The Online Journal of Counseling and Education (TOJCE)

Transcription

1 Year: 2014 Volume: 3 Issue: 3 ISSN: ISSN: The Online Journal of Counseling and Education (TOJCE) Ümran AKIN The Predictive Role of Self-compassion on Subjective Vitality in Turkish University Students Gülden UYANIK BALAT & Burcu ÖZDEMİR BECEREN The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale for Five-Year-Old Children: The Study of Linguistic Equivalence, Validity and Reliability Editor-in-Chief Dr. Ahmet AKIN Masoumeh POURRAJAB, Mohtaram RABBANI, & Sara KASMAIENEZHADFARD Different Effects of Stress on Male and Female Students Associated Editors Serhat ARSLAN Hakan SARIÇAM Fuat TANHAN & Gamze MUKBA The Determination of Predictors among Emotion Awareness Levels of College Students Field Editors Dr. Mehmet KAYA Dr. Ümit SAHRANÇ Dr. Mehmet A. HAMEDOĞLU w w w. t o j c e. c o m

2 Editor-in-Chief Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet AKIN, Sakarya University, Turkey Psychological Counseling Associated Editors Assist. Prof. Dr. Serhat ARSLAN, Sakarya University, Turkey Dr. Hakan SARIÇAM Field Editors Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet KAYA & Assist. Prof. Dr. Ümit SAHRANÇ Educational Administration Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet A. HAMEDOĞLU Technical Team Çınar KAYA, Sakarya University, Turkey Erol UĞUR, Sakarya University, Turkey Advisory Board DR. ADNAN KAN (GAZİ UNIVERSITY) DR. ARİF SARIÇOBAN (HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY) DR. ALEV GİRLİ (DOKUZ EYLÜL UNIVERSITY) DR. ALİ YİLMAZ (ONDOKUZ MAYIS UNIVERSITY) DR. ANGELA DUCKWORTH (UNVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA) Dr. ATILGAN EROZKAN (MUĞLA UNIVERSITY ) DR. AYDOĞAN AYKUT CEYHAN (ANADOLU UNIVERSITY) DR. BARBARA PLAKE (UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN) DR. DR. Dr. DR. DR. DR. DR. BAHTİYAR ERASLAN ÇAPAN (ANADOLU UNIVERSITY) BEKİR FATİH MERAL (SAKARYA UNIVERSITY) BİROL ALVER (ATATÜRK UNIVERSITY) CANAN KARABABA (ANKARA UNIVERSITY) COŞKUN ARSLAN (SELÇUK UNIVERSITY) DAVİD CONROY (THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY) DR. ERDAL HAMARTA (SELÇUK UNIVERSITY) DR. ESİN TEZER (MIDDLE EAST TECNICAL UNIVERSITY) DR. ESMAHAN AĞAOĞLU (ANADOLU UNIVERSITY) DR. DR. DR. DR. DR. EYÜP ÇELİK (SAKARYA UNIVERSITY) FATİH ÇAĞLAYAN (BOGAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY) FATMA NEVRA SEGGİE (BOGAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY) FİLİZ GÜLTEKİN (ULUDAĞ UNIVERSITY) FERYAL ÇUBUKÇU (DOKUZ EYLÜL UNIVERSITY) DR. FRANK C. WORRELL (UNİVERSITY OF CALIFORNİA BERKELEY) DR. FREDERİCK RHODEWALT (THE UNİVERSITY OF UTAH) DR. GEORGİOS D. SİDERİDİS (UNIVERSİTY OF CRETE) DR. GÜL ŞENDİL (İSTANBUL UNIVERSITY) DR. GÜLSEREN AKAR (BOGAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY) DR. GÜNSELİ GİRGİN (DOKUZ EYLÜL UNIVERSITY)

3 DR. HASAN BACANLI (GAZİ UNIVERSITY) DR. HATİCE ODACI (KARADENİZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY) DR. HAVVA YAMAN (SAKARYA UNIVERSITY) DR. İLYAS YAZAR (DOKUZ EYLÜL UNIVERSITY) DR. JAMES J. GROSS (STANFORD UNİVERSITY) DR. JİANZHONG XU (MISSISSIPPI STATE UNIVERSITY) DR. JOHN KANTOR (ALLIANT INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY) DR. JUNE P TANGNEY (GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY) DR. KEN WALLSTON (VANDERBILT UNİVERSITY) DR. KERİM GÜNDOĞDU (ATATÜRK UNIVERSITY) DR. KRİSTİN NEFF (UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN) DR. KRİSTİN NEFF UNİVERSİTY (UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS) DR. M. ENGİN DENİZ (SELÇUK UNIVERSITY) DR. MARİA KAVUSSANU (UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM) DR. MEHMET ÇARDAK (SAKARYA UNIVERSITY) DR. MİCHAEL F. STEGER (COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY) DR. MİCHAEL MCCULLOUGH (UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI) DR. MURAT DEMİRBAŞ (KIRIKKALE UNIVERSITY) DR. MURAT GÜNEL (AHİEVRAN UNIVERSITY) DR. MUSTAFA BALOĞLU (GAZİOSMANPAŞA UNIVERSITY) DR. MUSTAFA SÖZBİLİR (ATATÜRK UNIVERSITY) DR. MÜCAHİT DİLEKMEN (ATATÜRK UNIVERSITY) DR. NALAN BABUR (BOGAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY) DR. NESRİN HİSLİ ŞAHİN (BAŞKENT UNIVERSITY) DR. NİLS BEER (LONDON METROPOLITAN UNİIVERSITY) DR. NİLÜFER BEKLEYEN (DİCLE UNIVERSITY) DR. NİLÜFER VOLKAN ACAR (HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY) DR. NURAY TAŞTAN (KIRIKKALE UNIVERSITY) DR. OSMAN TOLGA ARICAK (FATİH UNIVERSITY) DR. ÖZCAN ERKAN AKGÜN (SAKARYA UNIVERSITY) DR. ÖZGEN KORKMAZ (MEVLANA UNIVERSITY) DR. PAMELA G. REED (UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA) DR. PETER LOVİBOND (UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES) DR. REBECCA P. ANG (NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY) DR. RECEP KOÇAK (GAZİOSMANPAŞA UNIVERSITY) DR. RİCHARD M. RYAN (UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER) DR. RİTA CLAES (UNIVERSITEIT GENT) DR. ROBERT EMMONS (UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS) DR. RUHAT YAŞAR (KİLİS 7 ARALIK UNIVERSITY ) DR. SARA FİNNEY (JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY) DR. SEHER SEVİM (ANKARA UNIVERSITY) DR. SEVDA BEKMAN (BOGAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY) DR. SEVDA BULDUK (İSTANBUL BİLİM UNIVERSITY) DR. SIRRI AKBABA (ULUDAĞ UNIVERSITY) DR. SİBEL SÖNMEZ (EGE UNIVERSITY) DR. SİNCLAİR, VAUGHN (VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY) DR. SUSAN E. CROSS (IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY) DR. SUSAN SPRECHER (ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY) DR. Ş. ŞULE ERÇETİN (HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY) DR. TODD KASHDAN (GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY) DR. W. KEİTH CAMPBELL (UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA) DR. YASİN ÖZTÜRK (KARADENİZ TECNICAL UNIVERSITY)

4 DR. YASİN SOYLU (ATATÜRK UNIVERSITY) DR. YÜCEL ÖKSÜZ (ONDOKUZ MAYIS UNIVERSITY) DR. YÜKSEL KAVAK (HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY) DR. ZEYNEP KIZILTEPE (BOGAZİÇİ UNIVERSITY)

5 TOJCE ISSN: The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), 1-13 The Predictive Role of Self-compassion on Subjective Vitality in Turkish University Students Ümran Akın Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between self-compassion and subjective vitality. Participants were 325 university students (175 women, 150 men; M age= 21.3 yr.). In this study, the Selfcompassion Scale and the Subjective vitality Scale were used. The relationships between self-compassion and subjective vitality were examined using correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. In correlation analysis, self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness factors of self-compassion were found positively and self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification factors of self-compassion were found negatively related to subjective vitality. According to regression results, subjective vitality was predicted negatively by self-judgment and over-identification. Further self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness predicted subjective vitality in a positive way. Self-compassion has explained 32% of the variance in subjective vitality. The results were discussed in the light of the related literature and dependent recommendations to the area were given. Keywords: Self-compassion, subjective vitality, multiple regression analysis

6 Akın Self-compassion, as a relatively new construct in psychology, means being gentle towards oneself in the face of hardship or perceived inadequacy and entails acknowledging that suffering, failure, and inadequacies are part of the human condition and that all people, oneself included, are worthy of compassion (Neff, 2003b; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007). Neff (2003a, includes three main components; First, self-kindness which refers to an attitude of kindness to one s self as opposed to harsh judgment, second common humanity which involves perceiving one s experiences as part of the larger human condition instead of feeling separate and isolated, and third mindfulness which describes being mindfully aware of painful experiences without over-identifying with them. An individual with self-kindness, in instances of pain or failure, behave him/herself tolerantly rather than being self-critical (Neff, 2009). People who high in common humanity, see their both joyful and painful experiences as not personal, but as all human beings. This sense principal to self-compassion involves recognizing that all humans are imperfect and that they fail and make mistakes (Neff, 2009) and with this kind of awareness, one perceives these experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than feeling isolated and alienated from the society (Neff, 2003a). The last component of self-compassion, mindfulness, is a pre-conceptual awareness that helps individual to accept most painful and stressful emotions, without being carried away by them (Gunaratana, 1993; Martin, 1997; Neff, 2003a; Nisker, 1998; Rosenberg, 1999). It is also a state of balanced awareness that one s feelings and thoughts are observed without avoiding or trying to change them, without exaggeration and prejudice. These three dimensions of self-compassion are conceptually are experienced differently at the phenomenological level, while they interact so as to mutually enhance and engender one another (Neff, 2003a). For example if individuals accept and tolerate their distress and pain and if they are gentle and kind toward themselves, they avoid suppressing their emotions and thoughts. Thus, when they are aware that distress and pain are something all humans experience, they are not trapped by over-identification (Neff, Hsieh, & Dejitterat, 2005). Research on self-compassion has begun with the development of a valid and a reliable scale by Neff (2003b) and a growing body of research has been done. These studies have found that self-compassion is a powerful predictor of mental health. They proved that selfcompassion is associated positively with psychological well-being (Akın, 2008a), life satisfaction, social relatedness (Neff, 2003b), reflective and affective wisdom, personal initiative, curiosity and exploration, optimism, positive affect, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness (Neff, Rude, & Kirkpatrick, 2007), social relationship, emotional 2

