Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011, Part 1 Data collection

Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011, Part 1 Data collection Including new public data for: Mono- & multicrystalline ingots, wafers, cells and modules a-si PV modules μm-si PV modules (citation only) CdTe PV modules CdTe PV module takeback & recycling excluding USM CIGS PV modules Copper- and aluminium solar cables Mariska de Wild-Scholten 10 January 2014

COLOFON 2014 Mariska de Wild-Scholten All rights reserved Citation: Keywords: Publisher: Distribution: M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2014) Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011, Part 1 Data Collection, report published by SmartGreenScans, the Netherlands life cycle assessment, photovoltaics, poly-silicon, wafers, ingots, solar cells, photovoltaic modules, monocrystalline silicon, multicrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, micromorphous silicon, CdTe, CIGS, mounting systems, solar cables, inverters, balance-of-system, photovoltaic systems SmartGreenScans Wagenmakersweg 22, 1873 GH Groet, The Netherlands Telephone: +31 72 5621628 www.smartgreenscans.nl mariska@smartgreenscans.nl Stamped pdf file Data request: Interested to contribute to the next edition? An Excel data template in English/Chinese is available on request. No part of this report may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, or otherwise without permission from the author 2 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 - Part 1 SmartGreenScans

Table of Contents List of figures... 4 List of tables... 6 About the Author... 8 Publications by the author... 8 1. Introduction... 12 1.1. Background... 12 1.2. Data collection PV module production... 12 1.3. Data collection PV module composition... 13 1.4. Production statistics... 13 2. Polycrystalline silicon... 15 2.1. Introduction... 15 2.2. Silicon metal... 16 2.3. Poly-silicon via TCS in Siemens reactor... 17 2.4. Poly-silicon via monosilane in Siemens reactor... 19 2.5. Poly-silicon via monosilane in FBR reactor... 20 2.6. Solar grade silicon via metallurgical route... 20 2.7. Energy mix... 21 2.8. Inputs and outputs... 21 3. Silicon crystals and wafers... 22 3.1. Introduction... 22 3.2. Crucibles... 23 3.3. Monocrystalline silicon crystals... 24 3.4. Multicrystalline silicon ingots... 27 3.5. Monocrystalline silicon wafers... 31 3.6. Multicrystalline silicon wafers... 37 3.7. Slurry recycling... 41 4. Crystalline silicon solar cell... 42 4.1. Introduction... 42 4.2. Process steps... 43 4.3. Outlook: Metal Wrap Through (MWT) design... 46 4.4. Inputs and outputs... 48 5. Crystalline silicon PV module... 50 5.1. Introduction... 50 5.2. Module efficiencies... 51 5.3. Module materials... 53 5.4. Module production steps... 57 5.5. Outlook: Metal Wrap Through (MWT)... 58 5.6. Inputs and outputs... 60 6. Thin film silicon PV module... 61 7. Cadmium telluride PV module... 65 8. Copper Indium Gallium Sulphide/Selenide PV module... 68 9. BOS: Mounting systems... 73 10. BOS: Cabling... 73 11. BOS: Inverters... 75 12. PV system Use... 76 12.1. Transport to installation site... 76 12.2. Solar irradiation... 77 12.3. Performance... 78 12.4. Power degradation... 82 12.5. Life expectancy... 83 13. End-of-life... 84 13.1. Collection and Recycling... 84 14. Photovoltaic installations... 86 15. Acknowledgements... 89 16. References... 89 SmartGreenScans Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 Part 1 3

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Cell technology shares (Hering 2012)... 13 Figure 2 Poly-silicon production by manufacturer in 2011 in metric tons (Prior 2012)... 15 Figure 3 Production of silicon metal via carbothermic reduction... 16 Figure 4 Poly-silicon U-rods from Siemens-type CVD reactor (PV Crystalox on pv-tech.org)... 17 Figure 5 Poly-silicon production via Siemens TCS process (Schmid Silicon Technology)... 18 Figure 6 Poly-silicon production via Siemens TCS process at Hemlock (2012)... 18 Figure 7 Poly-silicon and monosilane production via monosilane by Schmid Silicon Technology (SST)... 19 Figure 8 Granular poly-silicon production by MEMC in Pasadena... 20 Figure 9 Elkem Solar Silicon route and the simplified route under development (Søiland 2013)... 21 Figure 10 Vesuvius SOLAR Crucibles... 23 Figure 11 Vesuvius SOLAR Crucible heights... 23 Figure 12 Czochralski crystals (PVTePla)... 