X X X Glass X X Metal X Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste X X Waste, Bulky, WEE x X Table. 22: Type of Collection Equipment used in the Region of Drechtsteden 42

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Residual Waste X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X X Paper X X Glass Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste x X Waste X Tab. 23: Type of Collection Vehicle used in the Region of Drechtsteden 8.3 Recommendations Promote the trend from collect system to bring system (increase service). Promote home composting and stop collection of organic waste; use the available containers for separation of dry wastes. Promote further mechanisation in connection with workload and efficiency. 43

9 DENMARK, Copenhagen Per Nilsson, M.Sc.Mech.Eng. R98, Renholdningsselskabet af 1898 Kraftvaerksvej 25 DK-2300 Copenhagen S Søren Eriksen, se@r98.dk R98, Renholdningsselskabet af 1898 Kraftvaerksvej 25 DK-2300 Copenhagen S 9.1 History Since about 1870 the collection of household waste in Copenhagen has been full-service. For almost a century the standard receptacle was an 80-100 litre metal bin manually emptied into horse-drawn carts, later ordinary tipping trucks and since the 1950 rear-loading collection vehicles. During 1970-1974 the metal bins were replaced by modern plastic bins and containers from 110 litres to 660 litres. Approximately 20% of household waste is collected in larger steel containers (4-22 m 3 ), often with built-in compactors. Until 1952 only waste from a very limited part of the city was collected by the municipality. The rest was left to free enterprise, and as many as 200 individual collectors were active most of them with only one vehicle. 1952-1964 collection was gradually taken over by the Copenhagen Landlords Refuse Collection Company later named R98 a not-for-profit private utility company founded in 1898 for the purpose of collecting night soil (latrine). Since 1964 all household waste in the City of Copenhagen has been collected by R98 on a long-term concessionary agreement with the city. 9.2 Status Quo Collection of all residual waste in Copenhagen is done on a full-service basis. Apart from a few thousand single-family houses with paper sacks, all manual collection is in containers with two or four wheels (140 l 660 l), with paper sacks being phased out. Collection from multistorey buildings is usually done twice weekly, but because of limited space in the backyards, many old houses are still being serviced three times weekly, and in a few cases even more. Since the mid 1990 new working environment regulations forbid carrying of waste bins and sacks. To overcome staircases, steps etc., a large number of electric lifts (over 600), ramps etc. have been fitted to old buildings, and also more than 50 vacuum systems have been installed. In addition to residual waste, bulky waste is also collected on a full-service basis. The only kerbside service is the collection of bulky waste and garden waste from single family houses. Waste electric and electronic equipment is collected separately for special treatment. 44

Figure. 6: Electric Lifts for Waste Containers Figure. 7: Ramps for Waste Containers 45

Paper for recycling is also collected under a full service scheme from multistorey buildings, mostly in 660 l containers. Hazardous waste from households is collected by specialised haz-waste vans calling at dedicated stops on a monthly or quarterly basis. A new and more efficient concept is now being introduced: A specialised, locked container - under supervision of the caretaker - is used for storing hazardous waste from households. When it is full, the waste is collected by R98. Collection of residual waste is done in two shifts, the first shift starting at 05.00 a.m. Normally the rear-loading vehicles are manned by a crew of two both of whom are driving as well as handling the containers. R98 also operates a number of small rear-loaders with only one driver/loader. These vehicles can enter into some backyards, narrow alleys and underground parking lots, thus saving a lot of manual transporting of containers. A collection fee is calculated for each individual property, based on the nominal volume of the containers for residual waste and the frequency of collection. There is an additional fee for distance exceeding 15 metres from the vehicle stop (kerbstone) to the container stand (x DKK per 10 metres). All other services: bulky waste, garden waste, hazardous waste collection as well as recycling schemes, and the use of recycling centres, are free i.e. included in the fee for collection of residual waste. Description Annotation Country Denmark Population: 5.3 Million. Name of the Area City of Copenhagen The City of Copenhagen only represents the central part of the metropolitan area Size in km 2 89.6 km 2 Inhabitants 501 000 Greater Copenhagen: approx. 1.7 Million. Number of Households 279 000 Type 93 per cent flats 7 per cent single-family houses Table. 24: General Information about Copenhagen 46

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X Paper X X X Glass X X X X Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste X X X Waste X Tab. 25: Type of Collection Equipment used in Copenhagen Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Residual Waste X X X X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X Paper X X Glass X X Metal Leightweight/Plastic Hazardous Waste X X Waste X X X Table. 26: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Copenhagen 9.3 Recommendation In order to meet the EU and the Danish Government requirements concerning recycling quotas, a strong effort is allocated to increase paper recycling, and a new scheme for collection of source separated cardboard from households is being introduced. A test scheme for collection of biodegradable waste (food waste) from 11 000 households has been active for some years. A comprehensive report on the results of this collection scheme is currently being evaluated by the city as well as the national Environmental Protection Agency. As part of the study, the Technical University of Denmark (TUD) has compared three different treatment methods for organic waste: 47