7 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), 1-13 intelligence, self-determination (Neff, 2003a), self-deception (Akın & Abacı, 2009), learningapproach goals (Akın, 2008b), social support (Akın, Kayış, & Satıcı, 2011), and relationalinterdependent self construal (Akın & Eroglu, 2013). The other studies have proved that selfcompassion is negatively associated with performance-approach/avoidance goals (Akın, 2008b), submissive behavior (Akın, 2009), interpersonal cognitive distortions (Akın, 2010a), loneliness (Akın, 2010b), internet addiction (Iskender & Akın, 2011), automatic thoughts (Akın, 2012a), depression, anxiety, rumination, thought suppression (Neff, 2003b), and neuroticism (Neff, Rude, & Kirkpatrick, 2007). Subjective vitality The positive psychology movement imposes that positive well-being experiences such as subjective vitality (the positive sense of aliveness and energy) are so important for both physical and psychological health factors (Fayad & Kazarian, 2013; Ryan & Frederick 1997; Sabbah, Drouby, Sabbah, Retel-Rude, & Mercier, 2003; Tremblay, Blanchard, Vallerand, & Pelletier, 2006). From this view point negative physical and psychological consequences stem from adversarial contextual factors are likely to damage people s sense of subjective vitality whereas positive physical and psychological outcomes invoked by healthy environments and human resilience are likely to maintain or even enhance this sense (Fayad & Kazarian, 2013; Ryan & Frederick 1997). Subjective vitality was introduced first by Ryan and Frederick (1997) and they have defined this construct as one's conscious experience of possessing energy and aliveness (p. 530). This experience is called by different named in different cultures such as chi in Chinese culture as the feeling of being full of internal energy that is source of life (Bostic, Rubio, & Hood, 2000) or ki in Japanese culture as the power and energy by which helps a person is to keep his/her physical and mental health (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). Subjective vitality is derived from an internal source, not from specific threats in the environment, and is not driven or compelled (Bostic et al., 2000). It is perceived to emanate from the self, that is, it has, in attributional terms, an internal perceived locus of causality (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). People who are subjectively vital, report being alert and energized, have more energy to perform all activities and duties well, cope better with stress, and report greater mental health. Studies generally demonstrated that subjective vitality is negatively related to a-motivation (Balaguer, Castillo, Duda, & Garcia-Merita, 2011), internet addiction (Akın, 2012b), poor self-control performance (Muraven, Gagne, & Rosman, 2008), negative affectivity, anxiety, neuroticism, physical symptoms, physical pain, external locus of control 3

8 Akın (Ryan & Frederick, 2007), sleep difficulties, and somatic illnesses (Stewart, Hayes, & Ware, 1992), and depressive symptoms (Niemiec, Lynch, & Vansteenkiste et al., 2006). On the other hand, Ryan and Frederick (1997) found that subjective vitality is positively related to selfesteem, perceived physical ability, self-actualization, satisfaction with life, positive affectivity, extraversion, conscientiousness, physical self-presentation confidence, and intrinsic motivation (Balaguer, et al., 2011). The present study Although relatively less is known about the source of individual variation in subjective vitality, it is likely that some variance is explained by innate differences in self-compassion. Thus the aim of this research is to examine the possible links between self-compassion and subjective vitality. Previous evidence suggests that both self-compassion and subjective vitality are strongly and positively linked with life satisfaction, positive affect, and extraversion and negatively with internet addiction, negative affectivity, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Also a feeling of self-compassion helps individuals to feel cared for, connected, and emotionally calm and thus enhances well-being (Gilbert, 2005). Therefore there may be linear positive relationship self-compassion and subjective vitality and in this research it was aimed to investigate predictive role of self-compassion on subjective vitality. Based on the above relationships of self-compassion and subjective vitality with psychological and social constructs it was hypothesized that self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness components of self-compassion would be associated positively with subjective vitality. It was also hypothesized that self-judgment, isolation, and overidentification components of self-compassion would be related negatively to subjective vitality. Method Participants Participants were 325 university students (175 women, 150 men) enrolled in various undergraduate programs at Sakarya University Faculty of Education, Turkey. These programs were science education (n= 72), mathematics education (n= 50), computer and instructional technology education (n= 66), Turkish education (n= 74), and pre-school education (n= 63). Of the participants, 80 were first-year students, 93 were second-year students, 87 were third- 4

9 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), 1-13 year students, and 65 were fourth-year student. Their ages ranged from 17 to 24 years old (M= 21.3, SD = 1.02) and GPA scores ranged from 1.92 to Measures Self-compassion Scale. Self-compassion was measured by using Self-compassion Scale (Neff, 2003b). Turkish adaptation of this scale had been done by Akın, Akın, and Abacı (2007). Self-compassion Scale is a 26-item self-report measurement and consists of six subscales; self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and overidentification. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Language validity findings indicated that correlations between Turkish and English forms were.94,.94,.87,.89,.92, and.94 for six subscales, respectively. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the model was well fit. The goodness of fit index values of the model were RMSEA=.056, NFI=.95, CFI=.97, IFI=.97, RFI=.94, GFI=.91, and SRMR=.059. The internal consistency coefficients were.77,.72,.72,.80,.74, and.74 and the test-retest reliability coefficients were.69,.59,.66,.60.69, and.56, for six subscales, respectively. Subjective Vitality Scale. Subjective vitality was measured using the Turkish version of the Subjective Vitality Scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997; Younes, 2011). The Subjective Vitality Scale measures vitality (seven items; e.g., In general, I feel alive and vital). Responses were made on a 7-point scale from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true). Turkish adaptation of this scale was done by Akın, Satici, Arslan, Akın and Kayıs (2012). Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the uni-dimensional model was well fit (x 2 = 12.17, df= 7, p= , RMSEA=.047, NFI=.99, CFI=1.00, IFI=1.00, RFI= 1.00, GFI=.99, and AGFI=.96). The Cronbach alpha coefficient in the Turkish sample.84. Procedure Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. The measures were counterbalanced in administration. Prior to administration of measures, all participants were told about purposes of the study. In this research, multiple linear regression analysis and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to investigate the relationships between self-compassion and subjective vitality. 5

10 Akın The variables which were entered in multiple regression analysis were measured by summing the items of each scale. These analyses were carried out via SPSS Descriptive data and inter-correlations Results Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, inter-correlations, and internal consistency coefficients of the variables used. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics, Alphas, and Inter-correlations of the Variables Variables Self-kindness 2. Self-judgment -.36** 3. Common humanity.46** -.23** 4. Isolation -.35**.59** -.21** 5. Mindfulness.67** -.29**.46** -.29** 6. Over-identification -.30**.57** ** -.35** 7. Subjective vitality.48** -.37**.35* -.38**.44** -.36** Mean Standard deviation Alpha *p <.05, **p <.01 Table 1 shows descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables. Selfkindness (r=.48, p<.01), common humanity (r=.35, p<.05), and mindfulness (r=.44, p<.01) were found positively and self-judgment (r= -.37, p<.01), isolation (r= -.38, p<.01), and over-identification (r= -.36, p<.01) were found negatively associated with subjective vitality. There were also significant correlations between dimensions of self-compassion. Multiple Regression Analysis Before applying regression, assumptions of multiple regression were checked. The data were examined for normality by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The Kolmogorov- Smirnov test indicated normality of distributions of test scores for all tests in the current study. Outliers are cases that have data values that are very different from the data values for the majority of cases in the data set. Outliers were investigated using Mahalanobis distance. A case is outlier if the probability associated with its D 2 is.001 or less (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Based on this criterion, eight data were labeled as outliers and they were deleted. Multi-collinearity was checked by the variance inflation factors (VIF). All the VIF values 6

11 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), 1-13 were less than 10 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), which indicated that there was no multicollinearity. Multiple regression analysis was performed in which the dependent variable was subjective vitality and the independent variables were dimensions of self-compassion (Table 2). As many of those predictor variables were dependent on each other, forward stepwise procedure, which includes one new explanatory variable at each step, specifically the most associated with the dependent variable while being, at the same time, independent of the explanatory variables already included in the model. The criteria to include the variables from the regression model were: criterion probability-of-f-to enter <=.05. Table 2. Summary of forward stepwise multiple regression analysis for variable predicting subjective vitality Variables B Standart Error of B β t Step 1 Self-kindness * Step 2 Self-kindness * Over-identification * Step 3 Self-kindness * Over-identification * Common humanity * Step 4 Self-kindness * Over-identification * Common humanity * Self-judgment * Step 5 Self-kindness * Over-identification * Common humanity * Self-judgment * Mindfulness * According to the results of multiple regression analysis, summarized in Table 2, selfkindness entered the equation first, accounting for 23% of the variance in predicting subjective vitality (R 2 =.23, adjusted R 2 =.23, F(1, 323)= 97,782, p<.01). Over-identification entered on the second step accounting for an additional 5% variance (R 2 =.28, ΔR 2 =.05, adjusted R 2 =.28, F(2, 322)= 63,412, p<.01). Common humanity entered on the third step accounting for an additional 2% variance (R 2 =.30, ΔR 2 =.02, adjusted R 2 =.30, F(3, 321)= 46,230, p<.01). Self-judgment entered on the fourth step accounting for an additional 1% 7