24 Figure 13 Average power consumption per max. ingot weight versus max. ingot weight for Czochralski silicon crystal growth (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 25 Figure 14 Crucible with silicon raw material before crystallization (background), silicon ingot after crystallization (foreground) (Solarworld AG)... 27 Figure 15 The DSS650 directional solidification furnace from GT Solar... 27 Figure 16 Average power consumption per max. charge versus max. charge for silicon crystal growth by directional solidification (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 29 Figure 17 Monocrystalline silicon wafer (REC)... 31 Figure 18 Steps of wafering: cropping, squaring and slicing (Applied Materials)... 32 Figure 19 Wire sawing (Applied Materials)... 32 Figure 20 Calculated slurry consumption per 156 mm x 156 mm wafer (Bekaert)... 35 Figure 21 Multicrystalline silicon wafer (REC)... 37 Figure 22 Conventional brick cropping (GT Solar)... 37 Figure 23 blocks of 156 mm x 156 mm from Gen5 and Gen6 crucibles (Ceradyne)... 37 Figure 24 Chinese slurry recycling 2010 (Schumann 2012)... 41 Figure 25 Multicrystalline silicon solar cell (REC)... 42 Figure 26 Standard and Metal Wrap Through (MWT) solar cell designs... 47 Figure 27 Multicrystalline silicon PV module: 6 x 10 cells, 1650 mm x 990 mm (Yingli Solar)... 50 Figure 28 Historical and roadmap total area average module efficiencies of commercial PV modules... 52 Figure 29 Crystalline silicon PV module glass thickness versus module area.... 53 Figure 30 Chemical structure of PVDF (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/polyvinylidene_fluoride )... 55 Figure 31 Metal Wrap Through (MWT) conductive backsheets... 58 Figure 32 Module production with Eurotron tools... 59 Figure 33 Silicon thin film glass-glass PV module sizes produced with Applied Materials equipment. In Oerlikon equipment only 1.1 m x 1.3 m module production... 61 Figure 34 Example of the front-side of a glass-glass micromorphous silicon X-series/micromorph 3 PV module produced by Inventux (Berlin, Germany)... 61 Figure 35 Example of the back-side of a glass-glass micromorphous silicon X-series/micromorph 3 PV module produced by Inventux (Berlin, Germany)... 61 4 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 - Part 1 SmartGreenScans

Figure 36 Specification of TEL Solar micromorphous silicon PV modules and layout of the THINFAB 140 MWp line... 63 Figure 37 CdTe PV module First Solar FS Series 2 (product data sheet 2 May 2011)... 65 Figure 38 Avancis PowerMax Strong CIS PV module (http://www.avancis.de/, 22/7/2013)... 69 Figure 39 Solar Frontier's SF145-165-S CIS module... 69 Figure 40 Na concentration and CIGS composition measurement and layer structure by dynamic SIMS on unknown sample (AEG Labs)... 71 Figure 41 Solar cable Leoni BETAflam Solar 125 flex FRNC... 73 Figure 42 Frequency distribution of inverter sizing in South-East Bavaria (Stetz 2011)... 75 Figure 43 Typical sizing ratios for different PV system sizes (Stetz 2011)... 75 Figure 44 Comparison of yearly global irradiation incident on optimally-inclined photovoltaic modules in 25 European Union member countries and 5 candidate countries (Šúri 2006)... 77 Figure 45 Performance ratio after each loss stage (Ransome 2007)... 78 Figure 46 kwp/kwp produced in 2011 in various countries http://www.solaryield.eu/plant/comparecontinent?year=2011... 80 Figure 47 kwh/kwp produced in 2012 in various countries... 81 Figure 48 PV module and system degradation rates (Jordon, 2011)... 82 Figure 49 Schematic of (a) CdTe PV module recycling with (b) processing of unrefined semiconductor material (USM) to semi-conductor grade CdTe (Sinha 2012)... 85 Figure 50 Annual installed PV capacity in Germany (Source: Bundesnetzagentur/Solarpraxis AG (figures are rounded))... 88 SmartGreenScans Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 Part 1 5

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Reported production of PV materials, cells and modules in 2011 in selected IEA PVPS countries (incomplete) (IEA PVPS 2012)... 14 Table 2 Production of PV materials in different region of the world... 14 Table 3 Silicon metal producers... 16 Table 4 Main reactions for poly-silicon production (based on Bill 2009)... 18 Table 5 Input-output data for poly-silicon production in Siemens-type reactors from various equipment manufacturers (Chunduri 2012)... 19 Table 6 Wafer manufacturers, capacity in MWp (Grunwald 2012)... 22 Table 7 Wafer thicknesses of top 10 wafer manufacturers as indicated on their website... 