Incineration with generation of electric power and hot water for district heating (the current situation in Copenhagen). Anaerobic digestion with energy recovery (biogas) Aerobic digestion (Composting) The T.U.D. report concludes that the overall environmental result is marginally better for the biogas process than for incineration. Aerobic digestion however, is clearly an environmentally inferior process with no energy recovery and a high degree of CO 2 -emission. It is expected that the Danish government will make a decision on the future of separate collection and biological treatment of household waste in 2003. 48

10 SPAIN, Madrid, Barcelona, Sevilla, Valencia Dr. Julián Uriarte Jaureguizar, juriarte@ategrus.org ATEGRUS Barroeta Aldamar, 6-1. E-48001 Bilbao 10.1 Madrid Selective collection of wastes was implemented in 1998 for packaging and residual wastes, following the Management Plan of the Regional Government. Previously, paper and glass were collected separately using igloo containers. The vehicles used are split-body two compartment split 70-30% with a capacity of 25 and 18 m 3 and the normal refuse collection trucks have capacities of 24, 18, 11 and 7 m 3.. The special containers used are made of plastic with a capacity of 120, 240, 330 and 800 litres. The containers for side loading are made of metal with a capacity of 2 400 and 3 200 litres and are used only in a very small area of the city. Vacuum collection is not used in the city. Country Name of the Area Size in km_ Inhabitants Number of Households Describtion Spain Madrid 607,08 km2 3,062,462 Annotation Type Table. 27: General Information about Madrid 49

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste x x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste Paper x x Glass x x Metal Leightweight/Plastic x x x Hazardous Waste x Waste Table. 28: Type of Collection Equipment used in Madrid 10.1.1 Recommendations for the Future Technical improvements should be applied to waste collection trucks. Public consciousness. 10.2 Barcelona Barcelona is located in the north east of Spain and is the second largest Spanish city, if we take into account the number of inhabitants. Wastes services are tendered to companies through a contract. The last one was awarded in October 2000 for a term of seven years, with an approximate cost of 90 million Euro. For ordinary waste collection, the following containers are used: 3 200 litres side loaded containers; 7 235 units 1 700 litres rear loaded containers: 4 766 units 1 100 litres rear loaded containers: 4 156 units For the special collection of commercial wastes, 5 000 containers from 120 to 240 litres are used. For the selective collection of wastes, the following equipment is used: 2 200 units of 2.5 m 3 igloos for glass 1 100 units of 2.5 m 3 igloos for packaging wastes 1 100 units of 2.5 m 3 igloos for paper 1 100 side loaded containers for paper 50

1 100 side loaded containers for packaging For residual collection, 132 vehicles work during the night. For separate collection, 18 vehicles work during the day. For bulky wastes, 30 vehicles work during the night. Commercial wastes are collected as follows: organic wastes during the night and paper during the day. Vacuum collection is used in Barcelona with two stations working and three under construction. Figure. 8: Wide Opening of the Vacuum Collection System Figure. 9: Waste Container of the Vacuum Collection System 51

Country Name of the Area Size in km_ Inhabitants Number of Households Type Spain Barcelona 99 km2 1,550,000 711 thousands mainly flats (85%) and some areas with a high commercial density e.g.: Town with multi storage building or one family houses, rural etc. Table. 29: General Information about Barcelona Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste x x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste x x Paper x x Glass x x Metal x x Leightweight/Plastic x x Hazardous Waste Waste x x Table. 30: Type of Collection Equipment used in Barcelona 10.2.1 Recommendations for the Future For the future, the following suggestions are made: To separate household waste collection from the commercial waste collection. To improve separate commercial collection service both, through commercial centres and through specific collection services to big producers. Refrain from putting a lot of containers for separate collection within the city, but to pre-treat wastes at the treatment centre. 52

10.3 Sevilla Sevilla is located in the south of Spain, and is the third largest Spanish city by number of inhabitants. Until 1986 waste collection was performed manually. From 1986 rear loaded containers were used. important data are: In 1986 glass collection began. In 1992 waste paper collection began. In 1994 side collection containers were implemented. In 1998 the yellow containers for packaging were implemented and the first recycling point was also built. In 1999 two more recycling points were open. In 2000 rear and side loaded containers for packaging waste collection were implemented. In 2001 vacuum collection for 3 500 inhabitants was installed. Implementation if separate collection for glass and paper was finished. In 2002 mobile vacuum collection in the historic centre of the city was implemented. Vacuum collection for 7 000 inhabitants. The number of waste collection vehicles increased from 42 in 1986 to 68 in 2002. Nowadays 60% of wastes produced are collected with rear loaded vehicles and 33.4% with side loaded vehicles. Country Name of the Area Size in km_ Inhabitants Number of Households Type Describtion Spain Sevilla 142.44 km2 702.52 thousands 290,000 households 4 to 6 floor buildings Annotation Approximately 25,000 of them are empty e.g.: Town with multi storage building or one family houses, rural etc. Table. 31: General Information about Sevilla 53

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection neumatic collection.... Residual Waste X Type of Household Waste Organic Waste X X Paper X X X Glass X X Metal X Leightweight/Plastic X X X Hazardous Waste X Waste X X Tab;e. 32: Type of Collection Equipment used in Sevilla Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Residual Waste x x x x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste Paper Glass Metal Leightweight/Plastic x x x x Hazardous Waste Waste Table. 33: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Sevilla 10.3.1 Recommendations for the Future Looking into the future, the following recommendations are made: To improve waste separation at source To extend vacuum collection To expand the use of electric collection vehicles. 10.4 Valencia Valencia is a city located in the East of Spain, the fourth by number of inhabitants. 54