12 Akın variance (R 2 =.31, ΔR 2 =.01, adjusted R 2 =.31, F(4, 320)= 36,417, p<.01). Mindfulness entered last, accounting for an additional 1% variance (R 2 =.32, ΔR 2 =.01, adjusted R 2 =.31, F(5, 319)= 30,354, p<.01). Despite the initial regression design included mindfulness, common humanity, self-kindness, over-identification, isolation, and self-judgment as independent variables, the last regression models involved mindfulness, self-kindness, overidentification, common humanity, and self-judgment as predictors of subjective vitality and accounted for 32% of the variance. The standardized beta coefficients indicated the relative influence of the variables in last model with self-kindness (β=.24, p<.01), over-identification (β= -.14, p<.01), common humanity (β=.12, p<.01), self-judgment (β= -.14, p<.01), and mindfulness (β=.14, p<.01) all significantly influencing subjective vitality and self-kindness was strongest predictor. Discussion The aim of this research was to investigate the predictive role of self-compassion on subjective vitality and significant relationships were found. As expected, self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness predicted subjective vitality positively. People who high in self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness have been shown to possess many of the psychological strengths such as well-being (Akın, 2008a), life satisfaction, optimism, positive affect, extraversion, and agreeableness (Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007). Also, selfkindness, common humanity, and mindfulness refer that, in the event of negative lifeexperiences, individual s approach toward himself is warm, gentle, and kind. Moreover, since self-compassionate individuals recognize when they are suffering, but by doing so they provide themselves with warmth, kindness, and interconnectedness with the rest of humanity (Neff, 2009), they can experience more positive and less negative emotions. Self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness dimensions has been associated with feelings of autonomy and competence (Neff, 2003a) and they help to maintain optimistic expectations about the future (Scheier et al., 1994). They also have been linked to higher levels of brain activation in the left prefrontal cortex, a region associated with joy and optimism (Lutz, Greischar, Rawlings, Ricard, & Davidson, 2004). Thus, people who high in self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness can feel themselves as vital. Also greater vitality may stem from (and also facilitate) the feelings of warmth, inter-relatedness, and equilibrium that people experience when they are self-compassionate (Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007). 8

13 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), 1-13 Results demonstrated that, as anticipated (except from isolation), self-judgment and over-identification predicted subjective vitality in a negative way. People who have higher self-judgment reject their own feelings, thoughts, impulses, actions, and tend to feel ashamed from their faults (Neff, 2003a). Over-identification involves ruminating one s own limitations (Barnard & Curry, 2011; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007) and become identified with and carried away by negative thoughts and feelings about themselves (Neff & Vonk, 2009). Therefore, these dimensions of self-compassion are maladaptive and people who have greater they self-judgment and over-identification less likely to be extroverted perhaps because they are more likely to worry about the impression they make on other individuals, an anxiety that can lead to shy and withdrawn behavior (Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007). And so these individuals may feel less vitality and the negative relationships between self-judgment, overidentification and subjective vitality is not surprising. The present study has some limitations such as; (a) participants were university students and replication of this study for targeting other student populations should be made in order to generate a more solid relationship among the constructs examined in this study, because generalization of the results is somewhat limited, (b) as correlational statistics were utilized, no definitive statements can be made about causality, and (c) the data reported here for self-compassion and self-handicapping are limited to self-reported data. Consequently, the present research provides important information about the predictors of subjective vitality. An increment in mindfulness, self-kindness, and common humanity will increase subjective vitality. In contrary an increment in self-judgment, overidentification, and isolation will decrease subjective vitality. This research also suggests that the encouragement of self-compassion could be highly beneficial for subjective vitality. Additionally, encouraging the development of self-compassion should be useful individuals by helping them to counter destructive self-critical tendencies and deal with their negative emotions with greater clarity and equanimity (Neff, 2003a). References Akın, A. (2008b). Self-compassion and achievement goals: A structural equation modeling approach. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 31, Akın, A. (2009). Self-compassion and submissive behavior. Education and Science, 34(152),

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17 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), 1-13 Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Tremblay, M. A., Blanchard, C. M., Vallerand, L. G., & Pelletier, R. J. (2006). A dual role in explaining health outcomes in natural disasters. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, Younes, M. S. (2011). Positive mental health, subjective vitality, and satisfaction with life for French physical education students. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 4,

18 TOJCE ISSN: The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale for Five-Year-Old Children: The Study of Linguistic Equivalence, Validity and Reliability * Gülden UYANIK BALAT Faculty of Education in Marmara University, İstanbul, Turkey [email protected] Burcu ÖZDEMİR BECEREN Faculty of Education in Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,Çanakkale,Turkey [email protected] Abstract In this study, a scale adaptation process is carried out in order to provide a rationale for further studies on fiveyear-old preschool children s Behavioral and Emotional skills in Turkish. The study includes the adaptation of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (PreBERS) developed by Epstein and Synhorst (2009) to Turkish. Statistical analysis showed that items in the scale were linguistically equivalent and the scale was consisted of 42 items with four factors and the variance explained by all four factors was %.The overall Cronbach s Alpha internal consistency of The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale for 5-year-old children was computed as.97. The test-retest reliability coefficient was.85. According to the results of t-test conducted for the differences between items means of upper 27% and lower 27% of the group points, all the differences were obtained in favour of upper 27% group scores. In the lights of the obtained findings, it can be concluded that The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale for 5-year-old children is a valid and reliable testing measure. Keywords: behavioral and emotional development, linguistic equivalence, preschool scale. * This study was presented as an oral presentation at the 3. International Congress On Early Childhood Education September 2012, Adana, Turkey.

19 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Preschool education is one of the most critical periods in terms of emotional development of children. Most of the children in this period can differentiate positive and negative emotions and start to learn how to regulate their emotions (Izard, Trentacosta, King, & Mostow, 2004). Izard, Fine, Schultz, Mostow, Ackerman, and Youngstrom s study (2001) states that the academic and verbal competency and temperament of 9-year-old children can be estimated by considering the 5-year-old children s understanding of emotions. Children can talk about their emotions and cope with them when they experience them (Seifer, Gouley, Miller, & Zakriski, 2004). Emotional skills or the ability of recognizing emotions can develop in time. As children grow, their ability to understand and recognize emotions gradually improves and they realize that one can feel more than one emotion in their life (Gross & Ballif, 1991). The development of such emotional skills provides a basis for successful social communication (Fables, Eisenberg, Hamish, & Spurned, 2001; Izard et al., 2001). In time, children begin to use emotional clues taken from the environment in order to decide what to do (Denham & Weissberg, 2004). Preschool Education is the period in which children develop many social and emotional skills such as self-control of emotional skills, self-confidence, values, and social skills (Schultz, Richardson, Barber, Wilcox, & 2011). Social emotional skills cannot be selftaught abilities but they can be taught to the children by family circle (Joseph & Strain, 2003). Borntein et al. (cited in Schultz et al, 2011 ) states that low social skills at preschool education period lead to internal and external problem behaviours in early puberty. Unless children are taught social emotional skills explicitly, they may not control their emotions and behaviours efficiently. Children with low social emotional skills often cause discipline problems in school environment and their academic life is under risk in terms of success. Acceleration of social emotional development is quite important for assisting children to have positive life skills. (Schultz et al.,2011). During Preschool Education period, it is significant to teach children how they can express their emotions efficiently and how they can construct positive relationship and this can assist the reduction of academic, behavioural, and psychological problems. The explicit education of social emotional skills is one of the methods that can be employed in preventing the problematic behaviours at preschool education. 15

20 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren In recent years, educational policies throughout the world emphasise that it is necessary to focus on the development of social-emotional skills in children to be better adult citizens in future, to improve their academic success and their rapport (Zeidner, Roberts, &Matthews, 2002; Humphrey, Curran, Morris, Farrell, & Woods, 2007; Humphrey Kalambouka, Bolton, Lendrum, Wigelsworth, Lennie and others, 2008). The identification of social emotional skills and problem behaviour in children, the preparation of the suitable program and its application can be successfully conducted. It is essential to start the social emotional learning programmes at early ages in order to develop social emotional skills and to prevent or decrease problematic behaviours (Webster-Stratton &Reid, 2003). There are plenty of assessment tools regarding the behavioral and emotional examination of preschool children. Some of them are Behavioral Assessment System for Children-2, Child Behaviour Checklist for Ages 11/2-5, Devereux Early Childhood Assessment, Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment, Social Skills Rating System and Vineland Social-Emotional Early Childhood Scales (Epstein & Synhorst, 2008). Related research states that emotional and behavioral problems arise often in preschool period. The preschool children diagnosed with behavioral problems also have social emotional skills deficiencies (Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg, 2007). Preschool educators affirm that the biggest problem that they face in classroom management is the negative behavior. As social emotional problems become resilient to change in time, it is important to diagnose them among preschool children early and to intervene them (Walker, Sprague, & Gresham, 2004). Having information about kid s social, emotional, and behavioural development in early preschool period can be useful in overcoming many social, emotional, and behavioural problems that would be come up in adulthood and this knowledge enables us to set up appropriate educational settings. Therefore, the study aims to adapt The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale developed by Epstein and Synhorst (2009) to Turkish language considering the behavioral and emotional assessment of five-year-old preschool children and it further intends to test its linguistic equivalence, validity and reliability. 16

21 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Method Descriptive Survey model is employed in the study. According to Kaptan (1998), researches conducted by survey models are the screenings aiming to clarify and describe the views of individuals on a particular topic, their attitudes on a particular topic, the events, objects, institutions, and other fields. They are conducted in a certain time zone with many objects or participants. Settings and Participants The population of the study consisted of kindergarten classes in primary schools and independent preschools in İstanbul. Four districts of İstanbul, namely Kadıköy, Üsküdar, Ümraniye, and Sarıyer; and Gebze, a district of Kocaeli were chosen with simple random sampling method. 100 five-year-old children were again chosen from five primary schools and two independent preschools among the schools in the population by employing simple random sampling method. The average age of the children participated in the study is months. 44 of the participants (44%) are females and 56 of them (56%) are males. 65 of the participants (65%) have former preschool education but 35 of them (35%) have no preschool education. 38 children (38%) are the only child of their families but 62 of them (62%) have siblings. 38 of the participants (64.4%) are the first-borns whereas 62 of them (62%) are second or third child of their families. 46 of the participants mothers (46%) are primary school graduate, 37 mothers (37%) are high school graduate and 17 mothers (17%) are university graduate while 28 of the participants fathers (28%) are primary school graduate, 41 fathers (41%) are high school graduate and 31 fathers (31%) are university graduate. 3 of the participants families (3%) claimed that they had low socio-economic income, 19 of them(19%) had low-middle socio-economic income, 62 of them ( 62%) had middle socioeconomic income, 13 of them (13%) had upper-middle socio-economic income and 3 of them (3%) had upper socio-economic income. Data Collection Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-PreBERS was developed by Epstein and Snorts in 2009 in order to assess 3 to 5 year old children s Behavioral and emotional condition. Two different assessments were conducted for the original research. In the first one, the scale was given to 1471 children aged 3 to 5. In the second one, it was held to1103 preschool children studying at special education classes. The statistical analysis 17