22 Table 8 Power consumption for Czochralski silicon crystal growth (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 25 Table 9 Unit process raw data for Czochralski solar grade silicon crystals... 26 Table 10 Mass ingot yield for various directional solidification furnaces and crucible sizes... 28 Table 11 Power consumption for silicon crystal growth by directional solidification (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 29 Table 12 Unit process raw data for multicrystalline ingots... 30 Table 13 Power consumption for band sawing of monocrystalline silicon crystals (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 33 Table 14 Power consumption for wire sawing of monocrystalline crystals (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 33 Table 15 Power consumption for grinding and chamfering of monocrystalline silicon bricks (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 33 Table 16 Power consumption for wafer slicing by wire sawing (Data: Chunduri 2012) [DW288 is diamond wire sawing]... 34 Table 17 Aggregated power consumption for monocrystalline silicon crystals to wafers... 34 Table 18 Slurry consumption per wafer... 35 Table 19 Unit process raw data for monocrystalline silicon wafers... 36 Table 20 Mass ingot yield and calculation of kg ingot / wafer... 38 Table 21 Power consumption for squaring by band sawing of multicrystalline silicon ingots (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 38 Table 22 Power consumption for squaring by wire sawing of multicrystalline silicon ingots (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 39 Table 23 Power consumption for grinding and chamfering of multicrystalline silicon bricks (Data: Chunduri 2012)... 39 Table 24 Power consumption from multicrystalline silicon ingot to wafer... 39 Table 25 Unit process raw data for multicrystalline silicon wafers... 40 Table 26 Top solar cell manufacturers based on production capacity in 2012 (Forst 2012)... 42 Table 27 Power consumption of phosphorus diffusion (Data: Chunduri 2011, 2012)... 44 Table 28 PECVD Silicon nitride power consumption per wafer (Data: Chunduri 2011)... 45 Table 29 Amounts of metallization pastes and silver content (Data: Chunduri 2012 and reliable source)... 46 Table 30 Unit process raw data for monocrystalline silicon solar cells... 48 Table 31 Unit process raw data for multicrystalline silicon solar cells... 49 Table 32 Top 10 manufacturers of crystalline silicon modules based on production capacity (Forst 2012)... 50 Table 33 Backsheet materials and thickness (Data: Schmela 2012)... 54 6 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 - Part 1 SmartGreenScans

Table 34 EVA encapsulation foils (Data: Schmela 2012 August p130)... 56 Table 35 Conductive back sheets... 58 Table 36 Metal Wrap Through (MWT) technology compared to standard H-pattern... 59 Table 37 Unit process raw data for multicrystalline silicon PV modules excluding cabling... 60 Table 38 Composition of thin film Si glass-glass PV modules based on product data sheets and literature (status end 2011).... 62 Table 39 Unit process raw data for amorphous silicon thin film glass-glass PV modules (Germany 2008, Spain 2011) excluding cabling... 64 Table 40 CdTe PV module production in MWp (Photon International, First Solar)... 65 Table 41 Composition of CdTe glass-glass PV modules based on product data sheets and literature (status end 2011)... 66 Table 42 Unit process raw data for CdTe glass-glass PV modules (First Solar, Germany, Malaysia, USA, 2010) excluding cabling.... 67 Table 43 CIGS PV module production (Photon International March editions, Solar Frontier)... 68 Table 44 Composition of CIGS PV modules based on product data sheets and literature... 70 Table 45 Estimation of use of Cu, In, Ga and Se... 71 Table 46 Unit process raw data for CIGS glass-glass PV modules (Germany and Japan, 2010) excluding cabling... 72 Table 47 Cables for PV applications... 74 Table 48 Examples of port to port distances and transport for a module weight of 15 kg/m 2... 76 Table 49 Energy yield and performance ratio of PV systems... 79 Table 50 PV module and system degradation rates (Jordan, 2011)... 83 Table 51 Input and output data for First Solar CdTe PV module collection and recycling from Frankfurt-Oder, Germany in 2010-2011. (Sinha 2012)... 85 Table 52 PV installations in 2012 in IEA counties (IEA PVPS 2013)... 86 Table 53 Cumulative installed PV power (MWp) in IEA PVPS countries 1992-2011 (IEA PVPS 2012)... 87 Table 54 Annual PV power (MWp) installed in the top-10 cumulative capacity countries 1995-2011 (IEA PVPS 2012)... 88 SmartGreenScans Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 Part 1 7