10.4.1 History The first document about waste collection in the municipal files is dated in 1908. In 1957 the first call for tenders for a waste collection contract was made. In 1981 there was another call for tenders, and metal containers were implemented all over the city. The current contract was issued in 1992, with wastes collected with 1 100 to 3 200 litre side loaded containers. Currently, the city uses rear loaded (with 1 driver and two workers) and side loader collection vehicles, (1 driver and 1 worker). Country Name of the Area Size in km_ Inhabitants Number of Households Type Describtion Annotation Spain Valencia 134,65 km2 750,476 366,151 shops and industries not included one family houses, flats, etc. Table. 34: General Information about Valencia Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Equipment Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Container Plastic Bag Paper Bag Recycling Station Underground Deep Collection...... Residual Waste x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste x Paper x x Glass x Metal x Leightweight/Plastic x Hazardous Waste Waste Table. 35: Type of Collection Equipment used in Valencia 55

Collection System Full Service Kerbside Bring Collection Vehicle Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Front Loader Rear Loader Side Loader Open Truck Air System Residual Waste x x x Type of Household Waste Organic Waste Paper x x Glass x x Metal Leightweight/Plastic x Hazardous Waste Waste Table. 36: Type of Collection Vehicle used in Valencia 10.4.2 Recommendations for the Future Looking to the future, the recommendations for the city are the following: To diversify the collection. To improve the equipment. To combine users necessities and equipment abilities. 10.5 Examples of Containers 10.5.1 Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste - Rural Model Figure. 10: Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste Rural Model 56

Size and Capacity 1 m x 1.6 m= with a capacity of 5 square meters. 1 m x 1.2 m= with a capacity of 3 square meters. 1 m x 0.9 m= with a capacity of 1.5 square meters. 10.5.2 Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste - Multimaterial Model Figure. 11: Model Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste Multimaterial Size and Capacity Total volume: 11 000 litres Total capacity: 9 000 litres Total capacity per fraction: 3 000 litres 57

10.5.3 Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste - Urban Model Figure. 12: Underground Container for Selective Collection of Solid Waste Multimaterial Model Size and capacity Total volume: 4 000, 3 000, and 2 000 litres. Diameter: 1 600/1 400/1 200 litres. Height: 1 300-2 000 mm. 10.5.4 Platform for Underground Side Loaded Vehicles Figure. 13: Platform for Underground Side Loaded Vehicles Size and capacity: Size: 2 500 x 1 660 mm Capacity: 1 standard 3 200 litres container 10.5.5 Waste Paper Collection 2,3 m 3 58

Figure. 14: Container for Waste Paper Collection Size and Capacity Capacity: 2.3 m 3 Height: 1 8 m 10.5.6 Glass Collection Container Figure. 15: Container for the Separate Collection of Glass Size and Capacity Capacity: 2.5 m 3 Height: 1.8 meters 10.5.7 Container for Solid Waste Collection with 1100, 1700, 2000, 660, 880 and 1000 Litres 59

Figure. 16: Container for Solid Waste Collection 60

11 Analytical Roundup of the Household Waste Collection Systems Ing. Mag. Michael K. Pieber; michael.pieber@wu-wien.ac.at Department of Technology and Commodity Science Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration Augasse 2-6 A-1090 Vienna, Austria, Europe 11.1 Field of Study It was the purpose of the Working Group on Collection and Transportation Technology to describe existing household waste collection schemes in different cities and regions in order to picture examples for interested waste management professionals. This section sums up the data presented in the case studies and draws conclusions to highlight, what the collection systems have in common, as well as how they differ. Figure. 17 provides an overview of the cities and regions covered in this report. E U R O P A Tampere Gothenburg Copenhagen Hamburg Drechtsteden Madrid Barcelona Valencia Sevilla Bologna Forli Vienna Brisbane Figure. 17: The Cities and Regions 61

Although there is a focus on European cities, the Australian city of Brisbane has also been described in this report. 11.2 General Data of the Cities and Regions A total of thirteen cities and regions in nine different countries was evaluated. Size in km 2 Inhabitants Households Description of Area Region of Tampere 1 >690 370.000 150.000 50% City, 35% suburban area, 15% rural Gothenburg 450 475.000 230.000 80% Multistory Buildings Copenhagen 90 501.000 279.000 93% Multistory Buildings, 7% Single Family Houses Hamburg 755 1.715.392 750.000 Multistory Buildings Region of Drechtsteden 2 n.a. 300.000 n.a. 45% Multistory Buildings, 55% Single Family Houses Vienna 415 1.759.801 780.000 Mostly Multistory Buildings, some Single Family Houses Bologna 140 427.272 n.a. n.a. Forli 228 108.000 43.772 Mostly Multistory Buildings, some Single Family Houses Barcelona 99 1.550.000 711.000 Mostly Multistory Buildings, some Single Family Houses Madrid 607 3.062.462 n.a. n.a. Valencia 135 750.475 366.151 Mostly Multistory Buildings, some Single Family Houses Sevilla 142 702.520 290.000 Multistory Buildings Brisbane 1.220 898.000 n.a. Mostly Single Family Houses 1 City of Tampere incl. region 2 Drechtsteden consists of the municipalities of Alblasserdam, Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht, 's-gravendeel, Dordrecht, Papendrecht, Sliedrecht and Zwijndrecht. Table. 37: Table. 38: General Data of the Cities and Regions, listed from North to South Population Density of the Described Cities and Regions, Listed from North to South Population Density Inhabitants per km 2 Tampere 1 536 Gothenburg 1.056 Copenhagen 5.592 Hamburg 2.271 Drechtsteden 2 n.a. Vienna 4.241 Bologna 3.052 Forli 473 Barcelona 15.657 Madrid 5.045 Valencia 5.574 Sevilla 4.932 Brisbane 736 1 Tampere City incl. region 2 Drechtsteden consists of the municipalities of Alblasserdam, Hendrik-Ido- Ambacht, 's-gravendeel, Dordrecht, Papendrecht, Sliedrecht and Zwijndrecht. 62