22 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren concluded that internal consistency coefficient for all sub-scales varied from.83 to.98 (Epstein, Snorts, Cress & Allen, 2009). In addition to this, some other studies such as construct validity, content validity and test-retest reliability were also conducted (Epstein & Synhorst, 2008). Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-PreBERS consists of 42 items. It is a four-point likert type scale with four sub-scales including 13 items for emotional regulation, 13 item for school readiness, another 13 items for social confidence and 9 items for parent involvement (Epstein & Synhorst, 2009). Procedure The data was gathered from the educators and the parents of the children composing the population. In the Spring Term of Academic year, researchers held meetings in the schools. The descriptive data of the participants were gathered by personal information forms developed by the researchers. The forms were sent to the participants families by means of the educators working in primary schools and independent preschools. The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale which was the focus of this study was completed by the six educators of the participants and their working experience ranged 1 to 5 years. Spring Term was chosen as the data collection period since it was thought that educators were more familiar with the participants and their evaluation could be more reliable. The Analysis of the Linguistic Equivalence In this study, the steps followed were the translation of the The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale into Turkish, the analysis of the linguistic equivalence and the implementation of the adapted version of the scale to participants. The original scale was translated into Turkish by five experts in the field who knew both of the language very well and the Turkish draft version was formed. This form was retranslated into English by two experts and cohesion of the scale was compared with the original one. Finally, problematic items were rewritten by considering the criteria of Turkish expressions and final Turkish version of the scale was devised. 10 preschool educators filled in the Turkish scale for 30 children with weekly intervals in order to conduct the linguistic relevance analysis and the obtained data were analysed by means of paired sample t-test. 18

23 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Validity and Reliability Construction For the construction of validity, content validity and construct validity methods were employed. Content validity was established by reviewing the opinions of the six preschool education academicians and six preschool educators who were asked whether the scale could measure the behavioral and emotional skills of the preschool age children. Based on these reviews, it was surmised that the scale could have the necessary qualifications to assess behavioral and emotional skills of children. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted for establishing construct validity. Before the implementation of the exploratory factor analysis, Kaiser Mayer Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's test of Sphericity were carried out. The values obtained from KMO test p>.05 (.91) and BTS test (Chi square= 5,753 p<.001) revealed that the sampling was adequate for the study. In the elimination process of the items not measuring the same dimension, some preconditions such as coefficient of the items for the same factor is to be 45 and over, items have higher coefficients in one factor, the difference in coefficient values should be at least 10 if items have higher coefficients in two factors and variance value explained together with items should be high (Büyüköztürk, 2010). Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient for internal consistency, Spearman-Brown split-half coefficient for split-half reliability was calculated to designate the reliability of The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale and test-retest reliability coefficients were analyzed to assess the stability of the scale. The scale was completed by the educators of the 90 participants with 15-day intervals. Furthermore, the differences between items means of upper 27% and lower 27% of the group points were also used. A significance level of.05 was considered statistically significant in all statistical analysis. Results The results regarding linguistic equivalence, validity and reliability analysis of The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale considering the behavioral and emotional assessment of five-year-old preschool children are presented in the Tables 1 to 7 below. 19

24 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren Table 1 Results of the Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficients for Linguistic Equivalence Items N Correlation Sig. Items N Correlation Sig. tur01&eng tur22&eng tur02&eng tur23&eng tur03&eng tur24&eng tur04&eng tur25&eng tur05&eng tur26&eng tur06&eng tur27&eng tur07&eng tur28&eng tur08&eng tur29&eng tur09&eng tur30&eng tur10&eng tur31&eng tur11&eng tur32&eng tur12&eng tur33&eng tur13&eng tur34&eng tur14&eng tur35&eng tur15&eng tur36&eng tur16&eng tur37&eng tur17&eng tur38&eng tur18&eng tur39&eng tur19&eng tur40&eng tur20&eng tur41&eng tur21&eng tur42&eng

25 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Table 2 Related Samples t test Result for Linguistic Equivalence Items N Mean t df Sig. Items N Mean t df Sig

26 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren The statistical analysis revealed that most of the items in the adapted version of the scale were linguistically equivalent. Correlation coefficients of the problematic items were investigated and it was checked whether problems were solved or not by having statistically significant correlation coefficients. According to the results of paired sample t-test, items 8, 9, 11, 14, 18 and 34 were problematic. There were no problematic items in line with correlation coefficient results. Correlation Coefficients of items analyzed significant at the t-test results were considered linguistically equivalent since they were statistically significant. Table 3 Factor analysis of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (Rotated Principal components factor analysis) Items Common Factor Variance F1 Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item 12 Item 29 Item 19 Item Factor Loading F2 F3 F Eigen Value Variance Explanation Level % % % % %

27 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Factor analysis results demonstrated that the scale, which had 42 items, was grouped under four factors with an eigen value of over 1. These four factors explained the % percent of the total variance. Variance amount over 30 was accepted satisfactory in the test improvement studies of Behavioral science. The amount of the variance explained by these factors were % for the first factor, 22.97% for the second factor, % for the third factor and 9.24% for the last factor (Büyüköztürk, 2010). First factor loading was consisted of 9 items ranging between.60 and.83, the second factor loading was comprised 13 items ranging between.57 and.79, the third factor loading was involved 13 items ranging between.44 and.82 and the last factor loading contained 7 items ranging between.44 and.86. By considering the content of the factors, first factor was labelled as social confidence, second one was called as preparation to school readiness, third one was named as emotional regulation, and the last one was termed as parent involvement. Table 4 Correlations among factors, means, and standard deviation of the sub factors of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale Items Mean Sd F1 F2 F3 F4 F **.634**.663** F ** ** F ** F **.674**.605** - Total **.897**.779 ** p<0.01 When the average scores obtained from the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale was analysed, (s=4,8) for the first factor, (s=6,8) for the second factor, (s=7,2) for the third factor and (s=3,0) for the last factor were reached. Furthermore, correlation coefficients ranging.60 to.92 among the sub-dimensions of the scale were obtained. 23

28 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren Table 5 Results of Corrected Items-Total Correlation and Independent Samples T-Test Between Items Means of Upper 27% and Lower 27% of the Group Points Factor Item No Corrected Correlation t FACTOR 1 I4 I5 I7 I15 I20 I21 I22 I26 I (Low%27-High%27).8.03** 5.26** 8.29** 7.00** 11.76** 8.54** 7.70** 11.22** 9.63** FACTOR 2 I3 I9 I14 I17 I27 I28 I31 I32 I33 I38 I40 I41 I ** 10.71** 10.53** 9.17** 8.75** 12.44** 7.98** 7.42** 10.16** 10.51** 7.49** 10.52** 14.82** FACTOR 3 I08 I10 I11 I13 I16 I18 I23 I25 I30 I35 I36 I37 I ** 9.88** 12.49** 6.57** 3.35** 10.97** 13.01** 6.62** 8.07** 9.02** 13.27** 11.83** 12.77** FACTOR 4 **p<0.01 I01 I02 I06 I12 I19 I24 I29 Within the context of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale s reliability, some statistical analysis procedures such as total correlation of the corrected items, independent samples t-test between items means of upper 27% and lower 27% of the group points and test-retest reliability coefficients were employed. Test-retest reliability coefficient 24

29 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), of the scale was calculated by using 90 data by means of Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient formula. The test-retest reliability coefficient was found.85 (p< 0.01). Furthermore, independent samples t-test conducted for the differences between items means of upper 27% and lower 27% of the group points revealed that there was a statistically significant difference for all items. The results could be interpreted that all the items of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale are efficient in describing children s Behavioral and emotional condition. Item analysis was conducted to assess the items relationship with the purpose. It can be observed in table 3 that item total correlation coefficients varied between.323 and.867. In the literature, it is stated that an item should have.30 or over factor load in order to be accepted as reliable regarding the total item correlation (Büyüköztürk, 2010). Table 6 The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale s Cronbach Alpha Coefficients Factors Factor 1.90 Factor 2.95 Factor 3.94 Factor 4.86 Total.97 The reliability analysis results of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale revealed that Cronbach s Alpha internal consistency of the scale was.97. Furthermore, the Cronbach s Alpha internal consistencies of the sub-scales were computed.90 for the first factor labeled as social confidence,.95 for the second factor called as school readiness,.94 for the third factor named as emotional regulation and.86 for the last one termed as parent involvement. Table 7 Split-half reliability analysis results of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale Factors Split Half Co-efficient Equal-length Spearman Brown Reliability Co-efficient.95 First Half Cronbach Alfa.92 Second Half Cronbach Alfa.96 Guttman Split-Half Reliability.94 25