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Mariska de Wild-Scholten studied geochemistry at Utrecht University. From 1998 to January 2011 she worked at the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) in the department Solar Energy. Since 2003 she is working in the area of Life Cycle Assessments of Photovoltaics. Now she is self-employed consultant at SmartGreenScans. She is Photovoltaics-subject-editor of the International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment and active member of the IEA PVPS task 12 which deals with Environmental, Health and Safety Aspect of Photovoltaics. PUBLICATIONS BY THE AUTHOR Link to ECN publications: http://www.ecn.nl/publicaties/default.aspx?au=44649 Link to SmartGreenScans publications: http://smartgreenscans.nl/publications.html 1. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2013) Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics: Part I Data collection, report published by SmartGreenScans 2. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2013) Energy payback time and carbon footprint of commercial photovoltaic systems (Short Communication), Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells December 2013, vol 119, pp. 296-305 3. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2013) Life Cycle Assessment of standard & MWT crystalline silicon PV technology, 5th MWT Workshop, Freiburg, Germany, 20-21 November 2013, invited presentation 4. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2013) Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics (invited presentation), Ecological and Economical Impact of PV Energy Production, (EMPA) Dubendorf, Switzerland, 22 October 2013 5. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, V. Cassagne (2013) Environmental footprint of photovoltaics, 28th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Paris, France, October 2013, oral presentation 6DO.10.3 6. P. Sinha, M.J. de Wild-Scholten, A. Wade, C. Breyer (2013) Total Cost Electricity Pricing of Photovoltaics, 28th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Paris, France, 30 September-3 October 2013 7. P. Sinha, M. Schneider, S. Dailey, C. Jepson, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2013) Eco-Efficiency of CdTe Photovoltaics with Tracking Systems, 39th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, June 16-21, 2013, Tampa (U.S.A.) 8. S.A. Mann, M. J. de Wild-Scholten, V. M. Fthenakis, W.G.J.H.M. van Sark, W.C. Sinke (2013) The energy payback time of advanced crystalline silicon PV modules in 2020: a prospective study, Progress in Photovoltaics 9. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, R. van der Meulen (2012) Carbon- and environmental footprinting of photovoltaic modules, published in the Proceedings of the 27th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Frankfurt, Germany, 24-28 September 2012 10. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2012) Environmental footprinting of photovoltaic module production, Photovoltaics International Edition 15, February 2012, p.13-22 11. P. Sinha, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2012) Life Cycle Assessment of Utility-Scale CdTe PV Balance of Systems, published in the Proceedings of the 27th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Frankfurt, Germany, 24-28 September 2012 12. P. Sinha, A. Meader, and M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2012) Life Cycle Water Usage in CdTe Photovoltaics, published in Proceedings of the 38th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 3-8 June 2012, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 13. R. Gløckner, M.J. de Wild-Scholten, (2012) Energy Payback Time and Carbon Footprint of Elkem Solar Silicon, to be published in the Proceedings of the 27th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Frankfurt, Germany, 24-28 September 2012 14. R. Gløckner, M.J. de Wild-Scholten, (2012) Environmental footprint of Elkem Solar Silicon, to be published in Proceedings of Silicon for the Chemical and Solar Industry XI, Bergen - Ulvik, Norway, 25-29 June 2012 15. S. Braathen, E. Enebakk, R. Gløckner, M.J. de Wild-Scholten, P. Preis, K. Peter (2012) High performance solar cells based on low cost solar silicon with low carbon footprint, SolarCon China 2012, Shanghai, 20-22 March 2012 8 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 - Part 1 SmartGreenScans

