Using Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in L2 Reading and Listening Activities

Transcription

1 Using Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in L2 and Listening Activities Ji n g Xu Iowa State University ABSTRACT This paper reviews the role of multimedia vocabulary annotation (MVA) in facilitating second language (L2) reading and listening activities. It examines the multimedia learning and multimedia language learning theories that underlie the MVA research, synthesizes the findings on MVA in the last decade, and identifies three underresearched areas on the subject. KEYWORDS CALL, Multimedia Vocabulary Annotation, Incidental Vocabulary Learning, Computer-mediated and Listening INTRODUCTION Computers are of great benefit to education because they can present multimedia information for learning which, according to previous studies (e.g., Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Anderson, 1992), makes learning more effective. In the past 10 years, multimedia technology has also been widely applied in computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Some CALL materials developed based on such technology, for example, are New Dynamic English (DynEd International Incorporation, 2007), Transparent Language, and Cyberbuch (Chun & Plass, 1997a, 1999). One prevalent application of the multimedia technology in these CALL materials is to provide with multimodal annotations for unknown vocabulary in reading and listening activities. Such annotations are comprised of a combination of text definitions, s, animations, sound, or even video clips and are intended to help gain vocabulary knowledge and better comprehend the listening or reading materials. To inform the development of multimedia CALL materials, this paper investigates the application of multimedia vocabulary annotations (MVAs) in second or foreign language (L2) reading and listening tasks. Specifically, it intends to answer the questions: Why and how effectively can MVA facilitate incidental vocabulary learning and at the same time enhance L2 reading and listening comprehension? The investigation will begin by examining the theoretical rationales for multimedia learning and language learning, followed by a review of recent MVA studies in the L2 reading and listening contexts, respectively. Finally, the remaining research issues for MVA will be identified. THEORETICAL BASIS FOR USING MVA IN CALL The application of MVA in CALL has been motivated by multimedia learning and multimedia language learning theories. These theories serve as the basis for MVA research by explaining why vocabulary annotations presented in multiple modes are more beneficial for L2 learning than those delivered in a single mode. CALICO Journal, 27(2), p-p CALICO Journal

2 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening Dual-Coding Theory Dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1969, 1971, 1986) is the foundation for later multimedia learning and multimedia language learning theories. It hypothesizes that memory and cognition are served by two separate systems: one specialized in dealing with verbal information such as words and symbols and the other with nonverbal information such as s or objects. In the learning process, the human mind creates separate verbal and visual mental representations (encoding) for incoming information using each of the systems. Although the two systems work independently, they are interconnected: representations in one system can activate those in the other. For example, objects can be given names, and names can evoke the images of the objects in mind. Based on this theory, when use both systems to encode information, they will learn and retain the information better than when they use only one system. The dual-coding theory has recently received supporting evidence from research in neural sciences. By examining the scanned brain images of who were studying German vocabulary items, Fliessbach, Weis, Klaver, Elger, and Weber (2006) found that an anterior region in precuneus a bilateral region in the brain responsible for processing visual contents was more strongly activated during the intentional encoding of concrete, more imageable words as compared to abstract, less imageable words. Such a finding implies that an additional image-based system in the brain might be involved in processing vocabulary, thus lending support to the dual-coding theory. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Mayer s (1997, 2001, 2002) cognitive (generative) theory of multimedia learning is probably the most influential theory for L2 learning via multimedia in the past 10 years because it has been referred to as a theoretical basis by many MVA studies (e.g., Al-Seghayer, 2001; Jones & Plass, 2002; Jones, 2003; Chun & Payne, 2004). The theory takes a step beyond dual-coding theory in that it models the detailed learning process in a multimedia environment. According to the theory, such a process contains three subcomponents: (a) selecting relevant verbal and visual information from the multimodal input, (b) organizing the selected information into the verbal and visual mental representations, and (c) integrating the resulting verbal and visual representations with each other (Mayer, 1997, 2001). Learning is therefore more likely to occur when can build meaningful connections the verbal and visual mental representations. Based on this theory, many design principles for effective multimedia learning have been proposed, such as presenting relevant verbal and visual information simultaneously a principle that is applied in the design of many multimedia CALL materials, reducing cognitive load (e.g., Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Moreno, 2004), and taking learner differences into consideration (e.g., Moreno & Durán, 2004). The Integrated Model of SLA with Multimedia Although Mayer s cognitive theory of multimedia learning has served as the theoretical foundation for many MVA studies, similar to the dual-coding theory, it is intended to explain learning in general but not specifically for second language acquisition (SLA) in a multimedia environment. Therefore, a step forward is for SLA theorists to refine the multimedia learning theories in the SLA domain. Plass and Jones (2005) perceived a connection Mayer s cognitive theory and the interactionist perspective of SLA theories the former emphasizes the means to enhance meaningful input through dual presentation of words (aural and/or written) and s (static and/or moving), while the latter addresses the importance of 312