30 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren According to the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale s split-half reliability analysis results, equal-length Spearman Brown reliability coefficient was computed.95. This result could be inferred that the scale had a high reliability. For test-retest reliability, scale was completed by the educators of the 90 participants with 15-day intervals. It was observed that the correlation coefficient of the two applications was.85. A four point likert type item with categories absolutely inappropriate 1 absolutely appropriate 4 was used in the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale. Educators were required to assess the items in the scale by considering the children s behaviours in class. The scale can be filled out at school by the educators or at home by parents or by anyone who can best observe the child and who knows him best. Conclusion and Discussion The scale was completed by the educators of 100 children studying in seven different schools in the linguistic equivalence, validity, and reliability study of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale. Exploratory factor analysis was employed to designate the construct validity of the scale. Before the implementation of the analysis regarding construct validity, the values obtained from Kaiser Mayer Olkin (KMO) test p>.05 (.91) and Bartlett's test of Sphericity (BTS) test (p<.001) revealed that the sampling was adequate for the study. The statistical analysis revealed that most of the items in the adapted version of the scale were linguistically equivalent. Factor analysis results showed that the scale, which had 42 items, was grouped under four factors with an eigen value of over 1. These four factors explained the % percent of the total variance. The first factor loading was consisted of 9 items ranging between.60 and.83, the second factor loading was comprised 13 items ranging between.57 and.79, the third factor loading was involved 13 items ranging between.44 and.82 and the last factor loading contained 7 items ranging between.44 and.86. By considering the content of the factors, first factor was labelled as social confidence, second one was called as school readiness, third one was named as emotional regulation, and the last one was termed as parent involvement. In the sub-dimensions of the scale, correlation coefficients ranging.60 to.92 were obtained. This finding revealed that sub-factors assessed relative qualities. Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was employed for the test-retest reliability of the scale and test-retest reliability coefficient was found.85 (p< 0.01). Test-retest correlation 26

31 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), of the sub-scales was found between.79 and.86. Furthermore, independent samples t-test conducted for the differences between items means of upper 27% and lower 27% of the group points revealed that there was a statistically significant difference for all items, all the differences were obtained in favour of upper 27% group scores ( p<.05). The results could be interpreted that all the items of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale for 5- Year-Old Children are efficient in describing children s Behavioral and emotional condition. Item analysis was conducted to assess the items relationship with the purpose and it was found that item total correlation coefficients varied between.323 and.867. In the literature, it is stated that an item should have.30 or over factor, loading in order to be accepted as reliable regarding the total item correlation (Büyüköztürk, 2010). The reliability analysis results of the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale revealed that Cronbach s Alpha internal consistency of the scale was.97. Furthermore, the Cronbach s Alpha internal consistencies of the sub-scales were computed.90 for the first factor labelled as social confidence,.95 for the second factor called as school readiness,.94 for the third factor named as emotional regulation and.86 for the last one termed as parent involvement. In addition, equal-length Spearman Brown reliability coefficient was computed.95 for the first and second half of the scale. Spearman-Brown split-half coefficient of the sub-scales was computed between.95 and.77. With regards to these results, it can inferred that the scale had a high reliability. Based on the procedures mentioned above regarding scale adaptation and the results of statistical analysis, it can be concluded that the scale adapted in this study is a valid and reliable testing measure, which can designate five-year-old children s Behavioral and emotional condition. References Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2010). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık Denham, S.A., & Weissberg, R.P. (2004). Social-emotional learning in early childhood: What we know and where to go from here. In E. Chesebrough, P. King, T.P. Gullota, & M. Bloom (Eds.), A blueprint for the promotion of prosocial behavior In early childhood (pp.13-50) New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 27

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33 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Schultz, B.L., Richardson, R.C., Barber, C.R., & Wilcox, D. (2011). A preschool pilot study of connecting with others: lessons for teaching social and emotional competence. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39, Walker, H. M., Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F. M. (2004). Antisocial Behavior in School: Evidence-Based Practices. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2003). Treating Conduct problems and strengthening social and emotional competence in young children: The Dina Dinosaur treatment program. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, Zeidner, M., Roberts, R. D., & Matthews, G. (2002). Can emotional intelligence be schooled? A critical review. Educational Psychologist, 37,

34 Uyanık-Balat & Özdemir-Beceren Appendix The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale Sample Items 1. Demonstrates a sense of belonging to family (Parent involvement). 2. Truts a significant person in his or her life (Parent involvement). 3. Is self-confident (Social confidence). 4. Asks for help (Social confidence). 5. Controls anger toward others (Emotional regulation). 6. Reacts to disappointment calmly (Emotional regulation). 7. Carries on conversations (School readiness). 8. Pays attention to tasks (School readiness). 30

35 TOJCE ISSN: The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Different Effects of Stress on Male and Female Students Masoumeh POURRAJAB * Educational Administration, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Malaysia [email protected] Mohtaram RABBANI Psychology of Child Development, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Malaysia Sara KASMAIENEZHADFARD Curriculum and Instruction, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Malaysia Abstract Stress can be regarded as any internal or external factors, which makes adaptation to environment difficult. The purpose of this literature review paper is to describe the components of academic stress, as well as to identify the effect of stress on male and female students. Stress is considered as a positive or negative experience among the students. It can dominate the academic process and the privacy of the students. The result of this study is shows the difference between the level of stress of male and female students. The importance of academic stress can be conducted in this study. This is because of the difference effects of stress on students based on several studies. Keywords: stress, gender, stressor, students. * Corresponding author: Masoumeh Pourrajab

36 Pourrajab et al. Outside forces impinge on the individual would be regarded as stress (Shaikh, et al., 2004). Stress is defined as any factor, acting internally or externally, which makes adaptation to environment difficult and which induces increased effort on the part of the individual to maintain a state of equilibrium between himself and herself and the external environment (Richlin-Klonsky & Hoe, 2003, pp. 2-3). Stress have a lot of definition, but most of the know ones highlight stress as any factor that threatens the health of an individual or has an adverse effect on the functioning of the body (Shaikh, et al., 2004). Stress is a natural event that all of people experiences in their life. All people have minimum stress but excessive stress may cause anxiety and it s harmful for health. Disruptions in physiological and psychological health are often led by high level of stress (Lo, 2002). One topic which has a noticeable percentage of studies and investigations during last and current decades is how human cope with hard or stressful situation (Mazumdar, Gogoi, Buragohain, & Haloi, 2012). In recent years, stress has become an important topic for researchers (Ongori & Agolla, 2009, p. 63) due to stressful daily lives in recent years (Calaguas, 2011). Experience stress is normal for students, because they study in high competitive world and they must adjust their academy life in this situation. The harsh long lasting stress can both declined the academic effectiveness of students, and increase the potential use of drugs and narcotic along with the negative behaviours (Richlin-Klonsky & Hoe, 2003). Physical and mental health disruptive will come to students life because of stress. The major concerns among the students summarizes in these issues (Mundt, 1996). The students have the destructive and constructive approaches and coping strategies (Shaikh, et al., 2004). School has always been considered as a highly stressful situation for students. There are some reasons for stress among students like as exam, assignments, and financial problem. Students encounter with some physical, emotional, social, as well as family problems. These problems affect students learning and academic performance (Chew-Graham, Rogers, & Yassin, 2003). Other problems such as anxiety, depression, sleep problems interpersonal conflict, and lower academic performance are some outcome of stress (Yusoff, et al., 2011). Research of the knowledge and view of stress along gender lines is a fascinating worthily because, there is great disparity in the stress of female and male, which is illustrated in this study. Therefore, this study tries to show some attitude about the difference effect of stress on male and female students. 32

37 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Stress There are many definitions of stress. It can be defined as a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense and also as a number of normal reactions of the body (mental, emotional, and physiological) designed for self-preservation (Shaikh, et al., 2004). In 2003, Richlin-Klonsky and Hoe stated physically and mentally reactions of daily requests which are often linked with changes are called stress (p. 3). Gibbons, Dempster, and Moutray (2011) maintain that this phenomenon can be the outcome of moderately arousal resulting which leads to mentality or physicality problems. Selye (1956) claimed that, stress is undoubtedly an important personal human problem. The uncomplicated stress is how our mind and body deal with the demands that we place on it. The complicate one is a condition of psychological and physical stimulation which is initiated as a result of a threat, challenge or change in one s environment. As mentioned before, the usual event that is not removed from the daily life is stress. Many of these phenomenons potentially happen in the life. However, there are different levels of stresses that can be classified them into stressful or intensive stress and minimal stress which can affect on the people (Mazumdar, et al., 2012). Shaikh with his colleagues (2004) showed that stress composes different stressors which may reason of make worse decision, reduced attention, decrease of self-esteem, raised anxiety and depression. Responses to stress effects the mind, body, and behaviour along those we live, work and cooperate (Mazumdar, et al., 2012). In stressful situations, people seek the ways to reduce it, because they cannot tolerate the persistence of the tension. The extra stress traces its signs often on everything. It is vital to learn how to recognize when our stress is not controllable. Recently, Mazumdar (2012) with his/her colleagues express that, the most dangerous thing about this phenomenon is how easily it can move in on us. Stress cannot be simply taken out from our lives; however we should try to minimize it, and the easily shift of stress inside people is considered as the major peril in this phenomenon. Management of Stress We cannot control life stress, but we can manage the effect of it in us. Concentrating on the positive is one of the ways to reduce stress that offers profound results that problems we are facing are easier to solve with a more output approach (Mazumdar, et al., 2012). 33

38 Pourrajab et al. Other ways are be realistic, make plan to divide larger tasks to small parts and working through one by one. In order to manage the stress, there are different techniques such as; exercise regularly, various ways of relaxation like meditation, schedule the time for learning or going out, and other innovative strategies (Carter, Elzubeir, Abdulrazzaq, Revel, & Townsend, 2003). The main important factor in the management of stress is the degree of willingness of people to create the needed changes for a healthy lifestyle (Shaikh, et al., 2004). Meisenhelder (1985) in his/her research prove that, self-esteem is the primary requirements and key factor in the human health physically or mentally. Having high selfesteem creates obstacles to improve, so the negative consequences such as lack of recognition about themselves to accept their weakness rather than those who have low self-esteem that depends on their personalities and tyrannical (Lo, 2002). Another definition of self-esteem by Rosenberg (1965), reverence themselves and they have accepted that are perfect and competent, it means they consider themselves superior not inferior than others. Stress is always thought as a really bad issue, but researchers say it s not. In fact it is how we manage those results in positive or negative outcomes. All people need a certain amount of stress to task efficiently, too much or too little stress is not helpful and not productive. Too amount of this can lead to boredom and depression, too much can make anxiety and poor health. But the right amount of acute stress tunes up the brain and improves performance and health. Some amounts of stress are good to push people just to the level of optimal alertness, behavioural and cognitive performance (DNA, 2013). Stress Among Students Stress is an unavoidable phenomenon in every aspects of students life. It is generally an emotional imbalance which may be due to several reasons such as exams, assignments, papers and projects, competitive nature in field of study, financial problems, worried about future job prospects. Students are often deal with pressures related to earn good marks and to get a degree is very high. There were other potential source like excessive homework, unclear assignment and uncomfortable classroom (Mazumdar, et al., 2012). A student s life is faced with various stressors, like as the force of academics with a commitment of success and achievement, unexpected difficulties in their future, to be a member of the system, social, physical and emotional problems among family that can impact on their learning abilities as well as their academic performance potentially (Chew-Graham, et 34