As can be seen from Table. 37 and Table. 38, the described cities and regions differ in size and type of settlement as well as in population density. The cities are situated in different climate zones, from the cooler northern climate via the Mid-European moderate climate zone to the warmer southern European climate zone. The Australian town of Brisbane has a sub-tropical climate. The range in size stretches from big capitals like Madrid and Vienna to medium-size towns like Forli. Different sizes, settlements and population density require corresponding household waste collection systems. The case studies of the cities and regions describe the basic essentials of the respective household waste collection system. The following analysis of these collection systems first addresses the conjoint system elements and second the diverse system elements. 11.3 Conjoint Elements of the Described Household Waste Collection Systems The following analysis compares the conjoint elements of the collection systems. It is important to notice however that every city and every region in this report established its respective collection system based on certain legal, technical, economical and historical circumstances. This analysis reflects the single decisions that have been made therefore. The figures are not statistically weight per capita or per number of containers or trucks, but should nevertheless provide a sound overview how different cities and regions successfully tackle their daily household waste collection tasks. 11.3.1 The Comfort of Collection Waste collection systems require the participation of the citizens. They have to accept the different waste collection methods.. Practical experiences as well as corresponding surveys show that through comfortable collection systems, citizens are better motivated to participate, which leads to better collection results. Figure. 18: Comfort of Waste Collection for the Citizens 63

Figure. 18 provides an overview on the waste collection systems employed by the cities and regions. The size of the bubble reflects the absolute number of cities and regions employing a certain collection system for the respective type of waste. A large bubble therefore indicates that many cities and regions use a particular collection system for a particular waste type. It can be seen that residual and organic waste are usually collected in a comfortable way for the citizens, the majority being full service or at least kerbside collection systems. The recyclables like paper, glass, plastics or metal and special wastes like hazardous waste are usually not as comfortably collected as residual or organic waste, i.e. the citizens have more effort (mostly longer distances) to deliver these types of waste separately. The type of collection system also depends on the expected amounts of waste generated. Every household has residual, organic and paper waste in larger quantities, this also corresponds with the results of household waste analysis. The comfortable system can be found more often in the northern cities, presumably due to harsh winter conditions. When it comes to comfort, some cities and regions developed very comfortable collection systems for special wastes as well, see 11.4.4. 11.3.2 The Use of Containers for Waste Collection The most common way of collecting waste in the cities and regions is to use a waste container. The advantages of a container for collection are High collection performance Standardised system Enhanced Hygiene (no loose waste on the street, reduction of dust) Easily recognisable for citizens Improved worker s safety Many types and sizes of containers available Accepted basis for a collection-fee-system (clearly understandable for citizens) The disadvantages of a container for collection are Investment in containers Investment in special-purpose vehicles Container and special trucks need maintenance Special training of workers Figure. 19 shows the types of waste and the types of collection systems, where containers are used for waste collection. It is evident that containers are commonly used for the collection of Residual waste and organic waste with full service and kerbside collection respectively Recyclables (paper, glass, metal, plastic) with kerbside and bring system collection. 64

Figure. 19: The Use of Containers for Waste Collection Several cities and regions also use plastic or paper bags in addition to their container-based collection system. A few cities and regions only use a bag system for some types of waste. Figure. 20: Use of Bags for Waste Collection 65

The advantages of a bag system are: High collection performance No special-purpose vehicle necessary The disadvantages of using bags for waste collection are: Low comfort for the user Increases the amounts of waste High effort opening the bags in sorting plant High physical strain for the workers As can be seen in Figure. 20, bags are used for residual waste and organic waste in a full service system, seldom for paper or plastics. Some cities and regions offer bags, which citizens can buy to collect additional residual waste. 11.3.3 The Types of Collection Vehicles Used Next to containers, collection vehicles are the backbone of a modern waste collection system, since they provide the logistical connection between the place, where the waste is produced (i.e. the household) and the recycling or treatment plant respectively. Depending on the size of the city or region and the type of settlement, different kinds of collection vehicles are used, whereby mainly the rear loaders and to some extent also the front/side loaders are the most commonly used types of collection vehicles. Front/side loaders require a container park for an efficient collection and cannot be operated in narrow inner city areas. Figure. 21: Use of Different Collection Vehicles for Full Service Waste Collection 66