3 comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982, 1985) to SLA. By virtue of the connection, they created an integrated model of SLA with multimedia (See Figure 1) which intertwines ideas from both sides. In such a model, L2 process multimodal input by first selecting useful verbal and visual information (apperception) and organizing this information into comprehensible verbal and visual mental representations (comprehension). They then develop the mental representations respectively into verbal and visual models (intake) which eventually become integrated in their linguistic systems (integration). Figure 1 Integrated Model of SLA with Multimedia (Plass & Jones, 2005, p. 471) Selecting Words Organizing Words Verbal Input Verbal Text Base Syntactic/Semantic Verbal Model Apperception Compehension Intake Integrating Learner s Linguistic System Output Pictorial Input Visual Image Base Visual Model Selecting Images Organizing Images Plass and Jones model theorizes the input-based L2 learning process in a multimedia environment and implies that the provision of additional visual information in parallel with L2 verbal information facilitates SLA. The model considers learner output as a reflection of the effectiveness of the modes of input in interaction with cognitive and metacognitive processing for comprehension (Jones, 2006a). In this respect, the model is in line with the information-processing theory which claims that, because comprehension and production draw on the same underlying knowledge source, input-based learning will facilitate both (VanPatten, 2007). However, the current version of the model offers little discussion over the roles that interaction (Long, 1985; Gass, 1997) and pushed output 1 (Swain, 1985; Swain & Lapkin, 1995) play in L2 learning within a multimedia environment. Additionally, the model cannot be integrated with skill acquisition theory, which regards copious productive practice as the means to acquire automaticity of linguistic knowledge (DeKeyser, 2007). A Hierarchical Model with Image Plass and Jones model explains how combined verbal and nonverbal input makes L2 learning effective. However, it insufficiently explains the contribution of L1 verbal input to SLA in a multimedia environment where both L1 verbal input, L2 verbal input, and visuals are all available (See Yeh & Wang, 2003 for an example of such an environment). The hierarchical model with image that Yoshii (2006) adapted from Kroll and Stewart s (1994) model illustrates the interaction L1, L2, and image in the L2 learning process (See Figure 2). 313

4 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening Figure 2 A Revised Hierarchical Model with Image (Yoshii, 2006, p. 89) Lexical links L1 L2 Image Conceptual links Conceptual links Concepts In Yoshii s model, the L2 can either be associated with the L1 via lexical links (the solid line) or with concepts via conceptual links (the broken line). That is to say, can mediate the L2 either through a L1 translation or through concepts without L1 assistance although, according to Yoshii, the former approach might be more effective than the latter in early stages of L2 learning. Image, on the other hand, is another source of learning in this model. As seen in Figure 2, it is conceptually linked with concepts and thereby provides additional cues for comprehension of the L2. This model indicates that may comprehend and acquire the L2 by selecting three different types of learning resources: L1 translation, modified L2 input, or visuals. It also hypothesizes that L1 translation + image is more helpful than modified L2 input + image for -level because the lexical links L1 and L2 are stronger than the conceptual links L2 and concepts at this stage of development. In summary, the theoretical basis for applying MVA in CALL is rooted in the dual-coding theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning from cognitive science. Recently, these theories have been moved to the SLA domain. Plass and Jones model is developed by integrating the cognitive theory of multimedia learning with the interactionist perspective of SLA theories. Yoshii s model further differentiates the effects of L1 or L2 verbal input on L2 learning in a multimedia environment. These theories unanimously suggest that L2 would benefit from receiving input from a variety of sources that includes both verbal and visual information. EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF MVA IN L2 READING AND LISTENING CONTEXTS The multimedia learning theories, language learning theories, and resulting models above have explained, from a theoretical perspective, why MVA is beneficial for L2 learning in general. However, the effects of MVA specifically on facilitating incidental vocabulary learning and enhancing comprehension in L2 reading and listening activities need to be examined via empirical research. This section will synthesize the findings on these two issues. Incidental Vocabulary Learning in L2 Incidental vocabulary learning refers to acquisition of vocabulary knowledge during a language learning activity that is not intended for vocabulary instruction (Read, 2004). 314