39 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), al., 2003). Some of these students find it difficult to deal with the stress and lag behind, while others see the pressure as challenge to work harder (Shaikh, et al., 2004). The positive or negative effectiveness of stress among student impacts on the lives and performances of the students (Jogaratnam & Buchanan, 2004). It is due to stressful activities of the educational works (Ongori & Agolla, 2009, p. 69). The outcome of the inability in adjusting the academic stress will lead to the psycho-social health emotionally (Wilks, 2008). Sulaiman, Hassan, Sapian, and Abdullah (2009) suggest that young people always face problems in adapting with various stresses. Among people, students often have serious difficulties such as academic performance, personal social problems in this issue. Students are starting to shift from a life that is dependent on others to a life that needs them to release the dependency and start carrying their own responsibilities. Contribution of Students Stress The main reasons that increase the stress of students can be classified as follow; the academic stress on the base of literature, the organizing the time, financial issues, interactions with teachers, individual aims, social performance, arrangement to the school climate, inability in networks (Wilks, 2008), admission actions, the high parental standards, the tight schedule of academic performance, the time of classes, the relationship between teachers and students, non-conducive physical environment of classrooms, the absence of healthy teacherstudent contact, unreasonable discipline of school rules, punitive measurement physically, the works of schools in unbalanced form, teaching and learning methodology, the different views of teachers, emphasis on the weakness of student rather than their strength points (Masih & Gulrez, 2006), the ideas of the students, parents and teachers themselves (Calaguas, 2011). Some researchers such as Kariv and Heiman (2005) Misra and McKean (2000) Von Ah, Ebert, Ngamvitroj, Park, and Hang (2004) reported that, course requirements; time management issues; individual aims; social performance; the ability to adopt with the environment of the schools and inability to access the protection of networks are some demand for academic stress. 35

40 Pourrajab et al. Difference Effect of Stress on Male and Female Students The level of stress is both different among male and females students (Amr, El Gilany, & El-Hawary, 2008). Researches about the experience and the discernment of stress by regarding to the gender of people is not only fascinating but also is controversial, because of different approaches of researchers such as Misra and Castillo (2004) that they illustrated the views of male and female are different toward stress. Also, Jogaratnam and Buchanan (2004) believed the different approaches of stress between men and women is essential especially whenever they encounter with pressure because of stress. In relation, Sulaiman et al. (2009) have showed the rate and types of stress among the female students are more than male due to their emotional and sensitive characters and attitude to their environment. Recently, Mazumdar, et al. (2012), reported that the various symptoms which lead to stress mostly seen in more numbers in females as compared to males. Garrett (2001) demonstrated five major provenances among the female that respectively are failing in their exams, the pressure of exams, to be rejected by someone, the break up in their relations and finally financial problems. Two stressful issues among female are the financial and academic problems (Richlin- Klonsky & Hoe, 2003). Kai-Wen (2009) findings suggested that unlike the female students, the main problem of male is the family problems; the stress of higher grades students relate to the mental (emotional) and physical factors; while those of students who take a loan are more stressful in the mentioned above issues. Calaguas (2011) claimed that the significant difference between the female and male student is because of their view of subject, lecturers, academic program, classroom their attitude toward the stressors, but did not significantly difference between enrolment or admission perception, their classmate, and the stressors financial issues. If we compare the mentioned points with the male students in the terms of their scores, the male students are more stressful than female. On the other hand, female students scored higher also which related to teachers, classrooms, finances, and expectations (Calaguas, 2011). So there is a wide disparity between male and female students toward the academic stress. The stressors factors such as the subjects, the lecturers, environments of academic places like their classes, and the expectation of the both groups can be linked with this phenomenon. The earlier studies illustrate the various effectiveness of female and male stress, for instance Misra and Castillo (2004) have proved there is a different perceptions between male 36

41 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), and female American and international students toward stress. So the scholars have proposed that mental health practitioners may also consider using treatment interventions on the basis of these differences. Different findings of researchers on the various rates of male and female students show some similarities and differences between them. For example Eun-Jun (2009) has found that the stress of female that administered with the international students is higher, and in this vein Matud (2004) has got the higher score of female stress in comparison with male students while Sulaiman et al. (2009) found that male students experienced less stress compared to the female students. On the contrary, Misra and Mckean (2000) have proved that there is a positive link with the anxiety, the academic stress, as well as the trait anxiety that can justify the academic stress. So they claim individuals who scored high on trait anxiety experienced higher stressors and reactions to stressors, and females exhibited higher anxiety (both trait and state) than males (p. 49). Finally; it is essential to notice the importance of this study because of previous documents that justified the effect of stress on the students (Kumar & Jejurkar, 2005; Masih & Gulrez, 2006; Ongori & Agolla, 2009; Shaikh, et al., 2004; Sulaiman, et al., 2009). Most of the studies in this field still attempt to find the impact of stress on students and to find the ways to improve the academic performance of students mentally and physically. Conclusion This study offers and determines the impact of stress on male and female students. The response of the daily demands physically or mentally is called stress that is very important today. Stress is an unavoidable phenomenon in every aspects of students life. The factors which are contributed to the stress are the management of time, intercommunication with teachers, high standards of parents, student-teacher ratio, distraction in unfavourable environment such as class, and expectations of teachers and etc. (Mazumdar, et al., 2012). The stress levels are different between male and female students (Amr, et al., 2008). Stress effects on the female more especially in academic career. It was also interesting to highlight that significant difference in the perception male and female students regarding the stressors. These various perceptions can be attributed to the male and female attitude. 37

42 Pourrajab et al. References Amr, M., El Gilany, A. H., & El-Hawary, A. (2008). Does Gender Predict Medical Students Stress in Mansoura, Egypt? Medical education online, 13(12). Calaguas, G. M. (2011). College Academic Stress: Differences Along Gender Lines Journal of Social and Development Sciences 1(5), Carter, A. O., Elzubeir, M., Abdulrazzaq, Y. M., Revel, A. D., & Townsend, A. (2003). Health and Lifestyle Needs Assessment of Medical Students in the United Arab Emirates. Medical Teacher, 25(5), Chew-Graham, C. A., Rogers, A., & Yassin, N. (2003). I Wouldn't Want It on My Cv or Their Records': Medical Students' Experiences of Help-Seeking for Mental Health Problems. Medical education, 37(10), DNA (2013). Stress Not Always Bad. Retrieved May, 2013, from Eun-Jun, B. (2009). The Effects of Gender, Academic Concerns, and Social Support on Stress for International Students. PhD Thesis. University of Missouri, Columbia Garrett, J. B. (2001). Gender Differences in College Related Stress. Undergraduate Journal of Psychology, 14, 5-9. Gibbons, C., Dempster, M., & Moutray, M. (2011). Stress, Coping and Satisfaction in Nursing Students. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 67(3), Jogaratnam, G., & Buchanan, P. (2004). Balancing the Demands of School and Work: Stress and Employed Hospitality Students. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(4), Kai-Wen, C. (2009). A Study of Stress Sources among College Students in Taiwan. Journal of Academic and Business Ethics, 2, 1-6. Kariv, D., & Heiman, T. (2005). Task-Oriented Versus Emotion-Oriented Coping Strategies: The Case of College Students. College Student Journal, 39(1), 72. Kumar, S., & Jejurkar, K. (2005). Study of Stress Level in Occupational Therapy Students During Their Academic Curriculum. Indian J Occup Ther, 37, Lo, R. (2002). A Longitudinal Study of Perceived Level of Stress, Coping and Self-Esteem of Undergraduate Nursing Students: An Australian Case Study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 39(2), Masih, P. P., & Gulrez, N. K. (2006). Recent Trends in Human Stress Management. New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing House. Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender Differences in Stress and Coping Styles. Personality and individual differences, 37(7),

43 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Mazumdar, H., Gogoi, D., Buragohain, L., & Haloi, N. (2012). A Comparative Study on Stress and Its Contributing Factors among the Graduate and Post-Graduate Students. Advances in Applied Science Research, 3(1), Meisenhelder, J. B. (1985). Self-Esteem: A Closer Look at Clinical Interventions. International journal of nursing studies, 22(2), Misra, R., & Castillo, L. G. (2004). Academic Stress among College Students: Comparison of American and International Students. International Journal of Stress Management, 11(2), Misra, R., & McKean, M. (2000). College Students'academic Stress and Its Relation to Their Anxiety, Time Management, and Leisure Satisfaction. American Journal of Health Studies, 16(1), Mundt, M. H. (1996). Peer Interviewing: A Student Health Survey on an Urban Campus. Journal of American College Health, 44(5), Ongori, H., & Agolla, J. (2009). An Assessment of Academic Stress among Undergraduate Students: The Case of University of Botswana. Richlin-Klonsky, J., & Hoe, R. (2003). Sources and Levels of Stress among Ucla Students. Student Affairs Briefing, 2. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image: Princeton university press Princeton, NJ. Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill. Shaikh, B. T., Kahloon, A., Kazmi, M., Khalid, H., Nawaz, K., Khan, N., et al. (2004). Students, Stress and Coping Strategies: A Case of Pakistani Medical School. Education for Health-Abingdon-Carfax 17, Sulaiman, T., Hassan, A., Sapian, V. M., & Abdullah, S. K. (2009). The Level of Stress among Students in Urban and Rural Secondary Schools in Malaysia. European Journal of Social Sciences, 10(2), Von Ah, D., Ebert, S., Ngamvitroj, A., Park, N., & Kang, D.-H. (2004). Predictors of Health Behaviours in College Students. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 48(5), Wilks, S. E. (2008). Resilience Amid Academic Stress: The Moderating Impact of Social Support among Social Work Students. Advances in Social Work, 9(2), Yusoff, M. S. B., Yen Yee, L., Heng Wei, L., Hon Meng, L., Xue Bin, L., Chin Siong, C., et al. (2011). A Study on Stress, Stressors and Coping Strategies among Malaysian Medical Students. International Journal of Students' Research, 1(2),