Figure. 21 shows the rear loader to be the preferred collection vehicle for the full service collection system, mainly used for residual and organic waste and paper. The advantages of a rear loader are: Suitable for narrow inner-city areas Not much operational space required Loose materials can also be collected The disadvantages of a rear loader are: Requires a crew of at least 2-3 workers Workers are endangered on the open street Workers have to handle the heavy waste containers Figure. 22: Use of Different Collection Vehicles for Kerbside Waste Collection When it comes to kerbside waste collection the use of front/side loaders increases, as can be seen from Figure. 22. 67

The advantages of front/side loaders are: Only one driver necessary No strenuous container handling Full workers safety (worker does not leave driver s cab) Flexible through exchangeable containers (body-swap) The disadvantages of front/side loaders are: Not applicable in narrow inner-city areas Collaboration of citizens necessary Container emptying can be time-consuming (if more attempts to catch the container are needed) Loose materials cannot be collected Requires adequate operational space Figure. 23: Use of Different Collection Vehicles for Bring System Waste Collection The open truck is the vehicle of choice for transportation of waste collected via bring systems. As Figure. 23 indicates, glass, metal and other wastes are hauled with open trucks, because this type of waste should not be compacted. 68

11.3.4 Types of Bring Systems Bring systems are widely used in modern waste collection schemes. Every city and region portrayed in this report operates part of its waste collection system through a bring system. These systems can differ in the use of containers employed or on the type of collection point. They can be a drop-off site or a full scale recycling centre. Different Types of Bring Systems Residual Waste Organic Waste Drop-Off-Sites Recycling Center (Underground-, Deep-, Air Collection) Lightweight/Plastic Paper Glass Metal Hazardous Waste * * wastes are bulky waste, WEEE, tyres, scrap, construction waste, etc. Figure. 24: Different Types of Bring Systems Figure 22 shows the characteristics of the bring systems of the cities and regions of this report. The most common implementation of a bring system is the use of drop-off sites and recycling centres. 11.3.5 Source Separation of the waste stream Be it in Tampere, Vienna, Sevilla or Brisbane: the idea of separation of the waste stream directly at the source, i.e. the household, has been realised in every city or region, which is described in this report. One of the main reasons of the wide introduction of source separation to the cities waste management is the shortage of landfill volume. Additional to that the dedication of land for the building of a new landfill can sometimes be difficult, especially in very densely populated areas. The NIMBY (not in my backyard) syndrome can draw some neighbours to oppose such a project. It 69

has also to be taken into account, that due to legislation on the European Union level, landfilling will be more and more restricted in the EU member countries. Although all the cities and regions have introduced programmes for source separation, they differ in the extent of the separation and in the comfort for the households in using the corresponding collection systems. It can be said however, that most of the cities and regions separately collect from the residual waste. Organic waste Paper Glass Metal Lightweight Plastic Hazardous Waste and Waste (mostly bulky waste, WEEE) 11.3.6 Recycling Centres (Civic Amenity Sites) All the cities and regions operate recycling centres to support their citizens waste separation and waste collection. As can be seen in Figure. 25, other wastes like bulky wastes, WEEE, tyres, scrap or small amounts of construction wastes are delivered to recycling centres. They provide a comfortable way for households to deliver larger than average amounts of waste. 70

Figure. 25: Wastes Collected in Recycling Centres 11.3.7 Funding on the Basis of Volume Some cities also provided information on the funding of their respective waste collection systems. A common factor for the funding systems is that they are all volume-based (i.e. container volume). This seems to be the widely accepted system, which can be easily communicated to the households / citizens. Copenhagen operates a dynamic volume system, i.e. the waste collection system is fully flexible. The householders can change their container size everyday. It should be mentioned here, that the Working Group on Collection and Transportation Technology published a report in 1999, which dealt with on-board weighing systems in the waste collection of different countries. This was based on the idea of pay as you throw, which increases the costs for those who produce more waste. This system requires a technically advanced collection fleet and cannot be used everywhere, but will remain an option for the future. It should not be forgotten that a weight-based charging system for households could also lead to waste tourism and an increase in littering. 71

11.3.8 The Amounts of Waste are Increasing In the city and region reports the development of the waste streams are also mentioned. The statements are common in saying that the amounts of waste from households are increasing. This can also be observed at European level, where the target of stabilising the waste generation from households at the level of 300 kg per year and capita was clearly missed (see the European Environmental Assessments published by the European Environmental Agency). In many countries the necessary decoupling of economic growth and waste generation has not taken place yet. The collection systems have therefore to be flexible enough to allow for rising waste streams in the future. Waste avoidance is a sustainable way to tackle the increasing amounts of waste. The widespread deposit system on bottles in Denmark supports waste avoidance. The idea is to collect the bottles unbroken, wash and reuse them. Another system in Finland targets cans, which are collected clean through the use of a deposit scheme,as economic incentive to return the cans. The city of Vienna has initiated a waste avoidance program in 2002; through several waste avoidance projects selected during an international competition, Vienna looks for realistic ways to decrease the amounts of waste. 11.4 Diverse System Elements 11.4.1 The Operational Company A distinguishing aspect of the waste collection systems of the cities and regions is the legal / administrative aspect, how waste collection takes place. Some cities are carrying out all the operational measures themselves, where the employees are part of the city administration. Some cities have established operational companies on a private basis, often together with other municipalities. These service companies are publicly owned, sometimes also private companies come into play, to form Public-Private-Partnerships. Finally some cities work solely on a contractor basis, i.e. tenders are let for private waste management companies to carry out the collection duties on their behalf. The reasons for the establishment of different operational systems are usually of a political and economical nature. 11.4.2 The Colours to Separate the Different Types of Waste Since there are no CEN / ISO norms regarding the colours of containers, which should guide the households to the different separately collected waste streams, the colours differ from city to city and country to country, as Tab. 39 clearly shows. 72