5 Previous research has confirmed the advantages of providing text annotations for enhancing incidental vocabulary learning in L2 reading (e.g., Hulstijn, Hollander, and Greidanus, 1996; Watanabe, 1997). Further, numerous studies have examined the effectiveness of different formats of text annotations, such as L1 versus L2 annotations (Jacobs, Dufon, & Hong, 1994; Chen, 2002; Miyasako, 2002), single versus multiple-choice annotations (Watanabe, 1997), and word-level versus sentence-level annotations (Grace, 1998, 2000; Gettys, Imhof, & Kautz, 2001). With the advancement and increased availability of computers, vocabulary annotations are no longer limited to text forms but have been expanded to embrace other modes of information, such as still s, sounds, animations, and even videos. Many researchers therefore have started examining the effectiveness of the nontext forms of vocabulary annotations for vocabulary learning. The majority of MVA research in the last 10 years has compared MVA with single-mode vocabulary annotations in L2 reading (See Table 1). Table 1 Summary of MVA Studies on Incidental Vocabulary Learning via L2 Studies Context Independent Variable(s) Chun & Plass (1996a) Kost et al. (1999) Al- Seghayer (2001) Yoshii & Flaitz (2002) Yeh & Wang (2003) Yoshii (2006) 1. L1 text 2. L1 text + 3. L1 text + video 1. L1 text L1 text + 1. L2 text 2. L2 text + 3. L2 text + video 1. L2 text L2 text + 1. L1/L2 text 2. L1/L2 text + 3. L1/L2 text + + sound 1. L1 text 2. L2 text 3. L1 text + 4. L2 text + Dependent Variable(s) Immediate/delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Immediate/delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Immediate vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Immediate/delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Immediate vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Immediate and delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Participants Design Findings 160 adult German 56 German 30 ESL 151 ESL 82 college EFL 195 college EFL within subject within subject within subject subject subject A mixed design repeated measures L1 text + > L1 text + video > L1 text L1 text + > L1 text or L2 text + video > L2 text + or L2 text L2 text + > L2 text or L1/L2 text + > L1/L2 text or L1/L2 text + + sound L1 group = L2 group Picture group > no group 315

6 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening The results have consistently found that the former was more effective in facilitating vocabulary learning in terms of comprehension and retention (Chun & Plass, 1996a; Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 1998; Kost, Foss, & Lenzini, 1999; Al-Seghayer, 2001, Yoshii & Flaitz, 2002; Yoshii, 2006). For instance, Yoshii and Flaitz (2002) examined the effects of three vocabulary annotation types text only, only, and a combination of the two on incidental vocabulary acquisition in a multimedia reading environment. By employing a subjects design, the researchers divided 151 ESL into three reading groups, treated each group with one annotation type, and measured vocabulary gains via immediate and delayed vocabulary posttests. The results of the study indicated that the group using combined text and annotations outperformed the other two groups in both vocabulary tests, revealing the advantage of MVA over traditional text glosses on enhancing vocabulary learning. Besides the consistent findings favoring multimodal annotations, many researchers further explored which combination of modes was the most effective in facilitating vocabulary acquisition through reading. Chun and Plass (1996a) and Plass et al. (1998) discovered that the annotation type of text + still was more helpful than that of text + video for vocabulary learning, whereas Al-Seghayer (2001) found the opposite. Yeh and Wang (2003) investigated the effectiveness of a new annotation type text + and sound. The additional aural part of the annotation provided with a native speaker s voice pronouncing a word, spelling the word, and reading aloud the sentence in which the word was embedded. However, the study found the aural information lowered vocabulary gains due to participants learning styles and the difficulty of the aural information. Yeh and Wang s study is also unique in that it offered both L1 and L2 texts, compared to other studies which used either L1 text mode (Chun & Plass, 1996a; Plass et al., 1998; Kost et al., 1999) or L2 text mode (Al-Seghayer, 2001; Yoshii & Flaitz, 2002). Inspired by Yeh and Wang s study, Yoshii (2006) examined the effectiveness of annotations of L1 versus L2 text in combination with versus no on incidental vocabulary learning. His study found that both L1 and L2 types of annotations (regardless of the pictorial mode) were effective for vocabulary learning but they appeared to cause different patterns of vocabulary retention. Specifically, the L1 textonly group displayed lower vocabulary forgetting rates than the L2 text-only and L2 text + groups over the 2 weeks the immediate and delayed vocabulary posttests. Yoshii thus suspected that the difference L1 and L2 types of MVA would be revealed in longer term vocabulary learning. Incidental Vocabulary Learning in L2 Listening Following the path of MVA research in L2 reading, Jones conducted a series of studies to examine the effectiveness of dual-mode (L1 text + ) versus single-mode (L1 text or alone) vocabulary annotations on incidental vocabulary learning in the L2 listening context (See Table 2). 316