44 TOJCE ISSN: The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), The Determination of Predictors among Emotion Awareness Levels of College Students Fuat TANHAN * Department of Educational Sciences, Yüzüncü Yıl University, Turkey [email protected] Gamze MUKBA Department of Educational Sciences, Yüzüncü Yıl University, Turkey [email protected] Abstract Studying interpersonal relationships, individuals who are exposed to many variables with emotional existence, experience several moods such as sadness, joy, pain, fear and anxiety. If a person is able to externalize his/her feelings, the feature as emotion awareness can be observed. Emotion awareness is a concept including acts, which are emotions, abilities of expressing feelings, directions to the relationship as maintaining or finishing the stage. It can be expected that individuals with low emotion awareness tend to have compliance problems in their relationships. Gender, the styles of relationships with family and environment, personality traits can be seen as predictors which cause low emotion awareness. In this study, we aimed to research the relationship between the level of emotion awareness among the college students and demographic variables. Emotion awareness (EA) subscale of dimension of interpersonal relationship scale and individual information form were used. Chaid analysis method was used to analyze the data. According to the results, the dominant effect of the variable was found as family communication on the level of emotion awareness. Keywords: emotion awareness, emotion awareness level, demographic variables. * Corresponding author: Fuat TANHAN

45 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Studying interpersonal relationships, individuals who are exposed to many variables and status with emotional existence, experience several moods such as the inner sadness, joy, pain, fear, confusion and anxiety. Emotion is a significant concept which is associated with how various human experiences are perceived by a person (Dolan, 2002). Some individuals tend to live their inner feelings without expressing outside whereas some of those reflect their expressions which involve the external display of emotion. According to the interpersonal communication, reflecting out the emotions that are experienced by individuals and acting with emotions, require a variety of skills. For instance, individuals faced by sensory stimuli in human relations from an environment consisting of music style to listen across the other one where attitudes are exhibited in (Paker, 2008). If a person is able to revise his/her internal process and externalize his/her feelings, the feature as emotion awareness can be observed. Emotion awareness is a concept including acts according to emotions, abilities of expressing feelings, and directions to the relationship as maintaining or finishing the stage (İmamoğlu & Aydın, 2009). Similarly Boden (2008) explained the process including the human s experience that involves a sense of understanding himself and others, transferring emotions and accepting feelings that are unreal by the concept of emotion awareness. Orr (2007), acknowledged the concept of emotion awareness as the process that follows from one part up to other one including the acts as being aware of emotional responses, reflecting the feelings and transferring emotions. Lane and Schwartz (1987), defined the emotion awareness as a bridge function between usual and unusual moods in the context of cognitive-developmental theory. In a similar manner, Szczepanowski, Traczyk, Wierzchon and Cleeremans (2013), mentioned that emotion awareness can be arisen by ensuring the relationship between the cognition area and the emotion part of the brain. As can be seen from the descriptions, to occur and to develop the levels of emotion awareness of people, both of the cognitive and emotional domains of those are expected to adapt in a healthy way with each other. In addition to that behavioral characteristics of individuals play effective roles in revealing the emotions. Croyle and Waltz (2002), described the emotion awareness as a behavioral way which can transfer the human s experiences as verbal expressions, body language and facial expressions through outward. Accordingly, behavioral responses can be given without being aware of emotions in interpersonal relationships while other behaviors that give the direction to the relationships can be observed by acting with the sense of emotion awareness outside. Roberton, Daffern and Bucks (2012), stated that individuals who can organize the feelings 41

46 Tanhan & Mukba effectively, have the cognitive and emotional awareness, are able to express their emotions and tend to be tactful in human relations. In other words, individuals with the high sense of emotion awareness can be expected to think calmly against the problems with others, be able to provide anger management and be open to criticism (İmamoğlu & Aydın, 2009). Considering other characteristics of high emotion awareness among individuals, it can be exemplified as adapting the behaviors to the new situations and being able to use the positive side of cases when experiencing negative emotions (Roberton, Daffern & Bucks 2012). In contrast with these features, it can be expected that individuals who have low emotion awareness would have difficulties to control anger in interpersonal relationships, behave in a way containing acrimony and have problems with compliance issues. Having regard to the literature, individuals that have low emotion awareness, are more prone to exhibit the behaviors which are associated with destructive features (Roberton, Daffern & Bucks 2012). The behaviors observed in individuals carrying the destructive features may be occurred in connections with the negative development of their cognitive and emotional processes. In particular, if the cognitive and emotional development stage of childhood are not supported by the family, destructive behaviors which are acted by children can be observed (Şenol, 2006). Accordingly, healthy progression of cognitive and emotional processes including life experiences of individuals can be the significant factor for emotion awareness. In other words, negative life experiences of individuals have major influences on the level of emotional awareness. Kesinger (2009) also, stated that negative life experiences affect the feelings, the storage where memories are stored and the cognition of people negatively. When it comes to the negative experiences of individuals, especially during the childhood, factors as negative communication within the families, short-term friendships and adverse environmental experiences come to mind. According to the literature, it can be seen that the emotion awareness is associated with the concepts such as gender and communication with the family and environment. In other words, emotion awareness is associated with several variables as the individual s point of view whether he/she focuses on his/her positive sight or not, the styles of relationships with others and negative life experiences (Rieffe, Oosterveld, Miers, Terwogt & Ly, 2008). Studying the various researches, the studies that are concerned with the causes of emotion awareness as family communication consisting of the moods of it in the period of childhood and adolescence, can be seen. Zudas (2012), indicated that the variables which are experienced in the family and environment such as fear, depression and anxiety are effective 42

47 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), especially on the emotion awareness process of children and adolescents, can be found in researches. According to the communication between the family and child, imposing punishments to the child including negative emotions and restricting his/her feelings can cause the incontinence of emotional reactions and behavioral responses as avoiding emotional distress in the future of the child s life (Eisenberg, Fabes, Shepard, Guthrie, Murphy, & Rieser, 1999; act: Topham, Tait, Rutledge, Page, Kennedy, Shriver & Harrist, 2011). In other words, when the communication between the parents and child is weak and the child is exposed to or has a thought about that he or she is exposed to repressive attitudes from the parents, the child would be alienated from initiative acts, have difficulties in providing the internal audit and transferring the feelings and thoughts through the environment (Şenol, 2006). Rommel, Nandrino, Ducro, Andrieux, Delecourt and Antoine (2012), have found out that there is a significant difference between the parent s attachment style on the child and the level of emotion awareness of individuals and overprotective" parenting style has a negative impact on the level of emotion awareness. Based on the findings, the researchers have provided a model including the effects of parental attachment style through the level of an individual s emotion awareness. This model is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Parental bonding on emotional awareness, Rommel, Nandrino, Ducro, Andrieux, Delecourt and Antoine (2012). 43

48 Tanhan & Mukba As seen in Figure 1, the mother s approach to the child including behaviors as denial of psychological autonomy" effect the development of the individual's emotion awareness negatively. However the father s approaches to the child including the encouragement of the child s behaviors contribute in a positive way to the development of the individual's awareness of their own feelings and abilities to recognize the feelings of others. In other words, attachment styles and approaches of parents to children may considerably impact the abilities of emotion awareness in their future (Rommel, Nandrino, Ducro, Andrieux, Delecourt and Antoine, 2012). When we look at the other predictors, the levels of individual s emotion awareness can change according to the individual differences as personality traits, communication skills and different developmental stages (Ciarrochi, Caputi & Mayer, 2003). Croyle and Waltz (2002) reported that when an individual has personal traits as difficulties to express his/her feelings according to the couple relationships, it can cause the low emotion awareness in both sides of the relationship and the attitudes as displeasure and shortage in the mutual communication. Moving onto the other studies, it can be seen that the gender factor is associated with the concept of emotion awareness. Barret, Lane, Sechrest and Schwartz (2000) announced that the gender has influence effects on the concept of emotion awareness and women tend to reflect their real feelings more than men in emotional experiences. In a similar manner, Giacomo, Sergio, Elena, Bruno, & Paola, (2013) signified that the gender is a significant variable which has influent prediction on the levels of individual s emotion awareness. As seen from the literature, outside of Turkey, various investigations that include relationships between the level of emotion awareness and variables which are effective for low emotion awareness have been carried out. However the researches which handle the manner including the expressions of emotions with the variables which are associated with low emotion awareness, cannot be easily coincided in Turkey. In this concept, only the study of Kuyumcu (2012) can be given as an example according to the investigation of psychological well-being emotional awareness and expression of emotion of Turkish and English university students with respect to country and gender. In addition to that, the situations consisting of cognitive, emotional and behavioral acts as difficulties with expression of feelings, low anger control, lack of internal audit and compliance problems in relationships can be observed in Turkey. Therefore, these studies are appropriated to evaluate the factors that are connected with one another on various sample groups. Studies consisting of relationships between an individual s emotion awareness level and risk factors that are 44

49 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), commonly referred in the literature can shed light on future steps against low emotion awareness. In this context, we aimed to examine the relationship between the level of emotion awareness and demographic variables that are associated with low emotion awareness. It is predicted that more attention as the concept of emotion awareness and factors of being low aware of emotions would have been drawn with this study. Method Design of the Research Research has been prepared in compliance with the survey- type model. The surveytype model covers the studies about the relationships between two variables at least (Karadağ, 2010). Participants The research population consists of the students who are studying in the Faculty of Education in Van Yüzüncü Yıl University during the academic years. In this universe to achieve the simulated sample, sub-groups were separated into stratified sampling based on probability sampling methods (Balcı, 1997) and four levels (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th grades). The numbers of sub-samples are selected to represent each layer (sub-universe) and then the sample of the study was formed by combining these sub-samples. Accordingly, a total of 1409 university students participated in the research. The total number of college students who participated the survey, 411 in the 1th class, 371 in the 2th class, 343 in the 3th class while 283 in the 4th class. 679 subjects were females (%48.2) and 729 subjects were males (%51.8). Sample of this study including 1408 participants and one missing data consisted of 1409 students. Instruments Having regard to the purposes of this study, Dimensions of Interpersonal Relations Scale and a Personal Information Form were administered to all participants. Scopes of the research, the answers including the subscale as emotion awareness (EA) are evaluated for the determination of variables that are associated with emotion awareness. Dimensions of Interpersonal Relationships Scale (DIRS, Kişilerarası İlişki Boyutları Ölçeği, KİBÖ) have been developed to predict the interpersonal relationships as emotional 45