Tab. 39: Colours of Waste Containers in Different Cities Since there is no type of waste where a single colour guides the citizens, an international standardisation is recommended by the members of the Working Group on Collection and Transportation Technology. 11.4.3 The Size of the Containers Used Due to different types of settlements and sometimes due to historic reasons or workers safety, the sizes of the containers used in the cities and regions described in each report differ immensely. Cities with narrow inner-city areas have to use small waste containers, whereas big containers are more often found in areas that are not so densely populated and / or are served with side or front loaders. 11.4.4 Specialities from Some Cities and Regions Some cities have added some specialities to their waste collection systems. Copenhagen In Copenhagen, there are a number of multi-storey-houses employing a caretaker. These caretakers are the householders local contact for a very comfortable household hazardous waste collection. The householders can hand over their household hazardous wastes to their caretaker directly on their premises. The skilled caretaker stores the wastes in a suitable interim storage until collection. Copenhagen has comprehensive worker s safety standards. To protect worker s health when lifting heavy waste containers from Copenhagen houses, several lifting devices were installed in the houses (see also 9.2). Forli Colour of bins Residual Waste Black Silver-Grey Organic Waste Paper White Glass Coloured Glass In Forli, citizens bringing certain wastes to a recycling centre, receive a small remuneration for their effort, i.e. a ticket for the local public transport or some kind of office stationery. This should help to Metal Lightweight / Plastic Hazardous Waste Waste Vienna Brown Red White Green Blue Yellow Green (Paper) Tampere Grey Brown Blue (Cardboard) White Black Yellow Red Orange 1 Gothenburg Green Green Green Green Green Green Green Hamburg Green Grey Green Blue White Brown Yellow Brisbane Green Grey Green with Green with Black red lid Blue Yellow yellow lid Forli Blue Green Green Yellow Brown (Kitchen Copenhagen Waste) Grey with Green (Garden Grey Waste) red lid Blue 1 Energy Waste (dry, combustable) 73

motivate the people to come to the recycling centre as well as to guide them to sensible waste separation. Bologna In Bologna, multi-material containers have been introduced for paper and plastic waste in the city to reduce the number of containers on the city streets and to make it easier for the citizens to take part in waste management. This seems like a step back from the idea of source separation, but helps the Bologna city administration to get some inner-city space back. Vienna In Vienna, a rather dense system of household hazardous waste collection points and recycling centres facilitates the separate collection of household hazardous waste (HHW) and bulky waste for the Viennese citizens. Tampere In the city and region of Tampere, several types of waste are collected via deep collection, i.e. an underground collection system. 74

The contributions in annex 1 and 2 were received after the report was finalised. They are therefore not reflected in the conclusion, but as they contain valuable information it was decided to include them as annexes. Annex 1 FINLAND, Turku Mikko Talola mikko.talola@lassila-tikanoja.fi Lassila & Tikanoja Oyj Hopeatie 2 FIN-00440 Helsinki Finland 1. Introduction According to Finnish Waste Act municipalities are responsible to organise collection and transport of residential waste. According to the Act municipalities have two alternatives to carry out this task: 12 They may arrange collection and transport themselves 12.1 by using their own personnel and trucks or 12.2 by hiring a contractor to do practical work or 13 They may choose a system where actual customers make contracts directly with waste management companies In number a clear majority of municipalities have chosen the alternative II. Some cities like Helsinki and Tampere have chosen the alternative I. B. In whole country no municipality have chosen alternative I. A. 75