7 Table 2 Summary of MVA Studies on Incidental Vocabulary Learning via L2 Listening Studies Context Independent Variable(s) Jones & Plass (2002) Jones (2003) Jones (2004) Jones (2006b) Listening 1. None 2. L1 text 3. Picture 4. L1 text + Dependent Variable(s) Immediate/delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition) Participants Design Findings 171 French Listening N/A N/A 20 French Listening Listening 1. None 2. L1 text 3. Picture 4. L1 text + Annotation type + collaborative strategy: 1. None + alone 2. None + in pairs 3. L1 text and + alone 4. L1 text and + in pairs Study 1: Immediate/delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition) Study 2: Immediate/ delayed vocabulary test scores (production) Immediate/delayed vocabulary test scores (recognition/ production) Study 1: 80 French Study 2: 67 French 68 French subject qualitative subject subject L1 text + > L1 text alone, alone, or none L1 text + > L1 text alone, alone, or none Study 1: L1 text +, L1 text alone & alone > none (recognition) Study 2: Learners performed best when the testing modality matches the annotation modality (production). L1 text + > none regardless the presence or absence of collaboration In the first study, Jones and Plass (2002) found that receiving dual-mode annotations outperformed receiving single-mode annotations or no annotation in vocabulary recognition posttests. Such a finding was confirmed in Jones (2003) follow-up qualitative study based on reflections of their experience using the annotations in the first study. A limitation of these two studies, however, was the use of recognition tests only to measure vocabulary gains. Jones (2004) expanded upon her previous research by refining the vocabulary knowledge measures. Specifically, were asked not only to recognize L1 translations and s for L2 vocabulary but to produce L1 translations as well. However, this study yielded a finding inconsistent with her previous research using dual- and single-mode annotations performed equally well on vocabulary recognition. Also, best produced L1 translations when the mode of testing matched the annotation mode they experienced. Based on Vygotsky s social learning theory (1978), Jones (2006b) investigated how peer-to-peer collaboration and dual-mode vocabulary annotations (L1 text + ) together affected incidental vocabulary learning in L2 listening. The study revealed that annotations had a positive effect on vocabulary learning, while collaboration had no effect. 317

8 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening L2 Comprehension Interactive models of reading have suggested that readers comprehend text via both bottomup processing at the microlevel and top-down processing at the macrolevel (e.g., Kintsch & Van Dijk, 1978; Rumelhart, 1977; Swaffar, Arens, & Byrnes, 1991). Readers bottom-up processing relies heavily on their knowledge of vocabulary. Studies by Laufer (1989) and Liu and Nation (1985) show that readers need to know over 90% of the words in a text to achieve adequate comprehension and to be able to guess the meanings of unknown words from the context. Thus, researchers wondered whether MVA intended for equipping with necessary L2 vocabulary knowledge would in turn facilitate overall reading comprehension. Four studies examining the effects of MVA on reading comprehension have produced mixed results (See Table 3). Table 3 Summary of MVA Studies on L2 Comprehension Studies Context Independent Variable(s) Chun & Plass (1996b) Hong (1997) Lomicka (1998) Ariew & Ercetin (2004) 1. L1 text 2. L1 text + 3. L1 text + video method: 1. A computerbased multimedia reading program with contextualized L1 glosses 2. Paper-pendictionary Types of images: 1. Still image 2. Dynamic image 3. Important image 4. One image per scene 5. No image Factors affecting comprehension: 1. prior knowledge 2. textual graphics 3. textual graphics audio 4. textual text 5. contextual graphics 6. contextual audio 7. contextual text 8. contextual video Dependent Variable(s) Scores of recall protocols comprehension scores comprehension scores, story reproduction scores comprehension scores 318 Participants Design Findings 160 adult German 20 business Chinese 58 Japanese 84 intermediate and advanced ESL within subjects subjects subjects within subjects L1 text + / video > L1 text Multimedia > Paper-pendictionary Dynamic image > = still image on comprehension; dynamic image > still image on reproduction Visual annotations did not help reading comprehension; videos had negative effects on reading comprehension in the intermediate group.