16. Fthenakis V., R. Frischknecht, M. Raugei, H. C. Kim, E. Alsema, M. Held and M. de Wild- Scholten (2011) Methodology Guidelines on Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaic Electricity, 2nd edition, IEA PVPS Task 12, International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power systems Programme 17. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2011) Environmental profile of PV mass production: globalization, invited plenary presentation and paper at the 26th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 5-9 September 2011, Hamburg, Germany 18. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2011) Solar as an environmental product, invited panel talk at SRC/MIST Forum on Solar-Electrical Energy Systems in Abu Dhabi, March 27-28, 2011 19. M. Schleef, D. Worf, R. Bartels, M.Kostieva, M. de Wild-Scholten (2011) Waste water treatment for crystalline silicon solar cell production, Photovoltaics International 11 th edition, February 2011, 20-25 20. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, M. Sturm, M.A. Butturi, M. Noack, K. Heasman, G. Timò (2010) Environmental sustainability of Concentrator PV systems: preliminary LCA results of the Apollon project, 25 th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 6-10 September 2010, Valencia, Spain [oral presentation + paper] 21. M. Schottler, M.J. de Wild-Scholten, S. Rueβ (2010) Gas abatement for crystalline silicon solar cell production, Photovoltaics International, August 2010, 20-28 22. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2010) Energy payback and carbon footprint of PV technologies. Invited presentation at the 20th Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells & Modules: Materials and Processes, 1-4 August 2010, Breckenridge, Colorado, U.S.A. 23. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, M. Sturm, P. Zurru, M. Noack, K. Heasman, G. Timò (2010) Environmental sustainability of two CPV systems: results from the Apollon project, 6 th International Conference on Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems (CPV-6) Freiburg, Germany, 7-9 April 2010 [poster presentation] 24. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2010) LCA of a PV module life cycle: From cradle to cradle. Invited presentation at the 1 st International Conference on PV Module Recycling, 26 January 2010, Berlin 25. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2009) Energy payback times of PV modules. Invited presentation at the 6th PV Module Technology workshop, Cologne, 26 November 2009 26. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2009) Sustainability: keeping the thin film industry green. Invited presentation at the 2 nd EPIA International Thin Film Conference, Munich, 12 November 2009 27. E. Alsema, D. Fraile, R. Frischknecht, V. Fthenakis, M. Held, H.C.Kim, W. Pölz, M. Raugei, and M.J. de Wild Scholten (2009) Methodology Guidelines on Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaic Electricity, Subtask 20 "LCA", IEA PVPS Task 12 28. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, M. Schottler, B. Schlüter (2009) Control of life-cycle emissions from crystalline silicon solar cell manufacturing, 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Hamburg, Germany, 21-25 September 2009 29. W.C. Sinke, W.M.G. van Hooff, G.Coletti, B.E. Ehlen, G. Hahn, S. Reber, J. John, G. Beaucarne, E. van Kerschaver, M.J. de Wild - Scholten, A. Metz, (2009) Wafer-based crystalline silicon modules at 1 Euro/Wp: final results from the CrystalClear integrated project, 24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Hamburg, Germany, 21-25 September 2009 30. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2009) Renewable ánd sustainable, presentation at the CrystClear Final Event, Munich, 26 May 2009 31. M. Schottler, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2009) Solar as an environmental product: thin-film modules production processes and their environmental assessment. Invited presentation at the Thin-Film Industry Forum, Berlin, Germany, 23-24 April 2009 32. M. Schottler, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2008) Carbon footprint of PECVD chamber cleaning, Photovoltaics International, Second Edition, p. 64-69 (also published in The rise of thinfilm solar technology, The 2010 Thin-Film Annual, T. Cheyney editor, ISBN 978-0- 9565331-0-4, Semiconductor Media Ltd, 104-109) 33. M. Schottler, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2008) The life-cycle environmental impacts of etching silicon wafers and (PE)CVD chamber cleaning, Proceedings Electronics Goes Green 2008+ (ISBN 978-3-8167-7668-0), Berlin, Germany, 8-10 September 2008, p. 641-644. 34. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, M. Schottler (2008) The carbon footprint of PECVD chamber cleaning using fluorinated gases, 23rd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Valencia, Spain, 1-5 September 2008 35. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, R. Gløckner, J.-O. Odden, G. Halvorsen, R. Tronstad (2009) LCA comparison of the Elkem Solar metallurgical route and conventional gas routes to solar silicon, 23rd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Valencia, Spain, 1-5 September 2008 SmartGreenScans Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 Part 1 9

36. N. Jungbluth, M. Tuchschmid, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2008) Life cycle assessment of photovoltaics: update of ecoinvent data v2.0, ESU-Services 37. R. Gløckner, J.-O. Odden, G. Halvorsen, R. Tronstad, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2008) Environmental life cycle assessment of the Elkem Solar metallurgical route to solar grade silicon with focus on energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, Silicon for the Chemical and Solar Industry IX, Oslo, Norway, 23-26 June 2008 38. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2008) Management of uncertainties in the environmental life cycle assessment of crystalline silicon solar cells, presentation at the SETAC Europe 18 th Annual Meeting, Warsaw, 25 May 2008. 39. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2008) Environmental impacts of photovoltaic technology. Invited presentation at the Energia workshop, Oslo, 24-25 April 2008 40. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2007) Photovoltaics, keeping it clean, Renewable Energy World, November-December 2007 41. M. Raugei, E.A. Alsema, P. Frankl, V.M. Fthenakis, H.C. Kim, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2007) Life cycle assessment of present and future photovoltaic systems, AIST Symposium Expectations and advanced technologies in renewable energy, Chiba, Japan, 11 October 2007 42. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2007) Reduction of environmental impacts in crystalline silicon photovoltaic technology an analysis of driving forces and opportunities, Materials Research Society Fall 2007 Symposium, Boston, U.S.A., 26-30 November 2007 43. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, A.C. Veltkamp (2007) Environmental life cycle analysis of dye sensitized solar devices: status and outlook, 22 nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Milano, Italy, 3-7 September 2007 44. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2007) Reduction of the environmental impacts in crystalline silicon module manufacturing, 22 nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Milano, Italy, 3-7 September 2007 45. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema, V.M. Fthenakis, G. Agostinelli, H. Dekkers, V. Kinzig (2007) Fluorinated greenhouse gases in photovoltaic module manufacturing: potential emissions and abatement strategies, 22 nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Milano, Italy, 3-7 September 2007 46. M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2007) Renewable and sustainable: environmental quality of PV modules and systems. Presentation at the CrystalClear workshop, Budapest, 11 May 2007. 47. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2007) Environmental life cycle inventory of crystalline silicon photovoltaic system production status 2005-2006, Excel file, ECN-E 07-026 48. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, A.C. Veltkamp (2006) Dye sensitized solar cells for large-scale photovoltaics: the determination of environmental performances, Renewable Energy 2006, Chiba, Japan, 9-13 October 2006 49. B. Lenkeit, R. Russell, H. Nagel, W. Schmidt, A.W. Weeber, C.J.J. Tool, H. Tathgar, Ø. Gjerstad, M. McCann, B. Raabe, F. Huster, C. del Canizo, S. Roberts, T.M. Bruton, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2006) Evaluation of high-efficiency mc-si cell processing technologies regarding environmental impact and industrial applicability, 21 st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Dresden, 4-8 September 2006 50. E.A. Alsema, V.M. Fthenakis, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2006) Environmental impacts of PV electricity generation a critical comparison of energy supply options, 21 st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Dresden, 4-8 September 2006 51. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema, E.W. ter Horst, M. Bächler, V.M. Fthenakis (2006) A cost and environmental impact comparison of grid-connected rooftop and ground-based PV systems, 21 st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Dresden, 4-8 September 2006 52. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2006) Energetische Bewertung von PV-modulen, Erneuerbare Energien, September 2006, p. 66-68 53. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2006) Environmental Life Cycle Inventory of crystalline silicon photovoltaic system production, Excel file, ECN E 06-019 54. B. Lenkeit, R. Russell, A.W. Weeber, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2006) TOPSICLE towards 20 percent mc-si industrial solar cell efficiency final environmental assessment, Excel file, ECN-E 06-015 55. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2006) Environmental impacts of crystalline silicon photovoltaic module production, 13 th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering, Leuven, Belgium 31 May 2006-2 June 2006 56. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2006) Environmental life cycle inventory of crystalline silicon photovoltaic module production, Excel file, ECN-RX 06-010 57. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2005) Environmental impacts of crystalline silicon photovoltaic module production, Materials Research Society Fall 2005 Meeting, Boston, U.S.A, 28 November 2005-2 December 2005 10 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 - Part 1 SmartGreenScans

58. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2005) Environmental life cycle inventory of crystalline silicon photovoltaic module production, Materials Research Society Fall 2005 Meeting, Boston, U.S.A, 28 November 2005-2 December 2005 59. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, K. Wambach, E.A. Alsema, A. Jäger-Waldau (2005) Implications of European environmental legislation for photovoltaic systems, 20th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Barcelona, Spain, 6-10 June 2005 60. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2005) The real environmental impacts of crystalline silicon PV modules: an analysis based on up-to-date manufacturing, 20th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Barcelona, Spain, 6-10 June 2005 61. V.M. Fthenakis, E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2005) Life Cycle Assessment of photovoltaics: perceptions, needs and challenges, 31 st IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Florida, U.S.A., 3-5 January 2005 62. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2004) Towards cleaner solar PV. Environmental and health impacts of crystalline silicon photovoltaics, REFOCUS 5(5) 46-49 63. E.A. Alsema, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2004) Environmental life cycle assessment of advanced silicon solar cell technologies, 19 th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Paris, 7-11 June 2004 64. M.J. de Wild-Scholten, E.A. Alsema (2004) External costs of photovoltaics: what is it based on? (2004) Workshop on Life Cycle Analysis of Solar Modules The Waste Challenge, Brussels, Belgium, 18-19 March 2004 65. G.P. Wyers, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2003) Material requirements and availability for monoand multicrystalline silicon solar cells, presentation at EUROPV 2003, Granada, 7-12 November 2003 66. E.A. Alsema and M.J.d.Wild-Scholten (2003) Sustainability of advanced silicon solar cell technology; 2003 International Society for Industrial Ecology (ISIE) Second International Conference, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 29 June - 2 July 2003 67. C.H.M. Wentink, J.A.M. van Roosmalen, C.J.J. Tool, M.J. de Wild-Scholten (2001) Regelgeving ten aanzien van cadmium in zonnepanelen: interpretatie en consequenties van Nederlandse and Europese regelgeving voor toepassing van cadmium in zonnepanelen en gebruik van zulke zonnepanelen, ECN-I 01-010 68. B.J. Groenendaal, T.J. de Lange, P. Lako, J.A.M. van Roosmalen, C.J.J. Tool, M.J. de Wild- Scholten (2000) Critical success factors for the large-scale introduction of grid-connected photovoltaics systems, ECN-C 00-086 SmartGreenScans Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics Status 2011 Part 1 11