2. Status quo In Turku the City Council has chosen model II where all inhabitants including business and residential estates - are allowed to choose waste management company on the free market. The inhabitants normally own and maintain their refuse bins but they may be rented from waste management company as well. Based on the Waste Act city of Turku has established Rules for Waste Management and Recovery where practical requirements for properties and citizens are set. The rules tell e.g. in which way the waste has to be sorted at source. Principally hazardous wastes and wastes to be incinerated have to be kept apart from recyclable waste. Separate collection for paper, glass and metal has to be arranged in apartment houses with four or more flats. Business and institutions must also sourceseparate paper, glass and metal but in addition they must recover corrugated board in case monthly amount exceeds 50 kilograms. The incineration plant of Turku originally started in 1975 was renovated in 1995 to meet emission requirements that time. About half of the municipal waste stream in Turku that is approximately 50000 tons is incinerated. Approximately 110 GWh of energy is utilized annually as district heating which makes seven percent of total district heating energy consumption. The amount of grate furnace slag from incinerator is about 10 000 tons per year. The amount of fly ash and flue gas cleaning residue is approximately 2000 tons per year. About one fifth of the volume of waste brought to incineration plant will be landfilled. Among the waste stream there is still despite of prohibition in Rules for Waste Management a lot of metal waste which increases the amount of slag. The landfill of Topinoja started operation in 1971. Landfill accepts non-combustible municipal waste, construction and demolition waste, industrial waste, special wastes and sludge. Slag and flue gas cleaning residue of the incineration plant is deposited on the landfill as well. The total amount of wastes deposited on the landfill is approximately 70 000 tons per year from which 40 000 tons are municipal waste. Waste amount coming from production activities is 30 000 tons. In single-family house areas there are approximately 360 recycling centres where residents can bring paper, glass and metal to be recycled. Centres are operated in co-operation by city and Lassila & Tikanoja who is responsible for collecting material. Additionally there are of paper collection containers in single-family house area serviced by a paper recycling company. There are about 20 shops and shopping centres where - in addition of paper, glass and metal board, cardboard and textile waste is collected. Detailed waste management situation described fraction by fraction is presented in table 1. 76

The amount of municipal waste of Turku is approximately 600 kilos per inhabitant per year. The total amount comprises wastes treated in incineration plant and landfill as well as those delivered for recovery. The amount of waste is thought to increase with same rate as gross domestic production. 3. Recommendation In 2002 the waste management strategy of the municipalities of the Turku area was established. Strategic targets were to increase both material and energy recovery of waste and to create a regional waste management organization. Environmental impact assessment of different waste management options has been started. Also a regional waste management company has been established. The population of the area is approximately 305 000 (Turku alone 170 000) and volume of waste is anticipated to be 170 000 tons in 2020 (Presently it is 90 000 tons in Turku alone). In same time there are also major investments and development within private sector as well in waste treatment and logistics e.g. in remote control of container filling rate, container weighing and collection vehicles with multiple compartments for different waste fractions. Turku is good example of co-operation between public and private sectors of waste management where the role of public sector has been to set framework and targets and the role of private sector has been to execute operations effectively with special attention to customer needs and service. 77

Table 1. Waste management in Turku (Finland) fraction by fraction Waste fraction Volume Actors Remarks Kg/inhabitant /year Paper, board, cardboard (including liquidfood cartons) 70 Paperinkeräys Oy ( paper collection company), L&T, Sita, local waste management companies The collection of paper and board fibers has long tradition in Finland with a collection rate of approx. 70% - which is in world top class - but in Turku it is even a little bit more, 80%. Glass 15 Suomen Uusioaines Oy (glass collector and purifier), L&T, Sita, local waste management companies Turku is Finland s leading glass collection municipality due to tight collection container network. There is separate collection bin in all premises with four apartments or more. In addition there are almost 400 hundred centrally located containers in one family house areas and shopping centres. The state-owned alcohol seller Alko Oy is major recipient of returnable bottles. All groceries selling soft drink and beer also accept empty bottles against deposit. The reuse system of returnable/refillable bottles works well with a returning rate of 90-95 %. Returnable bottles those of plastic as well are refilled over 30 times in average. Metal 30 Kuusakoski Oy (scrap dealer), L&T, Sita, local waste management companies Metal packaging and other small-metal has to be source-separated by the households with four apartments or more. In addition there are almost 400 hundred centrally located containers in one family house areas and shopping centres for metal recycling. From industrial and construction sources scrap dealers of Turku treat approx. 18 000 tons of metal waste annually. Plastic L&T The result of an extensive recycling study in Turku 1996-98 showed that it was not economically viable to recycle plastic waste from domestic sources. Nowadays plastic waste is mixed with other municipal waste and consequently mainly delivered to 78

Tyres Suomen Rengaskierrätys Oy (producer organisation) L&T incineration plant where its energy content will be utilized. Plastic films from industrial and commercial sources are normally collected for recycling. Amount is approximately 200 tons annually. Since 1996 there has been a producer organized collection and recycling system in Finland. Consumers can leave (or bring) used tyres to the tyre shops without charge. Tyre recycling costs are covered with a recycling fee which is collected in connection of purchase of new tyres. The tyre shops bring scrap tyres to regional terminals (totally seven in Finland) where they are shredded and afterwards delivered to recycling mainly in civil engineering applications. The tyre terminal of Turku treats approximately 3400 tons of tyres per year whereas the amount of whole Finland is 32 000 tons. Collection and recycling rate is practically 100%. Garden waste Landfill City of Turku accepts garden waste at Topinoja landfill in spring and autumn. After size reduction the waste is composted. Composting of biowaste at premise House owners Domestic composting at premise is allowed and encouraged. The city environmental authority has to be informed before starting domestic composting. The compost bins must be isolated due to the cold winter. Separate collection of biowaste 1 L&T Sita Separate collection of biowaste is voluntary. At source biowaste is put into separate bins and transported to composting plant. Composting plant (Forssa) Electric and electronic scrap Kuusakoski L&T Sita Producer responsibility principle is not yet applied (but it will be in August 2005). Many different pre-treatment and treatment practices e.g. composting bins are made from freezers, smoking chambers are made of stoves. Freon and oil is removed from refrigerators before final treatment. Stena Metall 79