9 Chun and Plass (1996b), Hong (1997), and Lomicka (1998) found that in-text vocabulary annotations enhanced by s, videos, or audio were effective in aiding overall reading comprehension; moreover, these annotations outperformed traditional text glosses (Chun & Plass, 1996b; Lomicka, 1998). For example, Lomicka (1998) found that looking up multimodal vocabulary annotations composed of L1 and L2 texts, images, references, questions, and word pronunciation produced more causal inferences an indicator of high-level comprehension in think aloud protocols than those who only used traditional L1 and L2 text glosses. The small sample size was, however, a limitation in the study. In contrast, Ariew and Ercetin (2004) found that access to MVA in the form of texts, graphics, or audio contributed little to their overall reading comprehension. One of the problems with this study, however, was that the participants were all intermediate and advanced L2 readers whose vocabulary knowledge was no longer an important predictor or a limiting factor for reading success (Chall, 1983; Juel, 1991; Stanovich, 1986). That is to say, readers at such proficiency levels were able to infer the meanings of unknown words based on the context and thus relied little on vocabulary annotations for help. Another problem of the study was the provision of both MVA for bottom-up processing and contextual annotations for top-down processing in the same reading passage. Due to combined use of the two types of annotations, the effects of the MVA on reading comprehension might have been obscured. L2 Listening Comprehension Participant use of the MVA was found to be helpful for listening comprehension as well. Jones and Plass (2002) and Jones (2003) found that understood an L2 aural passage better when they accessed dual-mode vocabulary annotations of L1 text + than when they used single-mode annotations or no annotation (See Table 4). Table 4 Summary of MVA Studies on L2 Listening Comprehension Studies Context Independent Variable(s) Jones & Plass (2002) Jones (2003) Jones (2006b) Listening 1. None 2. L1 text 3. Picture 4. L1 text + Dependent Variable(s) Scores of recall protocols Participants Design Findings 115 intermediate EFL Listening N/A N/A 20 French Listening Annotation type + collaborative strategy: 1. None + alone 2. None + in pairs 3. L1 text and + alone 4. L1 text and + in pairs Immediate/delayed recall protocol scores 68 French subjects qualitative subjects L1 text + > L1 text alone, alone, or none L1 text + > L1 text alone, alone, or none L1 text and + in pairs > the other treatments 319

10 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening Jones (2006b) confirmed the benefits of dual-mode vocabulary annotations on L2 listening comprehension and found that such benefits could be further enhanced by peerto-peer collaboration. In this study, who cooperated with a partner by taking and sharing notes while listening showed the highest level of aural comprehension. A limitation of these three studies, however, was that participants prior knowledge of the aural passage was not pretested. Given the previous studies investigating the effects of MVA on incidental vocabulary learning and comprehension in L2 reading and listening contexts, the following tentative conclusions can be stated: In the context of L2 reading, 1. There is convincing evidence that MVA enhanced by static or video is beneficial and is better than traditional single-text-mode annotations for incidental vocabulary learning. 2. There is insufficient evidence to judge which type of verbal (L1 vs. L2) + nonverbal (static vs. video) MVA best facilitates incidental vocabulary learning. 3. All studies except Ariew and Ercetin (2004) found MVA to enhance overall comprehension. In the context of L2 listening, 1. Research has produced mixed results regarding whether MVA outperformed single-mode annotations on facilitating vocabulary learning. 2. There is fairly convincing evidence that MVA with a combination of and text increase overall comprehension. Such positive effects of MVA can be further increased by learner collaboration. UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS The aforementioned studies have contributed to the growing body of literature on MVA by finding evidence that including nonverbal information in annotations increases the chance for to acquire vocabulary (e.g., Chun & Plass, 1996a; Jones & Plass, 2002) and to comprehend written texts (Chun & Plass, 1996b; Hong, 1997; Lomicka, 1998) or aural texts (Jones & Plass 2002; Jones, 2003, 2006). However, research issues in this area remain. This section will discuss these issues and at the same time provide suggestions for future research. Is MVA More Effective Than Single-Mode Vocabulary Annotations in Facilitating Incidental Vocabulary Learning in L2 Listening? The advantages of MVA over single-mode annotations on enhancing vocabulary learning have been confirmed for L2 reading but not for L2 listening. The study by Jones (2004) found that using dual-mode (L1 text + ) and single-mode (L1 text or ) annotations during L2 listening resulted in equal performance on vocabulary recognition. Jones attributed this to a factor of guessing caused by the multiple-choice format of the recognition test (p. 133). However, such an explanation is problematic considering that in the same study, the 320