50 Tanhan & Mukba attitudes, approval requirement and empathy in accordance with Turkish Culture by İmamoğlu and Aydın (2009). It was observed that DIRS has been tested by principal components method and has showed a four-factor structure as emotion awareness, "empathy", "relying on others" and approval requirement. The total variance described the subscales as % and the moderate rate was found to be associated with each other. The Social Skills Rating Scale, Social Anxiety Scale and Communication Skills Inventory were used in order to search the validity criteria of the study by the researchers. According to the findings, researchers have found out that the subscale of DIRS as approval requirement is associated with all subscales of The Social Skills Rating Scale and Communication Skills Inventory in the opposite direction while the linear relationship was found with the Social Anxiety Scale. Researchers have revealed a positive significant relationship (r = 0.41, p<0.001) between the subscale of DIRS as emotion awareness (EA) and total scores of all subscales of the Communication Skills Inventory. In addition to that, the Social desirability Scale was used within the construct validity of the scale, however researchers have produced that DIRS wasn t affected by social desirability. According to the reliability analysis of the scale, internal consistency coefficient of the subscales was found between 0.78 and 0.85, test-retest levels also varied between 0.62 and 0.96 were obtained by researchers. DIRS is composed of 53 items and the subscale as EA consisting of 14 items is associated with the context of relationships with feelings of individuals. All of the items of the EA subscale are reverse except for the four of those. When the EA scores increase as opposite of it, the level of emotion awareness decreases (İmamoğlu & Aydın, 2009). In other words, a reverse relationship is seen between the scores of EA and the level of emotion awareness. Personal information form that includes demographic variables has been created taking into account the factors which are figured in the literature and effective in emotion awareness. In personal information form variables such as gender, department, where his/her life is spent more, his/her family's monthly income, father's and mother's education level, physical or mental in the family, relationships in the family, communication among family members, striking up a friend, alcohol or substance abuse in the family, whether domestic violence behavior is observed or not, whether his /her parents are alive, were asked. 46

51 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), Statistical Procedures After transferring the data obtained from the sample group to the computer environment (SPSS 15.0), the data analysis was carried out. The distribution of the data structure has been examined by Kolmogorv-Smirnov test and according to the results, normal distribution was observed. Chaid analysis method was used to analyze the data. According to the highest level of interactions of the independent variables through the algorithm in the Chaid analysis model, elements with similar characteristics are moved to the same homogeneous nodes (Kayri & Boysan, 2007). In Chaid dendogram each shaded box includes the name of a variable that divides respondents into mutually exclusive groups with the Chisquare value, degree of freedom, and Bonferroni adjusted p value reported (Hsu & Kang, 2007). Results As a result, Distribution of data structure has been examined by Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and as a result normal distribution has been achieved (Z=1.293, p=0.070). The Chaid analysis results are shown in Figure 2 below. 47

52 Tanhan & Mukba Figure 2. A dendogram regarding the predictors of levels of emotion awareness over the participants. Taking a look at the dendogram shown in figure-2, the EA scores of participants were obtained as According to the chaid analyses results, dominant effect of the variable was found as communication among family members on the level of emotion awareness (F=40.71, p=0.000). Participants who responded to communication among family members variable as middle and unwell ( x =37.49) got higher mean scores of EA than those who answered as well ( x =33.04) and those who responded as very well ( x =30.81). Having regard to the fact that, when mean scores of EA increase, levels of emotion awareness change in the opposite side as decreasing. Therefore, the emotion awareness levels of the respondents who give answers as very well to the variable as communication among family members are higher than those who answered as well and middle or unwell. As can be seen in the figure-2, gender has been found as an effective variable on emotion awareness level of participants who responded well to the variable as communication 48

53 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), among family members (F=5.09, p=0.02). In this context, male college students ( x =33.81) received higher mean scores of EA subscale of DIRS than females ( x =32.27). Accordingly, females got higher levels of emotion awareness than males. According to the Figure 2, striking up a friend can be seen the effective variable on the emotion awareness levels of female participants (F = 8.73, p = 0.02). In this context, the variable as striking up a friend affects the emotion awareness levels among females in two categories as one of it includes the variable as I relate easily with the same gender and I relate easily with both of gender while the other variable is seen as I relate easily with the opposite gender and I relate uneasily with both of gender. Females who responded to that variable as I relate easily with the opposite gender and I relate uneasily with both of gender received more EA mean scores than those who replied as I relate easily with the same gender and I relate easily with both of gender. Thus, the levels of emotion awareness among the females who answered striking up a friend variable as I relate easily with the opposite gender and I relate uneasily with both of gender are lower than those who answered as I relate easily with the same gender and I relate easily with both of gender. Discussion and Conclusion A significant difference has been found between the EA scores in terms of communication among family members. In addition to that, the levels of emotion awareness over participants who replied as very well on that prediction were higher than those who answered as well and those who answered as middle or unwell got the lowest emotion awareness levels. These findings can be interpreted as the styles of family communication influence the abilities of individuals including regulations and expressions of feelings. In parallel to research findings, Rommel, Nandrino, Ducro, Andrieux, Delecourt and Antoine (2012), found out that overprotective behaviors of the family have negative effects on the level of emotion awareness over individuals. As a result, gender is a significant prediction on the level of emotion awareness and women have higher levels of emotion awareness than men. This finding can be interpreted that women can express and reflect out their emotions better than men. In parallel to research findings, Hall and Matsumoto (2004), aimed to demonstrate the relationship between the levels of emotional awareness and a prediction as the gender whether it is effective. 49

54 Tanhan & Mukba Researchers achieved the results as women received higher scores of targeted emotions than men. Barret, Lane, Sechrest, & Schwartz (2000) sought to investigate the effects of gender on the level of emotion awareness in their research. Researchers applied LEAS (Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale) on seven different sample groups. The researchers, have achieved the results as all sample groups of women received higher mean scores of LEAS than the men and women use emotional language more than men while showing emotional experiences dealing with themselves and others. Unlike the findings, McRae, Reiman, Fort, Chen and Lane (2008), revealed that there is not a significant difference on the scores of LEAS between women and men (p=0.65). Kuyumcu (2012), aimed to find out the Turkish and English university students' emotional awareness and expression of emotions of how differ according to gender and to the country. In a similar manner, the researcher obtained that the levels of emotion awareness (F = 0.22, p> 0.05) and the levels of expressing feelings (F = 0.12, p> 0.05) didn t differ according to variable as gender over college students. Moving onto the respondents of females, it can be seen that striking up a friend variable is effective for the level of emotion awareness. The results were obtained that females who responded that variable as I relate easily with the same gender and I relate easily with both of gender got the higher levels of emotion awareness than those who replied as I relate easily with the opposite gender and I relate uneasily with both of gender. These findings can be interpreted as individuals who establish convenient communication in interpersonal relationships can reflect and express their feelings out more than others. In addition, it can be expected that individuals who have difficulties to express their feelings may show behaviors including social anxiey and self-suppression. Results also can be interpreted as individuals who are forced to reflect their emotions with the opposite sex can have beliefs about losing the partner with great fear and can have difficulties to reflect negative emotions in the relationship. Timmers, Fischer and Manstead (1998), have investigated variables that are effective on social interactions and reflections of men and women to express their feelings in their research. Researchers found the results as women are more anxious and avoid appearing to express their emotions that are powerless in the relationship with the opposite sex. Szczygieł, Buczny and Bazin ska (2012) found a positive significant relationship between the levels of individuals emotion awareness and the situations in interpersonal relationships as suppression themselves and masking themselves. Rieffe, Oosterveld, Miers, Terwogt and Ly 50

55 The Online Journal of Counseling and Education, 2014, 3(3), (2008), aimed to establish the relationship between the level of emotion awareness and variables that can be effective on the level of emotion awareness over children and adolescents. Researchers achieved the negative significant relationship between the level of emotion awareness and the level of social anxiety among the children and adolescents. Rijn, Schothorst, Wout, Sprong, Ziermans, Engeland, Aleman and Swaab (2011), have found out that the low emotion awareness level of adolescents is associated with the concept of social inadequacy. Croyle and Waltz (2002), intended to investigate the couple s roles of emotion awareness in their relationships. The level of Emotional Awareness Scale and a measure of relationship satisfaction were administered to all participants by the researchers. Researchers found out that women are more emotionally aware than men in response to couples situations and higher levels of Emotional awareness and a higher awareness of hard emotions are associated with decreased relationship satisfaction for women. According to the findings of researchers it may be interpreted as when women are able to express their feelings clear in the relationship and have high awareness of emotions then they would continue their relationships in a dissatisfied format with the opposite sex. In line with research results, some suggestions were made. Having regard to the fact that a significant relationship was arisen in terms of family among the scores of EA, social and psychological studies may be included. According to the social and community dimension, the various researches including the relationship between the level of emotion awareness and family relationships can be investigated in the future. The college students, who perceived the family relationships as poor, emerged the low level of emotion awareness. Thus, environments consisting of the regular psychological support should be provided for those students in various educational institutions. According to the findings of the research, gender is revealed as an affective variable on the scores of EA. Therefore several studies can be carried out in accordance with the relationship between the sex roles and the level of emotion awareness. Moving onto the other result of the study as a significant difference was found on the scores of EA among women within the variable of striking up a friend. In this concept, women who replied as I relate uneasily with both of gender, got the lower levels of emotion awareness. In similar manner with the other suggestion, the regular psychological support environments should be ensured for those college students. 51

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