Ekopaja Construction & demolition waste L&T Suomen Rakennusjäte There are two companies processing C&D waste. The main product is fuel to be used in the co-incineration plant. Combustible waste L&T Suomen Rakennusjäte Source-separated combustible waste is collected from industrial and commercial companies. Hazardous waste, biowaste and non-combustible waste are not accepted into this fraction. Sita Hazardous waste 1 Ekokem L&T Sita Hazardous waste from households can be handed over without charge to Eco-Truck or at hazardous waste collection centre of the city. Small batteries can be dropped into about 100 boxes at various locations, bus stops etc. Medical waste and thermometers can be left at the pharmacies. Companies and institutions must deliver their hazardous wastes to appropriate treatment plants. Transport is done by authorized companies. The volume of hazardous waste in Turku is approximately 2 500 tons annually. Combustible mixed waste 280 City of Turku Combustible mixed waste from households, shops, industry and institutions is treated in incineration plant of Turku. Non-combustible mixed waste 180 City of Turku Non-combustible wastes and wastes from other sources than above, sludges and special wastes are landfilled. Reusable goods Ekotori (Ecomarket) There are plenty of effective marketing channels for reusable goods and items like flea markets, second-hand shops and ecocenters. There are around 50 textile collection containers in Turku. 80

UFF Salvation Army 81

Annex 2 UNITED KINGDOM Tina Benfield tina.benfield@ciwm.co.uk Technical Officer The Chartered Institution of Wastes Management 9 Saxon Court, St Peter's Gardens, Northampton NN1 1SX United Kingdom 1. HISTORY Due to high death rates and poor sanitation, 1898 saw the Public Health Act issued which later in 1875 made local authorities responsible for regular removal and disposal of waste. Horse-drawn vehicles were the transport of the day until the early 1900s when motorised vehicles started to be used. Even as early as the 1940s material recovery facilities were used for sorting waste, as utilised in Preston s sorting and incineration plant. Metal bins were introduced before 1914 to hold hot ashes and this brought about the back-door collection of waste so that householders did not have to haul heavy containers out for collection. 2. CURRENT PRACTICES Waste within the UK is collected using a number of different waste and recycling containers and a number of different collection methods. 82

Local authorities are set up in three distinct groups, which is very different to many other countries. In England; there is a two-tier system consisting of county and district. Two-tier authorities have split responsibility for waste management. County level is for disposal, this includes the sending of waste to landfill, incineration or composting, in partnership with the District and operating civic amenity sites. District level is responsible for the collection of recyclables, residual waste, management of bring sites and street cleansing activities. Unitary authorities are responsible for both collection and disposal and this is how all of the authorities in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland operate, which is similar to municipalities in the rest of Europe. The third group is metropolitan authorities. In waste they operate as two-tier authorities. Whether unitary or two-tier waste collection is carried out by either the local authority s own internally employed collection teams or contracted out to private contractors. 3. VEHICLES The common collection vehicle for the UK is rear-end loaders with at least three crew, one of them being the driver who generally does not leave the vehicle. The method of collection varies; some local authorities have crews that go out before the collection vehicles and set out the bags in one area for collection. Recycling collection vehicles vary depending upon whether wheeled bins, boxes or bags are employed. Wheeled bins will use a similar rear-end loading (REL) vehicle. Boxes may use stillages or compartmental type vehicles and sort at the kerbside. For green waste collection (garden compostable) rotating bodied vehicles are generally used instead of rear-end loaders, although RELs are used by some authorities. 4. CONTAINERS AND COLOURS Different colours of wheeled bins are used by different authorities; some have the corporate authority colour, others go for colours to match the material being collected. Paper is commonly 83

collected in blue containers and green waste in green or brown wheeled bins. Residual waste is either in black or grey wheeled bins or black plastic bags. Recyclables can be collected in a variety of different types of bags and boxes. For example orange or clear survivor bags, green or black recycling boxes. At bring sites glass is collected in its respective coloured container, so green glass in green, brown glass in brown and clear glass in white containers. Paper and magazines are collected in blue containers and cans banks can be yellow. 5. EXTRA SERVICES Bulky household waste collections are either offered as a free collection service on demand or charged on demand. Bulky household waste can be taken to a civic amenity site by the householder for free. 6. FUNDING Funding for waste management is through council tax, which each householder pays. This tax covers all the services the local authority offers, including libraries, schools, police and waste. There have also been additional central Government grants issued for scheme implementation (increased recycling scheme, new green waste collections) which each local authority can bid for. Description Country Name of Area England Wakefield Size in km 2 350 Inhabitants 315,400 Number of households 138,994 Type Large town with terraced housing 84

Description Country Name of Area England Birmingham Size in km 2 268 Inhabitants 1,000,000 Number of households 404,000 Type Large city with multi-storey buildings Description Country Name of Area England Bradford Size in km 2 Inhabitants 473,000 Number of households 196,000 Type Large city with terraced housing Description Country Name of Area England Exeter Size in km 2 Inhabitants 112,700 Number of households 46,000 Type Small town, rural and coastal 85

Description Country Name of Area England Corporation of London Size in km 2 2.59 Inhabitants 7,807 Number of households 5,370 Type Small city with major business centre & multi-storey 86