11 dual-mode group did not outperform one of the single-mode groups (L1 text only) in immediate and delayed vocabulary production tests in which the guessing factor no longer existed. Therefore, it is still unclear whether pictorial vocabulary annotations can enhance vocabulary learning in L2 listening activities. To explore the issue, researchers need to refine vocabulary assessment to avoid guessing behavior as well as to minimize the impact of test mode on learner performance performed the best when the test mode matched the annotation mode (Jones, 2004). Specifically, were not supposed to be tested on their ability to recall the exact information in annotations but on their understanding of the information. For example, if were only asked to recognize a for a vocabulary item (such a test appeared in Jones, 2004 and Kost et al., 1999), they would probably be able to do so even without understanding the meaning of the word they could simply recall the they saw in annotations. In this sense, a test of production is a more valid way to assess vocabulary knowledge. What is the Most Effective Type of MVA? Current computer technology allows CALL developers to create MVA with various combinations of text (L1 or L2), visual (static, animation, or video), and even aural information (e.g., pronunciation). However, it is not clear yet which combination is the most effective. Static versus dynamic s A decision that CALL developers need to make is to select the type of visual either static or dynamic (animation and video) to enhance learning. Considering that creating dynamic s is much more expensive and time consuming than creating static s, it is meaningful to find out whether video is worth the extra money and effort. The research comparing the effectiveness of dynamic versus static visuals on incidental vocabulary learning and overall comprehension is inconclusive in the context of L2 reading whereas this issue has not been explored in the context of L2 listening. In terms of the helpfulness of contextual visuals to L2 reading comprehension, Ikeda (1999) and Lin and Chen (2007) found dynamic s (animations) to be generally more beneficial than static s while Ariew and Ercetin (2004) found both types of visuals to be equally ineffective. Such contradictory findings on visuals also appeared in MVA research in L2 reading. Chun and Plass (1996a) and Plass et al. (1998) found that when combined with text glosses, static s were more helpful than videos for incidental vocabulary learning while Al-Seghayer (2001) found the opposite. Researchers also appeared to have different opinions regarding the usefulness of videos. Al-Seghayer (2001) thought of videos as intriguing visual cues in reading which increased readers concentration on the annotations whereas Ariew and Ercetin (2004) considered videos to be distractive they interfered with reading when they were relied upon too much by readers for text comprehension. The controversy over the effectiveness of videos can be explained by Chun and Plass (1997b) views; video annotations are only helpful when interest directs their attention to the useful information for comprehension. In other words, when become interested in the irrelevant information contained in videos, they are distracted from the reading activity. Thus, the way select information from video annotations needs to be taken into consideration when the effectiveness of videos is evaluated. 321

12 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening It may be too early to judge which type of visuals in MVA is more effective when the potential of dynamic visuals has not been fully explored. Researchers therefore, need to determine the best video delivery method to efficiently direct learner focus to useful information for comprehension. There are several ways to manipulate the presentation of dynamic visuals. First, researchers may control the length of videos to reduce the amount of irrelevant information; Ariew and Ercetin (2004) noticed that lingering on videos for too long could possibly hurt reading comprehension. Second, by applying video-editing technology, researchers may highlight the useful information to make the video annotations more self-explanatory. For example, researchers may circle essential information or blur irrelevant information. Another way to increase the comprehensibility of videos is to provide written explanations for the videos (Hart, 2007). However, this approach may be controversial because it makes learning from MVA more demanding and complicated. In Hart s view, the additional text increased the reading load, especially for with low proficiency in the language. Finally, if necessary, researchers may employ the eye-tracking technology to trace what are looking at in videos. L1 versus L2 Besides the type of visuals, another issue that CALL developers need to consider is the type of text for MVA (i.e., L1, L2, or both). However, research so far has not given a clue which text type best facilitates vocabulary learning. Research comparing L1 versus L2 text glosses on incidental vocabulary learning in reading has produced mixed results. Two studies found that there was no difference L1 and L2 glosses (Chen, 2002; Jacobs et al., 1994) while a third one revealed the advantage of L2 glosses on immediate vocabulary comprehension (Miyasako, 2002). Studies on MVA in L2 reading have shown that both L1 annotations (Chun & Plass, 1996a; Plass et al., 1998; Kost et al, 1999) and L2 annotations (Al-Seghayer, 2001; Yoshii & Flaitz, 2002) are helpful for vocabulary learning when they are combined with visuals. In the L2 listening context, only the MVA with L1 text were found to be effective (Jones & Plass, 2002; Jones 2003, 2004, 2006). Yoshii (2006) is one of the few researchers who compared MVA with L1 versus L2 annotations on vocabulary learning. However, he did not find that one text type was superior to the other. To tackle the issue of text type, researchers may consider refining the vocabulary assessment in MVA studies. Yoshii s (2006) study revealed that long-term retention of vocabulary may differ when they refer to L1 versus L2 type MVA. Following this line of reasoning, researchers may, on the one hand, prolong the interval the immediateand delayed-vocabulary posttests (2-3 weeks in the majority of previous studies) and, on the other hand, increase the number of delayed posttests to track vocabulary forgetting rate. Besides, vocabulary assessment should not be limited to definition recognition or identification tasks in a multiple-choice format, which only reflect receptive vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2001). Learners gains of productive vocabulary knowledge, such as the ability to use a word in a sentence, should also be assessed. With better designed measures of vocabulary knowledge, the impact of MVA text type on vocabulary learning is more likely to be disclosed. Does Word Concreteness Make a Difference for the Effectiveness of MVA? All studies on MVA have investigated how the manipulation of annotation type would improve incidental vocabulary learning and comprehension in L2 reading and listening activities. However, none of these studies has explored how the helpfulness of annotations would vary 322

13 across different types of words, such as concrete versus abstract words. As Paivio (1969, 1986) pointed out, concrete words that refer to objects, materials, or persons are more easily imaged than abstract words that refer to concepts. Fliessbach et al. s (2006) study also confirmed that imaging system was more active when processing concrete words than abstract words. Therefore, looking up MVA may benefit from visuals to a different extent depending on word concreteness. Specifically, visuals for words of high concreteness may be more comprehensible and thus more beneficial for learning than those for words of low concreteness. For example, the for a concrete word pipe (see Figure 3) a of a real pipe should be better is more self-explanatory than the for a relatively abstract word reunion (see Figure 4) which can be reasonably misinterpreted by as celebration, feast, or holiday. Figure 3 Figure 4 Picture of Pipe (Jones, 2004, p. 127) Picture of Reunion (Yeh & Wang, 2003, p. 135) The scene of reunion is not as easy to visualize as a pipe because various, especially those of different cultural backgrounds, likely have different prior experience of attending family gatherings on holidays and meeting old friends in various situations. So, future research needs to compare the effectiveness of MVA for concrete versus abstract vocabulary and to look for the best way to visualize abstract vocabulary. CONCLUSION Using MVA in L2 reading and listening has obtained support from both multimedia (language) learning theories and related empirical research. From a theoretical perspective, MVA provides with rich input in multiple modalities and thus creates an optimal environment for SLA. From a research perspective, many studies have revealed the positive effects of MVA on facilitating vocabulary learning and enhancing comprehension in L2 reading and listening processes. Even so, three issues related to this field remain as yet unanswered. To better inform developers of CALL materials, researchers are encouraged to further investigate the effects of pictorial MVA on vocabulary learning in the context of L2 listening, to explore the best combination of modes for MVA to facilitate SLA, and to look into the influence of word concreteness on the effectiveness of MVA. NOTE 1 For example, Borrás & Lafayette (1994) investigated L2 French speaking performance with assistance of a multimedia language learning courseware. 323

14 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening REFERENCES Al-Seghayer, K. (2001). The effect of multimedia annotation modes on L2 vocabulary acquisition: A comparative study. Language Learning & Technology, 5(1), Retrieved October 19, 2009, from Ariew, R., & Ercetin, G. (2004). Exploring the potential of hypermedia annotations for second language reading. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17, Borrás, I., & Lafayette, R. C. (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling on the speaking performance of college students of French. The Modern Language Journal, 78, Chall, J. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chen, H. (2002). Investigating the effects of L1 and L2 glosses on foreign language reading comprehension and vocabulary retention. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Computer-Assisted Language Instruction Consortium, Davis, CA. Chun, D. M., & Payne, J. S. (2004). What makes students click: Working memory and look-up behavior. System, 32, Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1996a). Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 80, Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1996b). Facilitating reading comprehension with multimedia. System, 24, Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1997a). Cyberbuch [Computer program]. New York: St. Martin s Press. Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1997b). Research on text comprehension in multimedia environments. Language Learning & Technology, 1(1), Retrieved October 19, 2009, from edu/vol1num1/chun_plass Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1999). Review of Cyberbuch. Language Learning & Technology, 3(1), Retrieved February 2, 2008, from DeKeyser, R. (2007). Skill acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. DynEd International Incorporation. (2007). New Dynamic English. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from Fliessbach, K., Weis, S., Klaver, P., Elger, C. E., & Weber, B. (2006). The effect of word concreteness on recognition memory. NeuroImage, 32, Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gettys, S., Imhof, L. A., & Kautz, J. O. (2001). Computer-assisted reading: The effect of glossing format on comprehension and vocabulary retention. Foreign Language Annals, 34, Grace, C. (1998). Retention of word meanings inferred from context and sentence-level translations: Implications for the design of -level CALL software. The Modern Language Journal, 82, Grace, C. (2000). Gender differences: Vocabulary retention and access to translations for language in CALL. The Modern Language Journal, 84, Hart, G. (2007). Combining words and s: Degrees of abstraction. Intercom, 42, Hong, W. (1997). Multimedia computer-assisted reading in business Chinese. Foreign Language Annals, 30,

15 Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M., & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal gloss, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, 80, Ikeda, N. (1999). Effects of different types of images on the understanding of stories: Basic research to develop Japanese teaching materials for use on the internet. System, 27, Jacobs, G., Dufon, P., & Hong, F. (1994). L1 and L2 vocabulary glosses in L2 reading passages: Their effects for increasing comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Journal of Research in, 17, Jones, L. C. (2003). Supporting listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition with multimedia annotations: The students voice. CALICO Journal, 21, Retrieved October 19, 2009, from Jones, L. C. (2004). Testing L2 vocabulary recognition and recall using pictorial and written test items. Language Learning & Technology, 8(3), Retrieved October 19, 2009, from msu.edu/vol8num3/jones/default.html Jones, L. C. (2006a). Listening comprehension in multimedia environment. In L. Ducate & N. Arnold, (Eds.), Calling on CALL: From theory and research to new directions in foreign language teaching (pp ). San Marcos, TX: CALICO. Jones, L. C. (2006b). Effects of collaboration and multimedia annotations on vocabulary learning and listening comprehension. CALICO Journal, 24, Retrieved October 19, 2009, from calico.org/page.php?id=5 Jones, L. C., & Plass, J. L. (2002). Supporting listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition in French with multimedia annotations. The Modern Language Journal, 86, Juel, C. (1991). Beginning reading. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. Pearson, (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp ). New York: Longman. Kintsch, W., & Van Dijk, T. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85, Kost, C. R., Foss, P., & Lenzini, J. J. (1999). Textual and pictorial glosses: Effectiveness of incidental vocabulary growth when reading in a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 32, Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York: Pergamon. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and complications. London: Longman. Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, Laufer, B. (1989). What percentage of text-lexis is essential for comprehension? In C. Lauren & M. Nordman (Eds.), Special language: From humans thinking to thinking machines. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Lin, H., & Chen, T. (2007). authentic EFL text using visualization and advance organizers in a multimedia learning environment. Language Learning & Technology, 11(3), Retrieved October 19, 2009, from Liu, N., & Nation, I. S. P. (1985). Factors affecting guessing vocabulary in context. RELC Journal, 16, Lomicka, L. L. (1998). To gloss or not to gloss : An investigation of reading comprehension online. Language Learning & Technology, 1(2), Retrieved October 19, 2009, from edu/vol1num2/article2/default.html Long, M. H. (1985). Input and second language acquisition theory. In S. M. Gass & C. G. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp ). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 325

16 Multimedia Vocabulary Annotations in and Listening Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32, Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R. E. (2002). Cognitive theory and the design of multimedia instruction: An example of the twoway street cognition and instruction. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 89, Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. W. (1992). The instructive animation: Helping students build connections words and s in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. In R. Bruning, C. A. Horn, & L. M. Pytlik Zillig (Eds.), Web-based learning: What do we know? Where do we go? (pp ). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Miyasako, N. (2002). Does text-glossing have any effects on incidental vocabulary learning through reading for Japanese senior high school students? Language Education & Technology, 39, Moreno, R. (2004). Decreasing cognitive load for novice students: Effects of explanatory versus corrective feedback on discovery-based multimedia. Instructional Science, 32, Moreno, R., & Durán, R. (2004). Do multiple representations need explanations? The role of verbal guidance and individual differences in multimedia mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Paivio, A. (1969). Mental imagery in associative learning and memory. Psychological Review, 3, Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, Plass, J. L., & Jones, L. C. (2005). Second language acquisition with multimedia. In R. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. (pp ). New York: Cambridge University Press. Read, J. (2004). Research in teaching vocabulary. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance VI (pp ). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. research quarterly, 21, Swaffar, J., Arens, K., & Byrnes, H. (1991). for meaning: An integrated approach to language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. M. Gass & C. G. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp ). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 326

17 Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, VanPatten, B. (2007). Input processing in adult second language acquisition. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction. (pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, Yeh, Y., & Wang, C. (2003). Effects of multimedia vocabulary annotations and learning styles on vocabulary learning. CALICO Journal, 21, Retrieved October 19, 2009, from org/page.php?id=5 Yoshii, M. (2006). L1 and L2 glosses: Their effects on incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(3), Retrieved October 19, 2009, from yoshii/default.html Yoshii, M., & Flaitz, J. (2002). Second language incidental vocabulary retention: The effect of and annotation types. CALICO Journal, 20, Retrieved October 19, 2009, from org/page.php?id=5 AUTHOR S BIODATA is a Ph.D. student in the program of Applied Linguistics and Technology at Iowa State University. His research interests include multimedia language learning, hypermedia reading, and validity issues in second language assessment. AUTHOR S ADDRESS 319 Ross Hall Iowa State University Ames, IA Phone: [email protected] 327